Classicism gave the world the architecture of such cities as London, Paris, Venice and St. Petersburg. Classicism in architecture dominated for more than three hundred years, from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and it was loved for its harmony, simplicity, rigor and, at the same time, grace. Referring to the forms of ancient architecture, classicism in architecture is characterized by clear volumetric forms, symmetrical axial compositions, straight monumentality and a spacious city planning system.

The origins of classicism in architecture, Italy

Classicism in architecture arose at the end of the Renaissance, in the 16th century, and the great Italian and Venetian architect Andrea Palladio is considered to be the father of this architectural style. As the writer Peter Weil said about Palladio in his book “Genius Loci”:

“Without going into architectural details, the easiest way is to conjure up the Bolshoi Theater or district house cultures - they are such thanks to Palladio. And if we were to make a list of people through whose efforts the world - at least the world of the Hellenic-Christian tradition from California to Sakhalin - looks the way it does and not otherwise, Palladio would take first place.”

The city where Andrea Palladio lived and worked is Italian Vicenza, located in northeastern Italy near Venice. Now Vicenza is widely known in the world as the city of Palladio, who created many beautiful villas. In the second half of his life, the architect moved to Venice, where he designed and built remarkable churches, palazzos and other public buildings. Andrea Palladio was awarded the title of “the most prominent citizen of Venice.”

Cathedral of San Giorgio Mangiore, Andrea Palladio

Villa Rotonda, Andrea Palladio

Loggia del Capitagno, Andrea Palladio

Teatro Olimpico, Andrea Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi

Andrea Palladio's follower was his talented student Vincenzo Scamozzi, who, after the death of his teacher, completed work on the Teatro Olimpico.

Palladio's works and ideas in the field of architecture were loved by his contemporaries and were continued in the works of other architects of the 16th and 17th centuries. The architecture of classicism received the most powerful impetus in its development from England, Italy, France and Russia.

Further development of classicism

Classicism in England

Classicism literally swept into England, becoming the royal architectural style. A whole galaxy of the most talented architects in England of those times studied and continued the ideas of Palladio: Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, Earl of Burlington, William Kent.

The English architect Inigo Jones, a fan of the works of Andrea Palladio, brought Palladio's architectural legacy to England in the 17th century. It is believed that Jones was one of the architects who laid the foundation for the English school of architecture.

Queens House, Greenwich, Inigo Jones

Banquet House, Inigo Jones

England was rich in architects who continued classicism - along with Jones, such masters as Christopher Wren, Lord Burlington and William Kent made a huge contribution to the architecture of England.

Sir Christopher Wren, an architect and professor of mathematics at Oxford, who rebuilt central London after the great fire of 1666, created the national English classicism "Wren classicism".

Royal Chelsea Hospital, Christopher Wren

Richard Boyle, Earl Architect of Burlington, philanthropist and patron of architects, poets and composers. The count-architect studied and collected the manuscripts of Andrea Palladio.

Burlington House, Earl Architect of Burlington

The English architect and gardener William Kent collaborated with the Earl of Burlington, for whom he designed gardens and furniture. In gardening he created the principle of harmony of form, landscape and nature.

palace complex in Golkhem

Classicism in French architecture

In France, classicism has been the dominant style since the Great french revolution, when the desire for brevity arises in architecture.

It is believed that the beginning of classicism in France was marked by the construction of the Church of Saint Genevieve in Paris , designed by the self-taught French architect Jacques Germain Soufflot in 1756, later called the Pantheon.

Temple of Saint Genevieve in Paris (Pantheon), Jacques Germain Soufflot

Classicism brought major changes to the city's planning system; winding medieval streets were replaced by majestic, spacious avenues and squares, at the intersection of which architectural monuments were located. At the end of the 18th century, a unified urban planning concept appeared in Paris. An example of the new urban planning concept of classicism was the Rue de Rivoli in Paris.

Rue de Rivoli in Paris

The architects of the imperial palace, prominent representatives of architectural classicism in France, were Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine. Together they created a number of majestic architectural monuments - the Arc de Triomphe on Place Carrousel in honor of Napoleon's victory in the Battle of Austerlitz. They are responsible for the construction of one of the wings of the Louvre, the Marchand Pavilion. Charles Percier participated in the restoration of the Compiegne Palace, created the interiors of Malmaison, Saint-Cloud Castle and Fontainebleau Palace.

Arc de Triomphe in honor of Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Outerlitz, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Wing of the Louvre, Pavilion Marchand, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Classicism in Russia

In 1780, at the invitation of Catherine II, Giacomo Quaregi arrived in St. Petersburg as “Her Majesty’s Architect.” Giacomo himself was from Bergamo, Italy, studied architecture and painting, his teacher was the largest German painter of the classic era, Anton Raphael Mengs.

Quarenghi is the author of several dozen beautiful buildings in St. Petersburg and its environs, including the English Palace in Peterhof, the pavilion in Tsarskoe Selo, the building of the Hermitage Theater, the Academy of Sciences, the Assignation Bank, the summer palace of Count Bezborodko, the Horse Guards Manege, the Catherine Institute of Noble Maidens and a lot others.

Alexander Palace, Giacomo Quarenghi

The most famous projects of Giacomo Quarenghi are the buildings of the Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg and the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo.

Smolny Institute, Giacomo Quarenghi

An admirer of the traditions of the Palladian and new Italian schools of architecture, Quarenghi designed surprisingly elegant, noble and harmonious buildings. The city of St. Petersburg owes its beauty largely to the talent of Giacomo Quarega.

Russia of the 18th and 19th centuries was rich in talented architects who worked in the style of classicism along with Giacomo Quarenghi. In Moscow, the most famous masters of architecture were Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov in St. Petersburg.

Artist and architect, teacher, Vasily Bazhenov, a graduate of the Academy of Arts and a student of the French professor of architecture Charles Devailly, created projects for the Tsaritsyn Palace and Park Ensemble and the Grand Kremlin Palace, which remained unrealized because the architect fell out of favor with Catherine II. The facilities were completed by M. Kazakov.

Plan of the architectural ensemble of Tsaritsino, Vasily Bazhenov

Russian architect Matvey Kazakov, during the reign of Catherine the Great, worked in the center of Moscow in the Palladian style. His work includes such architectural ensembles as the Senate Palace in the Kremlin, Petrovsky Travel Palace, and the Great Tsaritsyn Palace.

Petrovsky Travel Palace, Matvey Kazakov

Tsaritsin Palace, Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov

Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Starov is the author of such architectural structures as the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, St. Sophia Cathedral near Tsarskoe Selo, Pellinsky Palace, Tauride Palace and other beautiful buildings.

Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) - style and direction in art and literature XVII - early XIX century, marking a return to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model.
This direction is characterized by rationalism, normativity, a tendency towards harmony, clarity and simplicity of expression, balance of composition and at the same time a certain amount of schematization and idealization in works of art, which was expressed, for example, in the hierarchy of “high” and “low” styles in literature , the requirement of “three unities” - time, place and action - in drama, emphasized purism in the field of language, etc.
Under the influence of the rationalistic philosophy of the great French thinker Rene Descartes (1596-1650), the principles of classicism are established in all types of art.
The main aesthetic postulate of classicism is fidelity to nature, the natural rationality of the world with its objectively inherent beauty, which is expressed in symmetry, proportion, measure, harmony, which must be recreated in art in perfect form. By the middle of the 19th century. classicism, lagging behind the development of public aesthetic feeling, degenerated into lifeless academicism.

Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary), art style and the aesthetic direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. K. is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it starts from the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and confronts the Baroque art that actively coexists with it, imbued with the consciousness of the general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), K. was a kind of antithesis to him; behind the external harmony in K. hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it similar to the Baroque (for all their deep differences). The generic and the individual, the public and the personal, reason and feeling, civilization and nature, which (in a tendency) appeared in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, in K. are polarized and become mutually exclusive concepts. This reflected a new historical state, when the political and private spheres began to disintegrate, and social relations began to turn into a separate and abstract force for humans. The idea of ​​reason in the 17th century. inseparable from the idea of ​​an absolutist (see Absolutism) state, which at that time, according to K. Marx, acted “... as universal reason...” (see K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed. ., vol. 1, p. 254), “... as a civilizing center, as a unifying principle of society” (ibid., vol. 10, p. 431), as a force capable of curbing feudal anarchy and establishing calm and order. Principles of rationalism corresponding philosophical ideas R. Descartes and Cartesianism also form the basis of K.’s aesthetics. They define the view of piece of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed. Having put forward the principle of “imitation of nature,” the classicists consider its indispensable condition to be strict adherence to the unshakable rules drawn from ancient poetics (Aristotle, Horace) and art, defining the laws of artistic form, in which the reasonable creative will of the writer is manifested, transforming life material into the beautiful, logically a slender and clear work of art. The artistic transformation of nature, the transformation of nature into beautiful and ennobled is at the same time an act of its highest knowledge - art is called upon to reveal the ideal pattern of the universe, often hidden behind the external chaos and disorder of reality. Therefore, the mind, comprehending the ideal pattern, acts as an “arrogant” principle in relation to individual characteristics and the living diversity of life. For K., only what is generic, enduring, and timeless has aesthetic value. In every phenomenon, K. strives to find and capture its essential, stable features (this is associated with an appeal to antiquity as an absolute supra-historical aesthetic norm, as well as the principles of character typification, which act as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces). The classicist image gravitates towards a model in which life is stopped in its ideally eternal form, it is a special mirror where the individual turns into the generic, the temporary into the eternal, the real into the ideal, history into myth, it depicts what is everywhere and what is nowhere in real; he is the triumph of reason and order over chaos and the fluid empiricism of life. The embodiment of sublime ethical ideas in harmoniously adequate terms beautiful forms gives works created according to the canons of K. a touch of utopianism, which is also determined by the fact that the aesthetics of K. gives great value social and educational function of art. K. aesthetics establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into “high” (tragedy, epic, ode, and in painting - historical, mythological and religious genres; their sphere is public life or religious history, their heroes are monarchs, generals, mythological characters , religious ascetics) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable depicting private daily life people of the middle classes, and in painting - the so-called. "small genre" - landscape, portrait, still life). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics; No mixture of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary is allowed. In the plastic arts, the prerequisites for K. emerged already in the 2nd half of the 16th century. in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; They are expressed more consistently in the works of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards developed by academicians of the Bolognese school. However, throughout the 17th century. K., developing in interaction and polemics with the Baroque, only in French art turned into an integral stylistic system, and became a pan-European style in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Kazakh architecture as a whole is characterized by geometricism of emphatically static forms and logical planning, constant appeal to the forms of ancient architecture - this meant not only following its individual motifs and elements, but comprehending its general tectonic patterns. The basis of the architectural language of Kazakhstan becomes an order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous centuries. Walls are treated as smooth surfaces delimiting clear, symmetrically located volumes; architectural decoration is introduced in such a way that it never “hides” general structure, but becomes her subtle and restrained accompaniment. K.'s interior is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors: making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, K. fundamentally separates the illusory space from the real. In the classicist synthesis of arts, forms are subordinated to a strict hierarchy, where architecture clearly dominates. K.'s urban planning is genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque and actively develops the concept of " ideal city"; at the end of the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries, new planning techniques developed, providing for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open squares that spatially merge with the street or embankment. The tectonic clarity of Kazakh architecture corresponds to the strict delimitation of spatial plans in sculpture and plastic painting, in which closed monochromatic volumes predominate, usually designed for a fixed point of view, are distinguished by smoothed modeling and stability of forms. In K. painting, drawing and chiaroscuro acquire predominant importance (especially in late K., when painting sometimes gravitates towards. monochrome, and graphics - to pure, stylized linearity), local color is built on a combination of three dominant colors (for example, brown for the first, green for the second, blue for the background), the light-air environment is rarefied and turns into a neutral filling of the gaps between plastic volumes, the action unfolds as if on a stage. The greatest artist and theorist of French culture of the 17th century. was N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of ethical content, enlightened harmony of rhythmic structure and color. The ideal landscape (N. Poussin, Claude Lorrain, G. Duguay), embodying the dream of a golden age, received brilliant development in this era. In architecture, the principles of architecture take shape in the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of order divisions and composition, in the eastern façade of the Louvre, created by C. Perrault (), the purest example of style of the 17th century, in the work of L. Levo , F. Blondel. From the 2nd half of the 17th century. French architecture is incorporating more and more baroque elements, which is manifested, in particular, in the architecture and layout of Versailles (architect J. Hardouin-Mansart and others, park layout - A. Le Nôtre). The consolidation of the doctrines of culture was facilitated by the creation in Paris of the royal academy of painting and sculpture (1648) and the academy of architecture (1671), which developed a set of laws of composition and drawing, standards for depicting emotions, a system of genres in painting and proportions in architecture. In the 17th and early 18th centuries. K. is also widespread in the architecture of Holland (architect Jacob van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, in the Palladian architecture of England, where echoes of the Renaissance are still preserved in the strict nobility of the buildings of I. Jones, and in the works of K. Wren and his followers, the national version of K is finally formed.

Classic style expresses a certain tendency of artistic thinking, based on the natural desire for simplicity, clarity, rationality, and consistency of the artistic image. The artistic style of Classicism represents the highest expression of the Idea of ​​compositional integrity, clarity, completeness, and balance. In the architecture of Classicism, there is a certain set of formal features. The horizontal prevails over the vertical. Compositionally, the axis of symmetry stands out, hence the usual three-part division of the facade with an enlarged central and two smaller side projections. All shapes tend to be square, circle, semicircular arch. In terms of plan, centric structures are especially popular, ensuring equal perception from different points of view. In sculpture, the formation of classicist artistic thinking was accompanied by a transition from naturalistic coloring of statues and reliefs, a naive attempt to “revive” them in the Greek archaic or variegated decorativeness in Eastern art, to the laconic expressiveness of the volume itself, purifying it from all unnecessary and accidental. The functions of color were taken over by painting, which was separated from architecture and sculpture. In classical painting, the image is also always constructed according to the “relief principle,” that is, by alternating spatial plans parallel to the plane of the picture. When perceiving a building, painting, fresco, or sculpture of the classical style, a feeling of peace of mind, clarity, and enlightenment arises. Even despite the knowledge that this is most likely a skillful decoration, essentially stylization, an artistic deception, and despite the fact that classicism loses in decorative details, complexity, and other styles in art, it is more attractive and always desired.
In general, the trends of the classic style in different eras and in different types art shows one thing: the artist’s striving for the ideal through the rejection of the random, temporary, changeable.

Classicism is a movement in European art that replaced the pompous Baroque in the mid-17th century. His aesthetics were based on the ideas of rationalism. Classicism in architecture is an appeal to examples of ancient architecture. It originated in Italy and quickly found followers in other European countries.

Andrea Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi

Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) was the son of a stonemason. He himself had to continue the hard work of his father. But fate turned out to be favorable to him. A meeting with the poet and humanist J. J. Trissino, who recognized great talent in young Andrea and helped him get an education, was the first step on the path to his fame.

Palladio had excellent instincts. He realized that the customers were tired of the splendor of the Baroque, they no longer wanted to add luxury to the show, and he offered them what they were striving for, but could not describe. The architect turned to the heritage of antiquity, but did not focus on physicality and sensuality, as the masters of the Renaissance did. His attention was attracted by the rationalism, symmetry and restrained elegance of the buildings of Ancient Greece and Rome. The new direction was named after its author - Palladianism; it became a transition to the classicism style in architecture.

Vicenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616) is considered Palladio's most talented student. He is called the "father of classicism." He completed many of the projects designed by his teacher. The most famous of them are the Teatro Olimpico, which for many years became a model for the construction of theaters around the world, and Villa Capra, the first private house in the history of architecture, created according to the rules of an ancient temple.

Canons of classicism

Palladio and Scamozzi, who worked in late XVI- the beginning of the 17th century, anticipated the emergence of a new style. Classicism in architecture finally took shape in France. His character traits It is easier to understand by comparing them with the features of the Baroque style.

Comparison table of architectural styles
Comparative featureClassicismBaroque
Building shapeSimplicity and symmetryComplexity of shapes, difference in volumes
Exterior decorDiscreet and simpleLush, palace facades resemble cakes
Characteristic elements of external decorColumn, pilaster, capital, statueTurret, cornice, stucco molding, bas-relief
LinesStrict, repetitiveFluid, whimsical
WindowRectangular, no frillsRectangular and semi-circular, with floral decoration around the perimeter
DoorsRectangular with a massive portal on round columnsArched openings with decor and columns on the sides
Popular techniquesPerspective effectSpatial illusions that distort proportions

Classicism in Western European architecture

The Latin word classicus ("exemplary") gave the name to the new style - classicism. In European architecture, this direction took a leading position for more than 100 years. It supplanted the Baroque style and paved the way for the emergence of the Art Nouveau style.

English classicism

Italy was the birthplace of classicism. From there it spread to England, where Palladio's ideas found widespread support. Indigo Jones, William Kent, Christopher Wren became adherents and continuers of the new direction in art.

Christopher Wren (1632-1723) taught mathematics at Oxford, but turned to architecture quite late, at 32 years old. His first buildings were Sheldonian University in Oxford and Pembroke Chapel in Cambridge. When designing these buildings, the architect deviated from some of the canons of classicism, giving preference to Baroque freedom.

A visit to Paris and communication with French followers of the new art gave his work a new impetus. After the great fire in 1666, it was he who was tasked with rebuilding the center of London. After this, he earned fame as the founder of national English classicism.

French classicism

Masterpieces of classicism occupy a significant place in French architecture. One of the earliest examples of this style is the Luxembourg Palace, built according to de Brosse's design especially for Marie de' Medici. The tendencies of classicism were fully manifested during the construction of the palace and park ensembles of Versailles.

Classicism made significant adjustments to the planning structure of French cities. Architects did not design individual buildings, but entire architectural ensembles. Parisian Rivoli Street is a striking example of development principles that were new for that time.

A galaxy of talented craftsmen made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of the classicism style in French architecture. Here are just a few names: Nicolas François Mansart (Mazarin Hotel, Val-de-Grâce Cathedral, Maisons-Laffite Palace), François Blondel (Saint-Denis Gate), Jules Hardouin-Mansart (Place des Victories and Louis the Great ensembles).

Features of the classicism style in Russian architecture

It should be noted that in Russia classicism became widespread almost 100 years later than in Western Europe, during the reign of Catherine II. Its specific national features in our country are connected with this:

1. At first he had a pronounced imitative character. Some masterpieces of classicism in Russian architecture are a kind of “hidden quote” from Western architectural ensembles.

2. Russian classicism consisted of several very different movements. At its origins were foreign masters, representatives of different schools. Thus, Giacomo Quarenghi was a Palladian, Wallen-Delamot was a supporter of French academic classicism. Russian architects also had a special understanding of this direction.

3. In different cities, the ideas of classicism were perceived differently. He established himself easily in St. Petersburg. Entire architectural ensembles were built in this style, and it also influenced the planning structure of the city. In Moscow, which consisted entirely of urban estates, it did not become so widespread and had relatively little impact on the general appearance of the city. In provincial cities, only a few buildings were built in the classicist style, mainly cathedrals and administrative buildings.

4. In general, classicism in Russian architecture took root painlessly. There were objective reasons for this. The recent abolition of serfdom, the development of industry and the rapid growth of the urban population posed new challenges for architects. Classicism offered cheaper and more practical development projects compared to Baroque.

Classicism style in the architecture of St. Petersburg

The first St. Petersburg buildings in the classicist style were designed by foreign masters invited by Catherine II. Special contributions were made by Giacomo Quarenghi and Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamot.

Giacomo Quarenghi (1744 -1817) was a representative of Italian classicism. He is the author of more than a dozen beautiful buildings, which today are inextricably linked with the image of St. Petersburg and its environs. The Academy of Sciences, the Hermitage Theatre, the English Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Institute of Noble Maidens, the pavilion in Tsarskoe Selo - these are far from full list his creations.

Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamott (1729-1800), French by birth, lived and worked in Russia for 16 years. Gostiny Dvor, the Small Hermitage, Catholic Church Catherine, the building of the Academy of Arts and many others.

The originality of Moscow classicism

St. Petersburg in the 18th century was a young, rapidly growing city. Here there was a place for the inspiration of architects to roam. General plans for its development were drawn up, with clear, level streets decorated in the same style, which later became harmonious architectural ensembles.

With Moscow the situation was different. Before the fire of 1812, she was scolded for the disorder of the streets, characteristic of medieval cities, for the multi-styled style, for the predominance of wooden buildings, for the “barbaric”, in the opinion of the enlightened public, vegetable gardens and other liberties. “It was a city not of houses, but of fences,” historians say. Residential buildings were located in the depths of households and were hidden from the eyes of people walking along the street.

Of course, neither Catherine II nor her descendants dared to demolish all this to the ground and begin to build the city according to new urban planning rules. A soft redevelopment option was chosen. Architects were tasked with constructing individual buildings that organized large urban spaces. They were to become the architectural dominants of the city.

Founders of Russian classicism

Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov (1738-1812) made a great contribution to the architectural appearance of the city. He never studied abroad, we can say that he created the actual Russian classicism in architecture. With their buildings with colonnades, pediments, porticos, domes, and restrained decor, Kazakov and his students sought, to the best of their ability, to streamline the chaos of Moscow streets, to even them out a little. His most significant buildings include: the Senate building in the Kremlin, the house of the Assembly of the Nobility on Bolshaya Dmitrovka, the first building of Moscow University.

An equally significant contribution was made by Kazakov’s friend and like-minded person, Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1735-1799). Its most famous building is the Pashkov House. The architect brilliantly played with its location (on Vagankovsky Hill) in the layout of the building, resulting in an impressive example of classicism architecture.

The classicism style maintained its leading position for more than a century, and enriched the architectural appearance of the capitals of all European states.

German Klassizismus lat. classicus - first-class, exemplary) - thin. style and direction in heb. literature and art XII - early. XIX centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the samples and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic model.

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CLASSICISM

a movement in art and literature that emerged in Europe in the 17th century. and received special development in France. The term “classicism” goes back to the Latin classicus, in its original meaning – “citizen of the highest property class”, then – “exemplary”, “perfect”. Classicism recognizes the existence of eternal laws of art and formulates fundamental principles, adherence to which is mandatory for the “correct” author (the set of classicist laws was set out by N. Boileau in his exemplary “Poetic Art” (1674). The one who mastered the norm better than others and did not departs from it in his works. An author who violates the rules was declared “unenlightened” (as the Russian classicist theorist A.P. Sumarokov called W. Shakespeare. Classicism is based on the principle of “imitation of nature,” which presupposes not truthfulness, but the plausibility of the image). . Only beautiful and sublime nature should be represented in the works. In practice, “imitation of nature”, the timeless aesthetic ideal, turned into imitation of exemplary ancient authors. True, imitation (imitatio) did not exclude ingenuity (inventio), i.e. creative independence, although imitation. was valued much more. For a classicist author, imitation of the ancient classics was a kind of competition with them in achieving aesthetic perfection. The classicists emphasized that they were not interested in the accidental and individual, but in the constant and universal, and the ultimate goal of art was to understand human nature. Classicism preferred reason to feeling, the rational to the emotional. The poetics of classicism requires a work to be harmonious and logical in composition, simplicity of plot, and clarity of language. The literary genres of classicism were characterized by their own set of characteristics and were clearly divided. At the same time, preference was given to genres in which the personal principle gives way to the transpersonal, universally significant. Classical genres are divided into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (fable, comedy). Confusing them was unacceptable, although often inevitable (A.P. Sumarokov himself, the author of the programmatic “Epistole on Poetry,” was accused of the fact that his epistole came close to satire). The place in the genre hierarchy was determined by the theme: works of high genres featured heroes of myths, monarchs and great generals of antiquity, while works of low genres depicted the life of ordinary people. The main genre of French classicism was tragedy. It was based on a conflict between duty and passion, the number of heroes was reduced to a minimum, their speech was solemn and sublime (but not pretentious and “dark”), the audience learned about most events related to the action, but not presented on stage, from the speeches of the messengers. The requirements for the verisimilitude of dramatic action (both tragedy and comedy), as well as imitation of Aristotle, explain the so-called. “the theory of three unities” (place, time and action, although Aristotle spoke only about the unity of time and action). According to this theory, events should take place in one place (be it a room or a street), last no more than a day and develop around one conflict. The greatest creations of French classicism, in addition to the poetic program of N. Boileau, were recognized as the tragedies of J. Racine and P. Corneille, the comedies of Molière, and the odes of F. Malherbe. The latter's creativity had big influence to create Russian odes - the main genre of Russian. classicism. In the 18th century rus. classicist writers sought to imitate French models (being likened to a French classic was a compliment, so M. V. Lomonosov was sung as the “Russian Malgerb”, A. P. Sumarokov as “our Boileau” (or “confidant of the Boals”) and “northern Racine” ). However, only the fundamental aesthetic requirements of classicist poetics remained unshakable (genre theory, theory of three unities, theory of imitation), in particular Russian. classicists were looking for their own paths. Thus, the creator of the program “Epistles on Poetry” A.P. Sumarokov was accused by his contemporaries of blindly imitating the author of “Poetic Art” N. Boileau. Since both authors wrote about “eternal” poetic laws, this plagiarism seems justified (by the way, Boileau himself was accused of imitating Horace’s “Epistle to the Pisoes”). At the same time, some differences in the approaches of Boileau and Sumarokov are well known: Sumarokov puts the poet’s education above talent, Boileau puts talent above education; Sumarokov practically excludes the important principle for Boileau of “plaire” (to like) (J. Klein). These “minor” differences are explained primarily by the individual characteristics of Sumarokov the poet. At the same time, the impossibility of applying M. V. Lomonosov’s “theory of three calms” to French poetic practice is associated with objective reasons: Russian. poets, unlike their French exemplary predecessors, had the opportunity to use in their works the words of Russian (creating middle and low “calms”) and Old Church Slavonic (creating high and middle “calms”) languages. In addition, the accelerated development of Russian. literature in the 18th century. led to the coexistence of various literary trends (for example, sentimentalist tendencies can be observed in the works of Russian classic poets in the pre-sentimentalist period, and the sentimentalist M. N. Muravyov began as an admirer of Sumarokov’s talent and a classicist). And finally, in contrast to French classicism of the 17th century, Russian. 18th century classicism was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Rus. the authors took into account the experience of not only Boileau, Corneille and Racine, but also their contemporary Voltaire. The emergence of “enlightenment classicism” ultimately led to the creation of our own national. variants of this direction: English, German, Russian, and not uniform for all European literatures. An example of this: “Weimar classicism” by J. V. Goethe and F. Schiller, which is an original and unique literary phenomenon and at the same time remains classicism. In the beginning. 19th century classicism was rejected by the new literary movement - romanticism and left the stage.

Details Category: Variety of styles and movements in art and their features Published 03/05/2015 10:28 Views: 10592

"Class!" - we talk about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismnamed the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture XVII-XIX centuries

What about as a sample? Classicism developed canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict movement in art; it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical; accidental signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When is it possible to do this and nothing else? Don't rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, give direction, show examples and sweep away everything that is insignificant and not deep.
But canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: norms that had been rooted for several centuries had become obsolete and were torn apart.
However, we have already gotten ahead of ourselves. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of classicism genres. Let's just say that classicism as a specific movement was formed in France in the 17th century. The peculiarity of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of classicism genres

Classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Let's consider the hierarchy of genres using examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the largest theoretician of classicism, but the founder is François Malherbe, who carried out the reform French and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”.

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy it was necessary to observe three unities: unity of time (the action must take place over one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (the work must have one storyline). The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the French tragedians Corneille and Racine. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument “1000th anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of the “three calms”.

“Theory of three calms” M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of three styles, i.e. the classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, distinguishing high, middle and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three “styles” according to Lomonosov:
1. Tall – solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Intermediate – elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly essays.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find this in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires by A.D. Kantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, ode M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina.
At the end of the 18th century. The tendency to see art as the main force for educating a person has intensified. In this regard, the literary movement sentimentalism emerged, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared to be the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin – let’s remember his famous “Poor Liza”!
But works in the direction of classicism were also created in the 19th century. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedova. Although this comedy already contains elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of “classicism” is translated as “exemplary,” then some kind of example is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. This was the highest example. There was also reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance, which also saw its model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. This is what N. Poussin wrote, for example.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin “Self-Portrait” (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings were created on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin “Dance to the Music of Time” (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. Circling in it (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the double-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fast-flowing human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, and the old face looks to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to whose music the round dance spins, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby holding an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, goddess of the dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers along her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin", State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a traditional ceremonial portrait for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, his uniform and awards speak about this.
But at the same time, he is also a renowned poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated desk, littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But inner world it is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which were already actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classical painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, this is Karl Bryullov. His work occurred at a time when works that were classical in form were filled with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. In the middle of the 19th century. The younger generation, gravitating toward realism, began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was also facilitated by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many Hellenistic sculptures became known.
Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova “Self-portrait” (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Paris Louvre and the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova “The Three Graces”. St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group “The Three Graces” belongs to the late period of Antonio Canova’s work. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of the Graces - ancient goddesses personifying feminine beauty and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two outermost ones face each other (and not the viewer) and the friend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged in an embrace, they are united by an interlacing of arms and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II -legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator; he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a master bone carver of Kholmogory carved bones.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which military valor and the wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition it was customary to depict models naked, but moral norms modern to classicism did not allow this. That's why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order– a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

Carl Bartalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
The outstanding architectural and urban planning skills of Russia are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with the adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff and triumphal arch(1819-1829), Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and Synod (1829-1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of Teatralnaya Street (now Architect Rossi Street).

The General Staff Building on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous Portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. What was required of her was: balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details, development of basic canons musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, and the classical composition of the sonata and symphony parts was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the 17th century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the work of I.S. can also be classified as classicism. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reform operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of “classical music” is much broader. It includes not only the music of the classical era, but also the music of the past in general, which has stood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.