1) 1558–1561 - Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga;

2) 1561–1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577. However, the situation was complicated:

The weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen;

A change in the attitude of the local population towards the Russian troops as a result of military raids;

By going over to the side of the enemy, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who, moreover, knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible;

Devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars;

3) 1578–1583 - defensive actions of Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory, elected to the throne, went on the offensive; since 1579, Russian troops fought defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikiye Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the voivode I.P. Shuisky), which lasted five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

The Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. The main task - the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea - was not solved.

Assessing foreign policy Russia in the 16th century - the conquest of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates, the Livonian War (1558–1583), the beginning of the colonization of Siberia, the creation of a defensive line of the Muscovite state that protected against devastating raids, mainly from the Crimean Khanate, it is important to keep in mind that the greatest The country achieved foreign policy successes in the first period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (50-60s).

In addition, it must be emphasized that Russia's military policy was determined not only by its fundamentally natural desire to defend the young statehood, secure borders, overcome the syndrome of more than two hundred years of yoke, finally reach the Baltic Sea, but also by expansionist and predatory aspirations. generated by the very logic of the formation of a centralized state and the interests of the military service class.

Features of the political development of the Muscovite state in the XVI century.

Unlike Europe, where national centralized states have developed, the unification of Russian lands into Moscow State did not yet mean their merger into a single political and economic entity.

Throughout the 16th century there was a complex and contradictory process of centralization, elimination of the specific system.

In the study of the features of the political development of the Russian state in the XVI century. some of the most controversial issues can be identified.

In domestic and foreign literature, there is no consensus on the definition of the state form, established in Russia. Some authors characterize this form as a class-representative monarchy, others - as a class.

Some define political system Russia in the 16th century as autocracy, understanding by it the despotic form of absolutism and even Eastern despotism.

The discussion is influenced by the following factors:

Firstly, demonization in assessing the personality and politics of Ivan the Terrible, which was initiated by N.M. Karamzin;

Secondly, the vagueness of the concepts of "autocracy", "absolutism", "oriental despotism", their relationship.

The formal-legal, or purely rational, definition of these concepts does not take into account the traditional power characteristic of the medieval worldview, which influenced the essence and form of statehood. Autocracy in the 16th century - this is the Russian national form of Orthodox estate statehood, a churched state, which cannot be identified either with varieties of Eastern despotism or with European absolutism, at least before the reforms of Peter I (V.F. Patrakov).

MM. Shumilov drew attention to the fact that the opinions of the authors differ in characterizing the Russian autocracy. So, according to R. Pipes, the autocratic system in Russia was formed under the influence of the Golden Horde. The American historian believes that since for centuries the khan was the absolute master over the Russian princes, then "his power and greatness almost completely erased the image of the Byzantine basileus from memory." The latter was something very remote, a legend; none of the specific princes had ever been to Constantinople, but many of them knew the road to Saray very well.

It was in Saray that the princes had the opportunity to closely contemplate the power, "with which one cannot enter into an agreement, which must be obeyed unconditionally." Here they learned to tax courts and trade deals, conduct diplomatic relations, manage a courier service, and crack down on recalcitrant subjects.

S.G. Pushkarev believed that the political structure of the Russian state was formed under the influence of the Byzantine church-political culture, and the power of the Moscow grand dukes (Ivan III, Vasily III) and tsars (with the exception of Ivan IV) was only formally unlimited. “In general, the Moscow sovereign was - not formally, but morally - limited by old customs and traditions, especially church ones. The Moscow sovereign could not and did not want to do what "did not happen."

Depending on the answer to the question about the essence of monarchical power in Russia, historians also speak differently regarding the political role of the Boyar Duma. So, according to R. Pipes, the Duma, having neither legislative nor executive power, performed only the functions of a registration institution that approved the decisions of the king. “The Duma,” he said, “did not have a number of important features that distinguish institutions that have real political power. Its composition was extremely unstable ... There was no regular schedule of meetings. There were no minutes of discussions, and the only evidence of the participation of the Duma in the development of decisions is the formula written in the text of many decrees: "The king indicated, and the boyars were sentenced." The Duma did not have a clearly defined sphere of activity.

In the XVI century. The Duma turned into a permanent government institution, where Duma people acted not only as advisers to the tsar on issues of legislation and administration, not only participated in the development of decisions, often discussing, and sometimes objecting to the tsar, but also managed central orders, carried out special assignments for central and local affairs. administration (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Another facet of the question of the essence of Russian statehood in the 16th century. - activities of zemstvo sobors in 1549–1550, 1566 and 1598, the study of their formation, functions and relationships with the tsar.

Attempts to solve this problem in the spirit of Eurocentric concepts that dominate historiography give polar, sometimes mutually exclusive points of view of researchers. Zemsky Sobors in Russia did not have a permanent composition, clearly certain functions unlike estate-representative authorities European countries. If the Parliament in England, the States General in France and other class-representative bodies arose as a counterbalance to the royal power and were, as a rule, in opposition to it, then the Zemsky Sobors never came into conflict with the tsar.

In historical studies, an opinion is often expressed about the class-representative nature of the Zemsky Sobors (S.G. Goryainov, I.A. Isaev, etc.). However, M.M. Shumilov believes that, apparently, Zemsky Sobors of the 16th century. were neither popular, nor class-representative institutions, nor advisory bodies under the tsar. Unlike the corresponding institutions of Western Europe, they did not interfere in public administration, did not seek any political rights for themselves, and did not even perform advisory functions. The participants of the first Zemsky Sobors were not elected representatives. Their composition was dominated by representatives of the upper capital nobility and merchants appointed or called by the government itself. Although in the work of the Zemsky Sobor of 1598, unlike the previous ones, elected representatives who vouched for their worlds also participated, but it was still not they who prevailed, but representatives of the government itself: holders of power of various degrees, officials, managers, "agents of military and financial institutions "(V.O. Klyuchevsky). All of them were convened to councils not to tell the government about the needs and desires of their constituents, and not to discuss socially significant issues, and not to give the government any powers. Their competence was to answer questions, and they themselves had to return home as responsible executors of conciliar obligations (in fact, government decisions).

Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with the opinion of some foreign and domestic historians about the underdevelopment of Zemsky Sobors. According to V.F. Patrakova, if the idea of ​​separation of powers is being formed in the West, then in Russia the idea of ​​conciliarity of power is developing on the basis of its spiritual, Orthodox community. Ideally, in the Councils a spiritual and mystical unity of kings and people was achieved (including through mutual repentance), which corresponded to Orthodox ideas about power.

Thus, in the XVI century. Russia has become a state with an autocratic political system. The sole bearer of state power, its head was the Moscow Grand Duke(tsar). In his hands concentrated all the power of the legislative, executive and judicial. All governmental actions were carried out on his behalf and according to his personal decrees.

In the XVI century. in Russia, the birth of an empire and imperial politics takes place (R.G. Skrynnikov). Almost all historians see in the oprichnina one of the factors that prepared the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

In 1558 he declared war on the Livonian Order. The reason for the start of the war was that the Livonians detained on their territory 123 Western specialists who were heading to Russia. Also a lot important role the non-payment of tribute by the Livonians for their capture of Yuryev (Derpt) in 1224 played. The campaign that began in 1558 and continued until 1583 was called the Livonian War. The Livonian War can be divided into three periods, each of which went with varying success for the Russian army.

First period of the war

In 1558 - 1563, the Russian troops finally completed the defeat of the Livonian Order (1561), took a number of Livonian cities: Narva, Derpt, approached Tallinn and Riga. The last major success of the Russian troops at this time was the capture of Polotsk in 1563. From 1563 it becomes clear that Livonian War becomes protracted for Russia.

Second period of the Livonian War

The second period of the Livonian War begins in 1563 and ends in 1578. The war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Russian economy was weakened due to devastation. A prominent Russian military leader, a former member betrays and goes over to the side of opponents. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth.

Third period of the war

The third period of the war takes place in 1579-1583. During these years, Russian troops lead defensive battles, where the Russians lost several of their cities, such as: Polotsk (1579), Velikiye Luki (1581). The third period of the Livonian War was marked by the heroic defense of Pskov. Headed the defense of Pskov Governor Shuisky. The city held out for five months, and beat off about 30 assaults. This event allowed Russia to sign a truce.

Results of the Livonian War

The results of the Livonian War were disappointing for the Russian state. As a result of the Livonian War, Russia lost the Baltic lands, which were captured by Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War greatly depleted Russia. A the main task this war - obtaining access to the Baltic Sea, was never completed.

Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV waged a debilitating Livonian war for 25 years.

The state interests of Russia required the establishment of close ties with Western Europe, which then was easiest to carry out through the seas, as well as ensuring the defense of the western borders of Russia, where the Livonian Order acted as its opponent. In case of success, the possibility of acquiring new economically developed lands opened up.

The reason for the war was the delay by the Livonian Order of 123 Western specialists invited to the Russian service, as well as the non-payment of tribute by Livonia for the city of Derpt (Yuryev) with the territory adjacent to it over the past 50 years.

The beginning of the Livonian War was accompanied by the victories of the Russian troops, who took Narva and Yuriev (Derpt). A total of 20 cities were taken. Russian troops advanced towards Riga and Revel (Tallinn). In 1560, the Livonian Order was defeated, and its master V. Furstenberg was captured. This led to the collapse of the Livonian Order (1561), whose lands came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden. The new master of the Order, G. Ketler, received Courland and Semigallia as possessions and recognized dependence on the Polish king. The last major success at the first stage of the war was the capture of Polotsk in 1563.

In 1565-1566, Lithuania was ready to give Russia all the lands it had conquered and conclude an honorable peace for Russia. This did not suit Grozny: he wanted more.

The second stage (1561 - 1578) coincided with the oprichnina. Russia, opposed by Lithuania, Poland and Sweden, had to go on the defensive. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united to form the Commonwealth. The new ruler of Lithuania and Poland, Stefan Batory, went on the offensive and took back Polotsk (in 1579), captured Velikie Luki (in 1580), laid siege to Pskov (in 1581). A truce was concluded, as the war with Sweden began.

In the third stage, from 1578, Russia had to fight with the king of the Commonwealth, Stefan Batory, who besieged Pskov, and continue the war with Sweden. Pskov was desperately defending, which allowed Ivan the Terrible to start peace negotiations and in 1582 conclude a truce with Stefan Batory for ten years. Under the terms of the armistice, Russia gave up everything it had won in Livonia and Lithuania. In 1583, peace was concluded with Sweden, which ceded the Russian cities of Narva, Yama, Koporye, Ivan-gorod and others.

Russia was unable to break through to the Baltic Sea. This problem was solved by Peter I in the Northern War (1700–1721).

The failure of the Livonian War was ultimately the result of the economic backwardness of Russia, which could not successfully endure a long struggle with strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the years of the oprichnina only exacerbated the matter.

Domestic policy of Ivan IV

Authorities and administrations in Russia in the middleXVIV.

The war became protracted, several European powers were drawn into it. Contradictions intensified within the Russian boyars, who were interested in strengthening the southern Russian borders, and dissatisfaction with the continuation of the Livonian War grew. Figures from the tsar's inner circle A. Adashev and Sylvester, who considered the war unpromising, also showed hesitation. Even earlier, in 1553, when Ivan IV fell dangerously ill, many boyars refused to swear allegiance to him. little son Dmitry. The tsar was shocked by the death of his first and beloved wife, Anastasia Romanova, in 1560.

All this led to the termination in 1560 of the activities of the Chosen Rada. Ivan IV took a course on strengthening personal power. In 1564, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, who had previously commanded the Russian troops, went over to the side of the Poles. Ivan IV, fighting the rebellions and betrayals of the boyar nobility, saw in them main reason failures of his policy. He firmly stood on the position of the need for a strong autocratic power, the main obstacle to the establishment of which, in his opinion, was the boyar-princely opposition and boyar privileges. The question was how the struggle would be fought.

In these difficult circumstances for the country, Ivan IV went to the introduction of the oprichnina (1565-1572).

For him, the war has become a truly part of the reign and, one might even say, a matter of life.

It cannot be said that Livonia was strong state. The formation of the Livonian state is attributed to the XIII century, by the XIV century it was considered weak and fragmented. The Order of the Knights of the Sword headed the state, although he did not have absolute power.

The order throughout its existence prevented Russia from establishing diplomatic relations with other European countries.

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

The reason for the start of the Livonian War was the non-payment of the Yuryev tribute, which, by the way, happened throughout the entire period, after the conclusion of the treaty in 1503.

In 1557, the Livonian Order entered into a military agreement with the Polish king. In January next year Ivan the Terrible advanced his troops to the Livonian territory. During 1558 and by the beginning of 1559, the Russian army had already passed all of Livonia and was at the borders East Prussia. Yuriev and Narva were also captured.

The Livonian Order needed to make peace in order to avoid complete defeat. In 1559, a truce was concluded, but it lasted only six months. Hostilities continued again, and the end of this company was the complete destruction of the Livonian Order. The main fortresses of the Order were captured: Fellin and Marienburg, and the master himself was captured.

However, after the defeat of the order, its lands began to belong to Poland, Sweden and Denmark, which, accordingly, dramatically complicated the situation on the war map for Russia.

Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, and therefore for Russia this meant a war in one direction - with the king of Poland, Sigismund II. At first, success in military operations accompanied the Russian army: in 1563, Ivan IV took Polotsk. But the victories stopped there, and the Russian troops began to suffer defeats.

Ivan IV saw the solution to this problem in the restoration of the Livonian Order under the auspices of Russia. It was also decided to conclude peace with Poland. However, this decision was not supported by the Zemsky Sobor, and the tsar had to continue the war.

The war dragged on, and in 1569 a new state was created called the Commonwealth, which included Lithuania and Poland. With the Commonwealth still managed to make peace for 3 years. At the same time, Ivan IV creates a state on the territory of the Livonian Order and puts Magnus, the brother of the Danish king, at the head.

In the speech of the Commonwealth at this time, a new king was elected - Stefan Batory. After that, the war continued. Sweden entered the war, and Batory laid siege to Russian fortresses. He took Velikiye Luki and Polotsk, and in August 1581 approached Pskov. The inhabitants of Pskov swore an oath that they would fight for Pskov until their death. After the 31st unsuccessful assault, the siege was lifted. And although Bathory failed to capture Pskov, the Swedes at that time occupied Narva.

Results of the Livonian War

In 1582, peace was concluded with the Commonwealth for 10 years. According to the agreement, Russia lost Livonia along with the Belarusian lands, although it received some border territories. A peace agreement was concluded with Sweden for a period of three years (Plus Armistice). According to him, Russia lost Koporye, Ivangorod, Yam and adjacent territories. The main and saddest fact was that Russia remained cut off from the sea.

I decided to intensify my foreign policy in the western direction, namely in the Baltic states. The weakening Livonian Order could not offer proper resistance, and the prospects for acquiring these territories promised a significant expansion of trade with Europe.

THE BEGINNING OF THE LIVONS WAR

In those same years, there was a truce with the Livland land, and ambassadors came from them with a request to make peace. Our king began to remember that they did not pay tribute for fifty years, which they owed even to his grandfather. The people of Lifoyand did not want to pay that tribute. Because of this, the war began. Our king then sent us, the three great governors, and with us other stratilates and an army of forty thousand not to mine lands and cities, but to conquer all their land. We fought for a whole month and did not meet resistance anywhere, only one city held the defense, but we took it too. We went through their land with battles for four dozen miles and left the great city of Pskov to the land of Livonia almost unscathed, and then quite quickly reached Ivangorod, which stands on the border of their lands. We carried a lot of wealth with us, because the land there was rich and the inhabitants were very proud in it, they deviated from the Christian faith and from the good customs of their forefathers and rushed all along the wide and spacious path leading to drunkenness and other intemperance, became committed to to laziness and long sleep, to lawlessness and internecine bloodshed, following evil teachings and deeds. And I think that God, because of this, did not allow them to be at rest and for a long time own their homelands. Then they asked for a truce for six months in order to think about that tribute, but, having asked for a truce, they did not stay in it for two months. And they violated it like this: everyone knows the German city called Narva, and the Russian one - Ivangorod; they stand on the same river, and both cities are large, Russian is especially densely populated, and on that very day when our Lord Jesus Christ suffered for the human race with his flesh and every Christian must, according to his abilities, show passion-bearing, being in fasting and abstinence, the noble and proud Germans invented a new name for themselves and called themselves Evangelicals; at the beginning of that day, they got drunk and overeat, and began to shoot at the Russian city with all the big guns, and they beat a lot of Christian people with their wives and children, shedding Christian blood on such great and holy days, and they beat incessantly for three days, and did not even stop on the Resurrection of Christ, while they were in a truce, approved by oaths. And the governor of Ivangorod, not daring to break the truce without the knowledge of the tsar, quickly sent a message to Moscow. The king, having received it, gathered a council and at that council decided that since they were the first to start, we need to defend ourselves and shoot from guns at their city and its environs. By this time, a lot of guns had been brought there from Moscow, besides, stratilates were sent and the Novgorod army from two fifths was ordered to gather towards them.

IMPACT OF THE LIVONIAN WAR ON TRADE

However, more distant Western countries were ready to ignore the fears of neighbors - enemies of Russia and showed interest in Russian-European trade. The main "trade gate" to Russia for them was Narva, conquered by the Russians in the Livonian War. (The northern route, found by the British, was their monopoly for almost two decades.) In the last third of the 16th century. Following the British, the Flemings, Dutch, Germans, French, and Spaniards reached Russia. For example, since the 1570s. French merchants from Rouen, Paris, La Rochelle traded with Russia through Narva. Narva merchants who swore allegiance to Russia received various benefits from the tsar. In Narva, in the service of Russia, the most original detachment of service Germans appeared. Ivan the Terrible hired the leader of the pirates Karsten Rode and other privateers to protect the Narva mouth. All corsair mercenaries in the Russian service also received licenses from Russia's ally in the Livonian War - the owner of the island of Ezel, Prince Magnus. Unfortunately for Moscow, the Livonian War went badly from the end of the 1570s. In 1581 the Swedes occupied Narva. The project of the Russian vassal Kingdom of Livonia, headed by Prince Magnus, successively betrothed to two daughters of the unfortunate appanage prince Vladimir Staritsky (nieces of Ivan the Terrible), also collapsed. In this setting Danish king Frederick II decided to stop foreign ships carrying goods to Russia through the Danish Sound, the strait connecting the North and Baltic Sea. English ships that ended up in the Sound were arrested there, and the goods were confiscated by Danish customs.

Chernikova T. V. Europeanization of Russia in the XV-XVII centuries

WAR IN THE EYES OF A CONTEMPORARY

In 1572, on December 16th, the soldiers of the King of Sweden, reiters and bollards, numbering about 5,000 people, set off on a campaign, intending to besiege Overpalen. They made a big detour to Mariam, and from there to Fellin for the sake of robbery, and two kartaunas (cannons), along with gunpowder and lead, were sent straight along the Wittenstein road; these two guns were to be joined by several more heavy guns from Wittenstein. But both guns during Christmas time did not reach further than Niengof, 5 miles from Revel. At the same time, the Grand Duke of Moscow for the first time personally with his two sons and with 80,000 troops and with many guns entered Livonia, while the Swedes in Reval and Wittenstein did not have the slightest news of this, being quite sure that that there is no danger for them. All of them, both high and low, imagined that when the Swedish royal army set off on a campaign, the Muscovite would not even dare to utter a word, so the Muscovite is now powerless and not terrible. Therefore, they threw aside all caution and all reconnaissance. But when they were the least guarded, the Muscovite personally approached Wesenberg with a huge army, and the Revelians, as well as Klaus Akesen (Klas Akbzon Tott), the military commander, and all the soldiers in Overpalen still did not know anything about it. However, the Wittensteiners found out something about the Russian movement, but did not want to believe that they were in danger, and everyone thought that this was only a raid by some Russian detachment sent to capture the guns in Niengof. Under this assumption, Hans Boye (Boie), the governor (commandant), sent almost all the knights from the castle 6 miles away to meet the cannons sent from Reval and so weakened the garrison of the Wittenstein castle that only 50 soldiers remained in it, capable of owning weapons, except for 500 ordinary peasants who fled to the castle. Hans Boy did not believe that the Muscovite meant not the guns in Niengof, but Wittenschgein Castle. He did not have time to come to his senses, therefore, as the Muscovite with his army was already at Wittenstein. It would be nice if Hans Boy would now dispose of his knechts differently.

Russov Balthazar. Chronicle of the province of Livonia

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND THE LIVONS WAR

After the Pozvolsky peace, all the real benefits of which were on the side of Poland, the Livonian Order began to disarm. The Livonians failed to take advantage of the prolonged peace, lived in excess, spent their time in festivities and seemed not to notice what was being prepared against them in the east, as if they wanted to see how threatening symptoms began to appear everywhere. The traditions of the firmness and steadfastness of the former knights of the order were forgotten, everything was swallowed up by quarrels and the struggle of individual estates. Us the case of new clashes with any of their neighbors, the order frivolously relied on German Empire. Meanwhile, neither Maximilian I nor Charles V were able to take advantage of their position and more closely consolidate the bonds that connected the ancient German colony in the east with its metropolis: they were fascinated by their dynastic, Habsburg interests. They were hostile to Poland and were rather inclined to allow a political rapprochement with Moscow, in which they saw an ally against Turkey.

MILITARY SERVICE DURING THE LIVONIAN WAR

The bulk of service people in the "fatherland" were urban nobles and boyar children.

According to the charter of 1556, the service of nobles and boyar children began at the age of 15, until that time they were considered "undersized". To enlist the grown-up nobles and children of the boyars, or, as they were called, “noviks,” boyars and other duma officials with clerks were periodically sent from Moscow to the cities; sometimes this business was entrusted to local governors. Arriving in the city, the boyar had to organize elections from local service nobles and children of boyar special salaries, with the help of which the recruitment was carried out. According to the questions of those enrolled in the service and the instructions of the payers, the property status and serviceability of each novice were established. The auditors showed who could be in the same article with whom by origin and property status. Then the novice was enrolled in the service and he was assigned a local and monetary salary.

Salaries were set depending on the origin, property status and novice services. Local salaries of novices ranged on average from 100 quarters (150 acres in three fields) to 300 quarters (450 acres) and money - from 4 to 7 rubles. In the process of service, the local and monetary salaries of novices increased.