Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II. Topic: "Domestic and foreign policy of the Russian Empire
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"NABEREZHNOCHELNINSKY INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL AND PEDAGOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES AND RESOURCES"
FACULTY OF PEDAGOGY AND PRIMARY EDUCATION METHODS
DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY IM. Z.T. SHARAFUTDINOVA
Yarova Elmira Kamilovna
Views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia
Final qualifying work
Specialty 050708.65
"Pedagogy and Methods of Primary Education"
supervisor
d. p. n., prof. A. G. Mukhametshin
"___" ______________ 20___
Allowed for protection
Head of the Department
pedagogy and psychology
them. Z.T. Sharafutdinova
Ph.D., Associate Professor I.N.Fedekin
"___" ________________ 20__
Naberezhnye Chelny
2012
Introduction ……………………………………………………………… ............... 3
Chapter 1. Socio-historical conditions for the formation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II …………………………………………………………… ..6
1.1. Coming to power of Catherine II. ………………………………………… ... 6
1.2. State policy in the field of education in Russia in the era of Catherine II ……………………………………………………………………… 11
1.3. Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II ……………… .. 16
Chapter 2. Views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia …………………………………………………………… 20
2.1. Pedagogical views of Catherine II …………………………………… .20
2.2. Questions of upbringing and teaching methods in the pedagogical views of Catherine II ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2.3. Organization of primary (public) education in Russia ………… .... 29
2.4. The first experience of creating a system of primary education in Russia, unrestricted by class barriers ……………………………………… .34
2.5. Expansion of public schools ………………………………………… .42
Conclusions…. …………………………………………………………………… ..49
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………. 50 Bibliography ... …………………………………………………………………52
Introduction
"Without the past, there is no future" - reads folk proverb... And indeed, people are always, especially at critical periods in the life of mankind, in the gigantic laboratory of world social experience, trying to find an answer to the burning questions of our time. The assimilation of historical experience, knowledge and methods of thinking developed by previous generations allows, on this basis, to direct all practical activities of the present. Our past is ours intellectual property, which must be handled as carefully as the material.
Pedagogy and school are a mirror of social life, and periods of transformation, purposeful reforms and spontaneous shocks, as a rule, are accompanied by profound changes in the field of education and upbringing. The most important conditions for the cognition of pedagogical truth are an objective assessment of historical reality, an inextricable link between the history of pedagogy and the present.
The history of pedagogy includes the history of pedagogical ideas, pedagogical systems, and socialization processes. Consequently, when studying the history of pedagogy, special attention should be paid to the study of a single personality in the unity of all its social manifestations.
The second half of the 18th century is of particular interest to us. This is the age of reforms in the field of primary education, which is called the era of the Enlightenment or the era of Catherine II.
V recent times interest in the personality of Catherine II and her activities as an "enlightened monarch" has grown significantly. A number of articles have been published on the influence of Catherine II on the state of education in Russia in the 18th century, and on her pedagogical views. In the historical and pedagogical literature of the post-Soviet period, the attention of individual researchers to the problems of organizing the elementary (folk) school of Catherine's time is noticeably increasing. There is an undoubted fact of growth of public interest, both in the Catherine's era and in Catherine II herself, as evidenced by a significant increase in the number of popular scientific works.
Proof of Catherine II's constant attention to pedagogical problems, school reform issues are legislative acts aimed at transforming the field of education, approved or even personally drawn up by the empress, Catherine II's works on education and enlightenment, published in various publications and collected works; her correspondence, the content of materials published in collections, as well as individual pages of the memoirs of Catherine II.
It is no coincidence that in modern conditions various types of educational institutions, including primary schools, are reopening. However, it is impossible to build a new school by discarding everything old, created by the wisdom of the people. Without knowing what the old school lived, what forces it had, what ideals it bequeathed, it is impossible to understand what it should carry in itself now.
Thus, the relevance of the topic of my thesis is due to the fact that the richest historical experience in the development of public education, including various types of primary schools, is of practical importance today.
So, the topic of my qualifying work: "The pedagogical views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia."
The goal is to analyze the educational and pedagogical ideas and views of Catherine II, her activities as an organizer of the reform process Russian school, to identify the problems of organizing primary education in Russia during the reign of Catherine II.
The object is primary education in Russia in the second half of the 8th century.
The subject is the pedagogical views of Catherine II and their implementation in the practice of reforming primary schools in the 2nd half of the 18th century.
In accordance with the purpose, object and subject, the following tasks were set:
1. To identify the socio - historical conditions for the formation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II.
2. To reveal the content of the pedagogical views of Catherine II in education and upbringing, to carry out their generalization and systematization.
3. To study the ways of implementing the main pedagogical ideas of Catherine II on the creation of primary schools in Russia.
4. To identify the problems in the organization of primary education in Russia during the reign of Catherine II.
Hypothesis: the pedagogical views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary education had a social orientation, were morally oriented, imbued with the idea of the priority of education over teaching.
Methods: theoretical analysis of philosophical, pedagogical, historical and literary sources, documentary materials, historical and logical analysis and generalization of information borrowed from various sources,identification of trends and patterns in the development of primary school.
The methodological basis of the study was the works of such authors as Andreev, A. Yu., Brickner, A. G., Denis Diderot, Novikova N. I., John Locke, J.-J. Russo and others.
The practical significance lies in the possibility of using this work, teachers primary grades and history teachers at the secondary school.
Structure of the work: this work consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusions, conclusion and bibliography.
Chapter 1. Socio-historical conditions for the formation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II
1.1. The coming to power of Catherine II
After Peter I, Catherine II reigned in Russia. Full name Empress Catherine II before her arrival in Russia and the adoption of Orthodoxy was Sophia - Frederica - Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. Catherine was born on April 21, 1729. Her father, Prince Christian - Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, was the younger brother of the German sovereign prince. Prince of Christians - Augustus was very poor and had to serve. The Prussian king Frederick the Great gave him the post of governor of Pomerania. The wife of Prince Christian was née John - Elizabeth Goldstein-Gottorp. The prince loved his wife and daughter dearly, was an exemplary family man, ruled the Pomeranian province and commanded the Anhalt-Zerbst infantry regiment. The parents of the future empress lived poorly, in an ordinary house, and not in a palace. Empress Catherine in later times willingly recalled and spoke in a joking tone of the relatively modest environment in which she, the former princess, was born.
It is known from Catherine's notes that her parents gave her an education. As a child, she had a French governess, Cardel, and two teachers, Chaplain Perot and a calligraphy teacher Laurent. They also taught her music - the German Relig gave her lessons on the harpsichord. Thanks to her governess, Catherine II met Racine, Cornel, and Moliere. German teacher Vater tried to instill in her a love for German literature.
There can be no doubt that Catherine's mother cared little for her upbringing. Here is what Catherine says, referring to the arrival of Count Gillenborg in Hamburg: Gillenmborg, seeing that my mother little or almost did not care for me, he told her that she shouldn’t pay attention to me, that I was a child above my years and that I had philosophical disposition of the mind.
It is not surprising that even in childhood, if, of course, you believe the folklore, the little princess heard from some wandering monk a prediction that, in the end, she would "put on the crown of a great empire, which is currently ruled by a woman." ... It seems that, in fact, this prediction was about Russia, which at that time was ruled by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna.
The beauty of the German princess, sharp and lively mind, attracted the attention of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. In 1744, Catherine and her mother were summoned to Russia by the empress, baptized according to the Orthodox tradition under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), with whom she married in 1745.
From the notes of Catherine it is clear that she, then having no more than fifteen years, from the very first minute of her stay at the Russian court, despite all the difficulties, behaved carefully, acted prudently and constantly dreamed of her future greatness. There were various clashes, then with the mother, who was distinguished by ambition, did not always pay enough attention to the interests of her daughter. Discovered a lack of tact on the part of the empress, who soon began to show some distrust of the young princess, a groom who seemed very incapable of loving and respecting the bride assigned to him. With all these difficulties, Catherine made a firm decision not to stop at any obstacle, to overcome all obstacles that prevented her from achieving the desired goals, to use all kinds of means to make herself an advantageous position. In her actions, a cold calculation is noticeable, a calm consideration of all circumstances is visible. She tried to form herself an accurate idea of what course of action should be considered appropriate. By all means, she wanted to put on the Russian crown promised to her by fate.
Shining at the Russian court with beauty and intelligence, Catherine spent all her leisure time on self-education. From the very first days of marriage, Catherine was patient. For an outside observer, her life could even seem pleasant: she attended performances, balls, had fun. But all these court trips and celebrations did not fill the whole life of the Grand Duchess: returning home, the young princess did not meet, neither work nor business, and therefore was bored. Out of boredom, Catherine began to read and began to read novels. She came across letters from Sevigne Marie de Rabutin - Chantal, Marquis de, French writer; the author of letters that she wrote to her daughter and friends for many years. In them she talked about the life of Paris and Versailles, about political events, about literary and theatrical novelties. Not without wit, Sevigne criticized the policy of the Jesuits, the hypocrisy of the court, burdensome for the country of war. I saw my era through the eyes of an intelligent, but not devoid of prejudice, aristocrat. In relation to peasant unrest, she took an irreconcilably hostile position. Sevigne's letters are an example of the elegant and accurate prose of classicism. Catherine directly "devoured" them, meeting in them many notes, consonant with her emotional mood. In 1746, Catherine began to read the works of Voltaire, which greatly contributed to the education and enlightenment of her mind and head, she became more legible in reading and then wrote to Voltaire, as well as others, that Voltaire was her teacher.
Then Catherine turned to historical reading, read the history of Henry IV, the history of Germany Bara, the memoirs of Brantom, the works of Plato, "The Spirit of the Laws" by Montesquieu and the historical works of Tacitus. Reading had a powerful influence on the spiritual life of Catherine, on her concepts and feelings. She knew how to appreciate the benefits of reading serious books. At first she read out of boredom, then more and more she got used to assiduous work. Many questions were raised in the records of the Grand Duchess. It talks about women's education, and about legal proceedings in relation to insolvent debtors, about the importance of the nobility in society, about how to help the loss of military capabilities during peace, about the causes of extreme mortality in Russia, about issues of technology, about the indiscretion of torturing people , whose guilt has not been proven, about the affairs of Courland and Holstein, about the cultivation of oysters, about the connections of the Caspian Sea with the Black Sea, and so on.
She studied the works of remarkable French enlighteners and received a wide variety of information in jurisprudence and economics. These books shaped her worldview. Hardly in the whole of Russia there was a woman more educated than her. Catherine became a consistent supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. At the same time, Catherine mastered the customs and spirit of the Russian people, and learned the Russian language so that she knew all the sayings, wrote essays, and derived quotations. Here are some of them related to education:
For those who have not learned in their youth, old age is boring.
For those who are accustomed to work, the work is facilitated.
An intelligent person can always find exercise.
A reasonable person does not count as a shame to study even in perfect years, which he did not complete his studies in his youth.
Teaching in happiness beautifies a person, but in misfortune it serves as a refuge.
The coup on June 28, 1762 fulfilled the dream of Catherine, which she cherished for 17 years - made her the autocratic Russian empress. This is how the women's rule began, which lasted 34 years and differed from the previous women's reign in that during it a number of important reforms were carried out in the field of state and public life in Russia. She was famous for the art of managing the state and choosing her entourage. In business, she took Peter the Great as a model and constantly asked herself, "What would Peter have done in this case?"
Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, knew how to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at capturing any sensible thought and used it for her own purposes.
During the entire period of Catherine's reign, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles were disgraced, were not exiled, and even less executed. Therefore, the idea of Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility was formed. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world. For the sake of her preservation, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.
Thus, Catherine, considering it possible that sooner or later she would be destined to rule Russia, tried to prepare for such activities. In connection with the desire to become capable of doing business, she wanted to gain popularity, to be loved and respected by everyone. Even before the wedding, the following remark in Catherine's notes refers: “More than ever I tried to ingratiate everyone in general, large and small. Nobody was forgotten by me, and I made it a rule for myself to think that I need everyone, and in every possible way to acquire common love, which I managed to do ”.
Especially carefully Catherine tried to ingratiate herself with the Empress, and was guided by the advice of the women around her. Catherine knew how to appreciate the meaning that was for the general opinion, and quite skillfully, not without some pettiness, not without some cold-blooded calculation, she chose the means to build a good reputation for herself.
From Catherine's notes: “I wish and want only the good of the country to which the Lord brought me. Her glory makes me glorious. This is my rule, and I will be happy if my thoughts can help in this. "
1.2. State policy in the field of education in Russia during the reign of Catherine II
More than once or twice in Russian history, the rulers have made a big, albeit not a priority, stake on the education of the population. And we know how beneficially this was reflected in the progress of the country, but only in those cases when the aspirations and opportunities were matched by verified and systematically prepared projects. Today, when once again the state has resolutely taken up the field of education, it is necessary to recall the history of the first such plans, those projects when the enlightenment ideas dominated in the minds of intellectuals the possibility of making human progress through reason, and therefore through the organization of upbringing and education. In Russia, such a period turned out to be the times of Catherine's, when the Russian empress, who continued the Peter's line of Europeanization of the country, put on the agenda the issues of organizing educational institutions of the country for different segments of the population. Before that, Russia did not yet know secular education on a national scale. It is quite natural that Catherine II, as is typical of many rulers of Russia, decided to approach the problem with the help of the most perfect and advanced developments of her era in order to create a better education system. The ideas of European enlightenment enjoyed particular attention of the Russian empress. Ekaterina strove to use the achievements of European pedagogical thought in the implementation of her projects.
Society needed an enlightened person who would combine a broad general education with professional training. This idea matured in Catherine II not without the influence of the ideas of Western European enlighteners, in particular Denis Diderot, Jean - Jacques Rousseau, John Locke.
The historian S. M. Soloviev noted that "The motives that made Catherine II come closer to the most prominent of the philosophers" consisted in the fact that "highly sensitive to the higher interests of man, she passionately followed the mental movement of the century ... and wanted to apply its results to the structure of people's life. "
John Locke's pedagogical treatise "Thoughts on education" in Russian translation became her reference book at the beginning of her reign. I think, wrote John Locke, that a child's soul is as easy to direct one way or another, as is river water; but although this is the main task of education and should be mainly concerned with inside a person, however, one should not ignore the mortal shell. With the latter I will, therefore, begin and first of all consider issues related to the health of the body. ...
He spoke out sharply against traditional classical education, defending real education, armed with useful knowledge. He believed that learning should be based on the interest and curiosity of children, which contributes to the development of their independent thinking. No punishment should be applied in teaching. His pupil had to be not only prepared for the successful conduct of practical affairs, but also to be aware of his civic responsibility, to be adapted to a "virtuous life", to show interest in the study of what he could be very useful for his country.
The idea of creating a "new breed of people" was borrowed by Catherine II from Jean - Jacques Rousseau, although in general she had a negative attitude to his democratic pedagogical views. From him, she perceived the idea of the need to isolate children from a society spoiled by harmful traditions.Upbringing, Jean - Jacques Rousseau believed, is given to a person by nature, people and the things around him. Education received from nature is the internal development of the abilities and organs of a person; education received from people is teaching how to use this development; upbringing from the side of things is the acquisition by a person of his own experience with respect to objects that give him perception. All these three factors should, according to Jean - Jacques Rousseau, act in concert.
But Jean - Jacques Rousseau rejected the thesis of the predominant "natural upbringing", and considered social upbringing a priority.
Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine II invited Denis Diderot, a French writer, philosopher and educator who founded an encyclopedia or explanatory dictionary sciences, arts, crafts, to Russia. In parallel, she set similar tasks for a specially created commission, as well as for the curator of Moscow University, I.I. Shuvalov. We can say that the Empress approached the issue comprehensively, on a grand scale. And although the plans ultimately remained unfulfilled, they are of some interest. After spending no more than six months in Russia, Diderot was constantly with the empress, conducting daily conversations with her. Diderot was in favor of universal, free primary education "from the first minister to the last peasant," for everyone to be able to read, write and count. He also believed that "opinions rule the world", and linked the possibility of rebuilding society with the publication of wise laws and the spread of enlightenment, correct upbringing.
Diderot rejected the assertion of Helvetius, who considered upbringing to be the only source of difference between people and spoke about the absence of individual natural differences in people. According to Diderot, education is one of the main sources. ...
Or another example, from the controversy between Diderot and Claude Helvetius:
Helvetius: All people with an ordinary normal organization have the same mental abilities.
Diderot: Mr. Helvetius, answer a small question. Here are five hundred newly born children. They are ready to give them to you for education according to your system. Tell me, how many of them will you make genius people? Why not all five hundred?
Like other French materialist philosophers, Diderot attached great importance to enlightenment. "Education," he wrote, "gives a person dignity, and the slave begins to realize that he was not born for slavery."
Denis Diderot's thoughts on public education are set forth in the "Plan of the University or School of Public Teaching of Sciences for the Russian Government," drawn up in 1775 at the request of Catherine II. In his work "Public Schools" (1773-1774), Diderot designed the state system of public education, defended the principles of universal free primary education, and the meaninglessness of education. He proposed removing schools from the jurisdiction of the church and handing them over to the state.
In an effort to ensure the actual accessibility of the school, Diderot considered it necessary to organize material aid from the state for the children of the poor (free textbooks and meals in primary school, scholarships in secondary and high school). Diderot rebelled against the educational system with its classicism prevailing at that time throughout Europe.
He brought to the fore the physical, mathematical and natural sciences, advocating the real orientation of education and its connection with the needs of life. Diderot strove to build a secondary school curriculum in accordance with the system of scientific knowledge, taking into account the interdependence of sciences, highlighting the main subject in each year of study. Denis Diderot advised to concentrate training in each academic year in a specific section school curriculum: mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, natural science and physics, chemistry and anatomy, logic and grammar, ancient languages and literature. In parallel, three blocks of education were envisaged:
1. Philosophy, morality, history, geography.
2. Drawing and the beginning of architecture.
3.Music, fencing, dancing, horse riding, swimming.
Considering the views of Catherine II, he included religion in the curriculum. Denis Diderot wrote about the importance of writing good textbooks and suggested involving prominent scholars in this matter. In order to improve the level of knowledge, he proposed to hold public examinations in high school 4 times a year and to weed out negligent or incapable students. For the best selection of teachers, he advised to announce competitions.
Being the son of a simple artisan, Diderot, correctly asserted that all people are endowed with favorable inclinations by nature, and not only the elect. Moreover, he said that people from the people are much more often bearers of genius and talents than representatives of the nobility: “The number of huts and other private dwellings belongs to the number of palaces, as ten thousand to one, and accordingly with this we have ten thousand chances against one for the fact that genius, talent and virtue would sooner come out of the walls of the hut than from the walls of the palace. "
Catherine believed that the organization of education in the matter of correcting serf morals should be aimed at removing the student from the appropriate social environment and immersing him in artificial conditions educational institutions. Thus, she hoped to educate statesmen of a new generation, corresponding to the ideals of the enlightened age. However, Diderot proceeded from a more balanced assessment of the role of education and upbringing, placing them in a causal row with internal inclinations, believing also that the circumstances of his socialization, in modern terms, do not shape the personality as a whole, but only significantly affect its formation. In this sense, he was worried about the ways of revealing the natural abilities of a person and the means of their development. At the same time, he did not lose sight of the Russian specifics associated with the almost complete absence of the institutional foundations of the national secular education system. He was attracted by the very challenge of contributing to the creation of a completely new system for a completely new, as he imagined, society. Diderot writes that in Russia “there is not even a trace of old institutions that could hinder the embodiment of the views of Catherine II; in front of her is a vast field, free space on which she can build at her own will. "
Diderot proposes a detailed program of reforms for the entire education system, from teaching children to training specialists. We are talking about all forms and stages of national education. Diderot acted as an innovator for his time, proposing the universality of education in Russia. Initial training it was supposed to cover the entire population: "From the first minister to the last peasant, it is useful for everyone to be able to read, write and count." Schools were to be not only accessible, but compulsory for all children. At the same time, Diderot still believes that they should be free, and even demands that students be paid from the state treasury: "to feed and provide with textbooks."
Unfortunately, the project did not receive any practical application and was put aside by Catherine II for the reason, as she believed, unsuitable for the existing social conditions in Russia.
1.3. Educational reforms during the reign of Catherine II
The period of the reign of Catherine II turned out to be the period of the highest development of the school business in Russia. (1762-1796).
The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century was to satisfy the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. Nobility preferred to study secular manners, enjoy the theater and other arts. Notable successes were made by special military educational institutions - the Land and Sea Cadet Corps.
By the charter of 1766, the training program was divided into three groups of sciences:
Items required for civil rank;
Useful and artistic sciences subjects: physics, astronomy, geography, navigation;
Subjects leading to the knowledge of other arts: logic, mathematics, eloquence, Latin and French.
In the second half of the 18th century, private educational institutions developed with public school programs, since the nobles did not want to educate their children along with the peasants.
In 1763, Catherine appointed Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704 - 1795) as her chief adviser on education. His name is associated with the establishment in 1763 of the first Russian Orphanage.
Children from fourteen to fifteen years old were taught various crafts in the House. When leaving the house, the pupils received full uniforms and the rights of free people. It was proposed to organize the same houses in all major cities, which were supported by donations. I.I.Betskoy took the ideas of European enlighteners and tried to implement them in Russia. His activity, first of all, was associated with the drafting of laws concerning the training and education of Russian youth. He comes to the need for closed educational institutions for children from 6 to 20 years old, to create a "special breed of people" free from vices modern society... True parenting is to instill respect for yourself. According to the reports and statutes of Betskoy, the following were discovered:
Orphanage in Moscow (1764);
Orphanage in St. Petersburg (1772);
School for boys at the Academy of Arts (1764) and at the Academy of Sciences (1765);
Educational Society for Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg (1764);
Commercial school (1772).
All of these were strictly class-based closed educational institutions. Education in them was considered from four sides:
Physical (healthy mind in a healthy body);
Physically - moral (Idleness is the mother of all vices, and hard work is the father of all virtues);
Moral (removing the student from what may have a shadow of vice);
Teachings (development of mental powers as a means of obtaining a piece of bread).
“Rootless babies and children” were admitted to the Orphanage in St. Petersburg.
The treasury allocated an insignificant amount for the maintenance of the house, which did not cover the costs. Then the need for charity was announced, and the money was collected. Betskoy imagined raising children in this house as follows:
Up to 2 years of age, children are in the care of wet nurses and nannies;
From 3 to 7 years old, boys and girls live together and are accustomed to light work;
From 7 to 11 years old they go to school for one hour every day, learn to read, comprehend the basics of faith; in the same years, boys learn to knit caps, nets, and girls practice spinning, knitting, weaving;
From 11 to 14 years old, boys and girls study writing, tsifiri, study arithmetic, geography, drawing, are engaged in household work and crafts; girls sew, cook, iron; boys get used to gardening, yard work;
At the age of 14-15, education ends, and the pupils begin to engage in the craft that they themselves have chosen.
The students were divided into three groups according to their natural talents:
1. People capable of sciences and arts.
2. People capable only of crafts and handicrafts.
3. People capable of only the simplest work.
The main teaching principle: to lead children in a playful and pleasant way. The leading place was given to moral education - the removal of the child from any vice. With good upbringing, punishments are unnecessary, since they make children feigned, vindictive, gloomy, but if necessary, punishment can be: deprivation of a walk, standing in one place. You should never hit a child. The purpose of education: the creation of "a special breed of people free from the vices of society."
There was a hospital at the Foundling Home for poor women in labor. Those born in this hospital were transferred to the Orphanage, later this procedure was canceled - only those babies who were abandoned by their mothers were given. The child's admission to the Orphanage was not accompanied by paperwork. The most distinguished pupils continued their education in the capital's gymnasiums, but in 1837 this order was canceled.
The projects of 1760 about low village schools, about the public education system remained unfulfilled. The teaching of agricultural children in parish schools was supposed to contain only such a teaching that would make the villagers versed in Christian law, virtuous and hardworking. But lower educational institutions for peasants were not financed from the treasury, and their existence depended entirely on the will and wishes of local landowners and rural communities, which, in turn, simply did not allocate money. The nobility led the local government, because almost half of the local population - the serf peasantry - was in their hands, lived on its land.
Chapter 2. Views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary education in Russia
2.1. Pedagogical views of Catherine II
As soon as Catherine II came to power, she began to show interest in the problems of education. "La manie de cette annee est d" ecri - re sur l "education". “This year there is a passion for writing about education,” she wrote in 1762.
An analysis of the pedagogical views of Catherine II allows us to assert that she was close to the idea of upbringing and developmental education, which became firmly established in the pedagogical consciousness only in the next century. Education is a means of upbringing: this view of Catherine II on the purpose of education is clearly expressed in the following words: "let teaching, or knowledge, be the only disgust from idleness and a way to cognize the natural abilities of students and so that they get used to work and diligence." ...
Catherine II assigned teaching the role of a means of mental education.
These views of Catherine II were convincingly expressed by her associate and associate I.I. Betskoy: “Experience proves that a mind that is adorned and enlightened by sciences alone does not make a good and direct citizen; on the contrary, it often becomes harmful to someone who has no virtue rooted in his heart from a young age. "
At the end of the 18th century, the main theories of education began to take shape. One of them was the theory of formal education, which considered learning only as a means of developing the abilities and cognitive interests of students. In the pedagogical legacy of Catherine II, there are no specific indications that she knew about the existence of this theory. But in her recommendations on the selection of the content of educational material for students, she considered it necessary to emphasize the importance of the developmental function of learning, along with its other functions. In general, she identifies three functions that should be realized in the learning process: educational ("education of the mind"), educational ("education of the heart") and developmental - the formation of skills ("verbal expression"), as well as to awaken the development and improvement of the sense of truth , goodness and beauty. These functions, according to Catherine II, should be incorporated into the content of educational books, including books for initial training. Since in Russia at that time there were very few books suitable for children's reading, Catherine II herself compiled a number of textbooks and other books. The textbooks or "guides" she wrote were modeled after her contemporary German children's reading books. Taking these books as a model, Catherine II strove to make the children's book "folk", a collection of rich thoughts and observations of a folklore nature, set out in an attractive form. The study of the material of books for reading should, in her opinion, be conducted in a certain sequence: 1) fairy tales; 2) "Conversations and Stories" and "Elected Russian Proverbs"; 3) "Civic Elementary Teaching" and "Continuing Elementary Teaching"; 4) "Notes of the first part". ...
The content of fairy tales composed by Catherine II, as educational material, contains an interest that can attract the attention of children and arouse their moral feelings, since moral instructions constitute almost all the main content of fairy tales. The fairy tales depict the ideal of a young prince, brought up in the rules of virtue and, in spite of all obstacles, walking the straight path to the goal indicated to him. The same moralizing character can be traced in the content of the Primary Civil Doctrine and in the Continuation of the Primary Doctrine. It - short stories from ancient history, which describe the properties and qualities of prominent personalities of classical antiquity (stories about Cyrus, Alexander the Great, Caesar, the Spartans). Most of the stories tell about the life of monarchs. This, apparently, is due to the fact that they were intended primarily for specific children - future rulers.
Material for children's reading from the "Notes of the first part". is distinguished by its special content. The main goals of this work are: 1) to inform the pupils of positive knowledge, to expand their horizons and views on the real world in general, and on the Russian world, in particular; 2) continue moral education, "strengthen children in virtue." The information that Catherine II communicates to her students in this work is quite diverse: it is knowledge in the field of geography, ethnography, history, language, trade, and industry. The focus of all reported information is Russia and materials about it. At the beginning of each chapter, information about a region, about a city, about a people is reported. What follows is a cautionary tale with the explicit purpose of edification, such as how a child must be to be considered good. The expression "to be smart" is here equated with the expression "to do everything well." To be obedient means to "do whatever the mother says." All other stories of the "Notes of the first part", in addition to the instructive ones, give a lot of so-called "real information", mainly from Siberian nature.
There is no exact information in the statements of Catherine II about the age for which the books written by her were intended. But the analysis of their content, their inherent style of presentation suggests that they were intended for the initial training. But this stage of training was not limited only to the study of these books. In that part of the "Instruction", which talks about education, Catherine II clearly defines the range of subjects to be studied at this age stage. Among them, the first place is occupied by the Law of God. This is both a tribute to the tradition of that time, and the deep conviction of Empress Catherine II in the educational value of this subject.
The "Instructions" speaks of languages in great detail, with more attention being paid to the Russian language: "The Russian letter and language should be tried to be known as best as possible."
For this, Catherine II suggests “reading and speaking with children in Russian”.
Simultaneously with Russian, foreign languages should also be taught: "languages cannot be taught otherwise than by speaking them, but, moreover, they do not forget their Russian language." At the same time, Catherine II prescribes to study different subjects in different languages: "Mineralogy in Latin, pronunciation in German, animals - in French, the Gospel - in different languages, comparing with Russian".
Catherine II believed that in addition to the indicated languages of the Grand Dukes, it is necessary to teach and Greek, which she called "the most important and most useful." Simultaneously with the practical teaching of languages, there should be teaching in reading, writing, drawing and arithmetic, as well as calligraphy. After the subjects of the initial study, it was ordered to begin the study of geography, astronomy, mathematics, history, moral teaching, "the rules of the civil law", chronology and genealogy. Of the other subjects of study, only by name are mentioned: natural history in practical application, as well as information necessary for the knowledge of man, "arts", antiquity and mythology, physics, all parts of the military, land, equestrian and naval service.
Of the subjects of the aesthetic cycle, the main place has always been given to the theater. Catherine II attached a high educational value to the theater, but this consciousness in her time was only theoretical; in fact, theater remained a well-behaved entertainment in which ballets, operas and dramatic performances played exactly the same role. Catherine II spoke negatively about teaching poetry. This attitude towards poetry and music can be explained by the fact that Catherine II herself was never particularly capable of either music or versification.
Considerable attention in their pedagogical work Catherine II devoted herself to physical education of the younger generation. Under Catherine II "the system of physical education of the French noble youth had a decisive influence." The main goal of bodily education is the strength of the body, accustomed to work and hardship. A special article "About soap and bath", included in the "Instruction", emphasizes the great role of the bath for health. Some passages in the "Tale of Tsarevich Fevey" are devoted to the issues of hardening, where the "reasonable" educators of the baby "did not swaddle, did not wrap up", and when he grew up, they "took him to fresh air in summer and winter at any time when this did not harm his health. ".
Thus, the empress expressed a quite definite conviction in the need to educate not only the spirit and mind, but also the body, which was important in the formation of a “new breed of people” whom she wanted to raise to serve Russia. She, being a person who loves to learn and understands the value of knowledge, in her works has repeatedly pointed out the importance and significance of education, both for a specific individual and for society as a whole. Positive value statements of Catherine II on the problems of education is that they contributed to the complete elimination of the influence of then prevailing harmful prejudices ("We don't need this science ... cabbies will take them").
Proceeding from the main goal in her educational policy - to form a virtuous personality, Catherine II in her pedagogical works emphasizes the need for the educational nature of education, promoting a close connection between mental and moral education. Thus, despite some eclecticism of Catherine II's views on the problems of the content of education and training, we consider their existence to be an important contribution to the development of pedagogical theory and practice of the 18th century.
2.2. Questions of the methodology of education and training in the pedagogical views of Catherine II
It would be a mistake to limit the analysis of the pedagogical views of Catherine II only to questions of the content of education and training. In her works, we also find a lot of interesting thoughts about the methods and techniques of education and training, about the role of teachers and parents in the pedagogical process, that is, everything that is called the technology of the pedagogical process in modern pedagogical terminology.
In the pedagogical works of Catherine II, there is no clear demarcation of various pedagogical concepts... In particular, the forms, methods, means of education and training are not considered separately. This is due to the general level of pedagogical knowledge characteristic of the 18th century. However, the need for scientific knowledge and adequate interpretation of the pedagogical views of Catherine II obliges to consider them from the standpoint of the classification of these concepts adopted in modern pedagogy.
The statements of Catherine II concerning the methods of teaching and upbringing are addressed mainly to the educators of her grandchildren - the future heirs to the throne. This does not mean, however, that these statements of hers do not have general pedagogical meaning and significance, that in matters of upbringing and teaching other categories of children, she adhered to different views. The study of her pedagogical heritage does not give grounds to reproach her with pedagogical classicism. The only exception is her conviction of the need to observe the class principle in educational policy. But this does not apply to the methodological aspects of her pedagogical views.
As a preliminary condition for organizing the educational process, Ekaterina considers it necessary to keep in mind three fundamentally important points:
1) education should be organized so that it covers all aspects of a person, that is, directions educational work should concern all aspects of the personality (moral, civil, mental, physical education);
2) the level of education must be correlated with "depending on ... to whom it is given";
3) the organization of upbringing should proceed from taking into account the age characteristics of the pupils.
The first of these provisions was considered in the previous paragraph in connection with the analysis of the views of Catherine II on the content of education and training. The second carries with it the idea that education should not be the same for representatives of different classes.
The generally progressive nature of the pedagogical views of the Russian empress, which were based on the ideals of the Enlightenment, objectively came into conflict with the realities of Russian reality. This was especially clearly manifested in a question that had an acute social connotation. In the 18th century, the estate and the related inequality of the subjects of the Russian Empire, depending on their origin, constituted the basis of the social system and state policy. Catherine II could not help but reckon with this. Moreover, she accepted these regulations and extended them to the field of education. This is evidenced by her statement: "... we think that any good education should be instituted, depending on the one to whom it is given."
In matters of organizing the learning process, Catherine II assigns an important role to the equipment of the classroom, the mode of work and rest of the child. The duration of each type of activity was determined by her within half an hour, and subject to the goodwill and desire of the pupils themselves for these activities. In her article "On Teaching," she repeatedly mentions that "children, changing physical exercises with exercises of the mind, will spend their time pleasantly, deserving more than that praise."
The question of the educator occupies a special place in the pedagogical works of Catherine II. It is up to the educator to establish such a relationship with the student that will contribute to the success of education and training. The role of the supervisor was not limited to Catherine II's performance of the functions of a source of information. Much attention was paid to character, value orientations. Catherine II as necessary requirements noted the mentor's ability to establish relationships with pupils, the ability to develop the correct approach to students, based on their personal characteristics and relationships with them: pedagogical tact, knowledge of the psychological characteristics of pupils. In the "Instructions for the guards on their behavior with pupils", in the "Instructions", Catherine names the personality traits that educators should possess: caution, abstinence, moderation, tender love for children, common sense, courtesy, goodwill. Their responsibility is that by their behavior they should be an example for the pupils.
The officers who did not meet these requirements were mercilessly removed. In relation to pupils, supervisors must show tolerance, moderation, courtesy, love, goodwill. According to Catherine II, without love, trust and respect for children, the correct and fruitful influence of educators on children is impossible. You can not pay special attention to children's pranks and mistakes inherent in age and do not have strong stereotypes of behavior. But firmness of will, based on fairness, is needed if the situation requires the intervention of a caregiver. Caregivers should recognize the interests and inclinations of the pupils and act in accordance with these observations.
According to Catherine II, there should be no confrontation in the relationship between educators and pupils, moreover, the leadership and management of the actions of children by educators, if possible, should be unnoticed by children. This is possible when their relationship is based on mutual respect, trust in each other, on pedagogical tact.
Thus, having considered the views of Catherine II on the issues of methods of education and training, we can draw the following conclusions. Catherine II, quite in the spirit of the Enlightenment, recommended the use of soft, non-violent methods and techniques in education and training. She believed that it was in this way that a new person could be raised, devoid of the shortcomings of the old era. In the requirements for the educator formed by her, the provisions are highlighted, in essence, defining the concept of "pedagogical tact", which was not previously in pedagogy. It is also important that Catherine II recognized that parents had not only rights to their children, but also responsibilities for their upbringing. She adhered to the concept of early education and consistency in teaching, emphasized the importance of taking into account the age characteristics of children.
So, having examined the sources of formation and the essence of the pedagogical views of Catherine II, we came to the conclusion that, at their core, these views went back to the teachings of European teachers and educators of the 18th century and the previous time. Nevertheless, almost all of these ideas were creatively rethought, adapted and transformed by Catherine II on Russian soil, which is her main merit for Russian pedagogy. The pedagogical views of Catherine II had a pronounced social orientation and were an important tool in her social policy... The Empress strove to lead and direct the development of new processes in Russian society, and for this purpose was largely guided by her pedagogical views.
Catherine II had her own original views on the content of education and training. Central to the pedagogical views of Catherine II were the ideas about the primacy of the moral principle in a person and the need to subordinate the entire process of education to this, the importance of civil and patriotic education in the formation of a “new person”.
Catherine II's understanding of true citizenship is in many ways modern and relevant. Catherine II knew the value of knowledge, more than once pointed out the importance and significance of education, both for a particular individual and for society as a whole.
Catherine II also had original views on the methodology of upbringing and teaching, connected with the social tasks set by her to form a “new man”. To get rid of the shortcomings of the previous era, the new personality had to be "grown" by gentle, non-violent methods. Educational influences and training on the part of educators and teachers should be complemented by intensive self-education throughout a person's life. The call of Catherine II to the responsibility of parents to the state and society for the upbringing of their children is important. This was a manifestation of a departure from the typical Russian "domostroyevskaya" tradition.
2.3. Organization of primary (public) education in Russia
The reign of Catherine II is called the era of "enlightened absolutism." The meaning of "enlightened absolutism" consists in the policy of following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in the implementation of reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions (and sometimes took a step towards bourgeois development) .
The idea of a state with an enlightened monarch, capable of transforming social life on a new, reasonable basis, became widespread in the 18th century. The measures taken by Catherine II regarding public education are among the important results of the activities of the government of "enlightened absolutism". Since Peter I, education in Russia has been of a practical nature - the assimilation of knowledge for the needs of an active service to the state and directly for application in life and everyday life. Throughout her reign, Catherine II showed a passionate interest in enlightenment, firmly believing that it was capable of transforming human nature.
The enlightenment of the people always poses some danger to the autocratic government. It liberates the will and mind of people, strengthens their faith in their own strength. Apparently, Catherine II understood this, but she was not afraid of this, but, on the contrary, in every possible way tried to speed up this process. This idea is clearly expressed by her in one of the letters to the Empress: "I will never be made to fear enlightened peoples, but will the peoples someday be enlightened?" The ending of the quoted statement is especially significant. It contains both regret that the rapid achievement of the results of education is impossible, and at the same time - a passionate desire to speed up this process as much as possible.
When she came to power, primary schools, where they existed, were run mainly by parish priests.
In the cities, ordinary clergymen sometimes took pupils or kept boarding schools as best they could. Sometimes merchants' wives or retired non-commissioned officers did the same. It happened that landowners opened schools on their estates. In some of the palace estates, there were also elementary schools, where peasants were taught to read and write and the basic skills of managing the estates. The traditional teaching of literacy of the Russian people was initially associated with home schooling. Small informal schools have been common in peasant villages for centuries. Children often studied at home, with their fathers and relatives.
Catherine II in her "Order" was the first to talk about the educational value of education and began to take care of the establishment of various educational institutions. To educate Russian society, Catherine considered the best means "to produce first by way of education, so to speak, a new breed or new fathers and mothers," morally perfect. This "breed of people" had to grow up in educational schools under the supervision of experienced teachers, completely disconnected from family and society.
The plans were carried out extremely slowly, the school network was poorly funded and practically did not develop.
So, Catherine II, carried away by the desire to enlighten the people, conceived a whole system of public education, which was supposed to not only teach, but also educate. The transfer of upbringing from family to school was associated with a change in the pedagogical ideal. The gospel ideal, when the Church traditionally took care of orphans and abandoned children, was replaced by the humanistic ideal that originated in Europe during the Renaissance. The idea of making citizens out of cherished children who are useful for the state, and in accordance with the requirements of this state and under its control, the idea, undoubtedly rationalistic in its spirit, could have arisen only in an era favorable for it, in the era of the Enlightenment, which fell on the period of the reign of Catherine II.
It was about the upbringing of virtues, through the upbringing and development of the natural, natural inclinations of a person. And the method of such upbringing consisted in the desire to protect the child from all the influences of the environment, therefore, educational institutions were planned for a closed type. Such an educational school was, first of all, the educational house in Moscow of I.I.Betsky, whichin all his pedagogical plans and designs he was influenced by Western writers and teachers. And after long reflections, he came to the idea of transferring their views to Russian soil:to make a special world out of young children, removing from them all the influence of family and society, to educate them according to the well-known rules, to form, so to speak, a new breed of fathers and mothers. The most important of Betsky's affairs was the establishment of orphanages in Moscow and St. Petersburg, in favor of which he himself made huge donations.
The House rules stated that “all those brought up in this house of both sexes, and their children and descendants, will remain free. Betskoy himself was careful to ensure that children transferred to the villages for upbringing did not fall into serfdom. Education in the Moscow Orphanage was funded by members of the imperial family, nobles.The house made a profit from the taverns, smithies, mills that were rented by him, as well as private houses, breweries, taverns, baths, transportation and a pier on the Moscow River located on its territory. The House's income was not only money. For example, the House was presented with a wonderful history cabinet; from the storerooms of the Kremlin Palace and the Academy of Arts, paintings, sculptures, icons, books were transferred to the museum and library of the Orphanage.
For children brought up in peasant families, the House organized literacy and arithmetic training. If they got sick, they were sent to hospital for treatment at home. Only childless state peasants were allowed to adopt pupils if they had a certificate of good behavior and could keep a pet. The condition was stipulated in advance that if there were children of their own in the family, the adoption should have equal rights with them.
Children returned from the villages to the House for learning crafts, from the age of eight, were given up to the best craftsmen - boys for sixteen, and girls for twelve years. Pupils became gardeners, foresters, paramedics. Those who received technical specialties worked in the capital's factories.
When the founding house in Moscow was founded in 1763, stone buildings were transferred to him, which remained after the fire of the former imperial Sloboda palace in Moscow. Later, they were rebuilt and placed there a six-year vocational school, where they taught various subjects, in particular algebra, trigonometry, practical mechanics, physics, chemistry and drawing. After completing all training and three years of practice, the graduates of the educational house received certificates of learned masters, masters or apprentices. Betskoy's orphanage in Moscow subsequently exerted a tremendous influence on the development of various branches of Russian industry.
In addition to the pupils of the House, who became peasants and craftsmen of enterprises, a group of children with great abilities in sciences and arts stood out. After attending the House, they became home teachers, accountants, or clerks. The brightest children entered universities or the Medical and Surgical Academy to continue their education.
In the House itself, male and female institutes were established for the upbringing and education of orphans of officials and military personnel. Later, the male institute was transformed into the Orphan Cadet Corps, and the female institute - into the Aleksandrovsky. Later, the Alexander building was transformed into the Nikolaev Orphanage Institute. Home tutors were trained here. Graduates received diplomas from Moscow University, as well as home teachers with the right to teach the basics of sciences, languages, arts and teaching in the gymnasium. Graduates of the orphanage who started working continued to receive benefits from him for another six years. The foster home guaranteed its pets care and support throughout their lives. Having lost their job, got sick, or found themselves on the verge of a lonely old age, the former pupils had the right to return to the House, be supported there and have a separate room.
Among the educational institutions created by Betsky, one had special meaning in the history of the Russian school and education - this is the Society of Noble Maidens (Smolny Monastery, or Smolny Institute). It laid the foundation for female secondary education in Russia. The pupils were divided into four ages: 6-9, 9-12, 12-15, 15-18 years old. Dresses of their own color corresponded to each age:brown, blue, grayish and white. Admission to the first grade was carried out every three years. The curriculum included Russian, foreign languages, arithmetic, geography, history, poetry, heraldry, architecture, drawing, music and dance. The girls were also given some knowledge in the field of home economics.
However, the educational institutions created according to Betsky's project covered too few children. But alsothe people, however, did not accept the new educational policy of the state, which provided for "the complete elimination of the clergy from the religious and moral education of the people." Therefore, the children were more willing to go to the Dyachkov and Ponomar schools to study, whereas in the public school they had to resort to the assistance of the police in order to collect the children who had fled from it.
In Catherine's "Instruction" questions of public education are touched upon very briefly. The document simply says that it is necessary, and some general principles of pedagogy are expressed, but not the organization of the education system itself. Catherine admitted that the state was not in a position to give a general education to a large people, in houses specially established for this.
2.4. The first experience of creating in Russia a system of primary education, unrestricted by class barriers
The main merit of Catherine II in the field of educational transformations can be considered the first experience of creating in Russia a system of general primary education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The significance of this reform is very high, because it was about the creation of an all-Russian system of educational schools.But one of the "private" commissions of the Legislative Commission was given the task of developing a plan for the system of public education. Ekaterina sent a special instruction to the members of this "Private Commission on Schools and Charity Requiring" special instructions, in which she indicated that, since home education was entrusted to the attention of another "private" commission, their task was to deal with the system of organizing primary, secondary and higher education, designed to prepare children for the responsibilities future members of society. The instruction provided for the opening of primary schools in cities and villages, in which they would give elementary education, and in particular, teach children to read and write "alternately from church books and from those books that contain legislation."
First of all, the "Private Commission on Schools" was instructed to unite and compare everything related to education in deputy mandates from various estates and institutions. There were few such references, but where they were, a grim picture of the state of affairs with education in the provinces emerged from the pages of the orders. Many of the decrees sounded a warning: the nobles will not be able to serve the state if it does not take care of their education. The nobility complained that the illiterate children of the poor nobility, unable to pay for their sons' education in the capital's schools, were forced to enroll in the army as ordinary soldiers. The townspeople also complained about the lack of schools, but it seems they were not so sure that it was the state that should establish them. Least of all was said about education for peasants, although several local government institutions, several nobles, a bishop and some peasant deputies suggested opening parish schools for peasant children 5-12 years old at least for the winter. The "private" commission began work in May 1768 and applied, for example, English universities, the Prussian education system and the "Irish schools". She also studied various projects of the first Catherine's commission on education. However, by the time the activities of this subcommittee finally died out in 1771, it had not drawn up any document suitable for presentation to the empress as a completed project. But if in ten years the search for a model of the education system did not bear fruit, Catherine made some progress in developing the principles of teaching, and also established several educational institutions and reorganized others, where these principles could be applied in practice.
In the second half of the 18th century, two trends in education can be traced: the expansion of the network of educational institutions and the strengthening of the principle of estate.From the point of view of class concepts and interests of the second half of the 18th century, each class should have had a certain circle general education associated with well-known professional elements, in accordance with the material interests of this class: the education of the peasantry should not have gone beyond the narrow framework of elementary education; philistines and commoners were given mainly lower and secondary education, but access to higher education in some of its branches was not closed either.
Consequently, the system of class education did not presuppose the absolute isolation of the nobility, the middle class and the peasantry. But all the estates were, as it were, distributed according to the individual levels of a single general education. The lower stages were recognized as equally accessible to all classes; at the middle levels there was no longer a place for the peasantry; at the higher levels, the dominant position belonged only to the nobility.
The idea of creating a system of class schools, which belonged to G. N. Teplov, was to divide all educational institutions into "schools for scientists", military schools, civil schools, merchant schools, "lower schools" and "schools for the Gentiles".
As for the organization of education in the countryside, the commission proposed introducing compulsory education for the entire male population from 8 to 12 years old. The study should take place within 8 months of the year according to a specially compiled manual. The church and civil alphabet, some prayers, a short catechism and a statement of the duties of the peasants were recommended for study. At the request of their parents, girls could also study at school.
Deacons and deacons were appointed as teachers, and secular teachers were also admitted. Supervision over the activities of schools was entrusted to priests, and the main administration was given to the bishop together with the governor, in the localities - to nobles elected by the district nobility. In every village and in large villages, a school should be built so that for every 100-250 families there is one school. The construction of the school buildings and the maintenance of the school were attributed to the parishioners.
The lower urban schools were to be organized in approximately the same way. It also provided for compulsory education for girls. Boys should be taught to read and write, and girls only to read. For cities that did not have secondary educational institutions, it was found necessary to establish arithmetic schools. As for the gentiles, the commission found it necessary to set up special schools for sedentary Gentiles, in which teaching would be conducted in a special way, taking into account their customs and beliefs, and where teachers would be exclusively their fellow tribesmen. The projects of the school commission remained unfulfilled.
Apparently, they did not satisfy Catherine II, since none of the projects received implementation.
The proposed system clearly reflected the tendency towards the development of the heterogeneity of the educational ideal of a person, characteristic of Russia after Peter's reforms. For all estates, the goals of education were determined in accordance with their social purpose and position.
In terms of school education, the Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types general education schools- small, medium and major.
In fact, in the lower schools - schools organized by the secular authorities and the church at parishes, in practice it was envisaged to implement the old patriarchal Orthodox approach: would be settled by those versed in Christian law, virtuous and hardworking. Consequently, it should contain the following parts: 1) the Russian alphabet with the warehouses of the church and civil press, moreover, the calculation in letters and numbers; 2) short morning and evening prayers and prayers before lunch; catechism; 4) Christian virtues, consisting in the office of subjects to the sovereign, in unquestioning obedience to state instructions, in reverence and obedience to their masters and other established authorities, and in office to oneself and one's neighbor. "
In 1775, reform activities began. By a decree of November 7, Empress Catherine II approves the "Institutions for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire", where Article 384 for the first time defines the status of public schools: "In the reasoning of public schools, the Order of the Public Aid is to try to ensure that these are established in-1. In all cities, and then in those populous villages, which are under the jurisdiction of the Upper Massacre, for all those who voluntarily wish to study in them (which, however, do not force anyone to do, but leave the parents free to send their children to school, or leave them at home ); 2. So that the have-nots can study without payment, and the have-tos for a moderate fee; 3. Teaching in public schools, for the first time, consists in teaching youth to read and write, to draw, write, arithmetic, and to teach catechism to children of the Greco-Russian confession, to learn the foundations of the Orthodox faith, to interpret the ten commandments of God, to instill a universal moral teaching; .4. in every school, it is necessary to have a watch, so that the upper rooms are clean, and swept out every day, and the air in them changes by opening the windows in summer all day, and in winter every day for a short time, so that the children from the stuffiness in the upper rooms do not suffer damage to their health. Learning to have every day, turning off Sundays and service days, but not more than two hours in the morning, and two hours in the afternoon for some children, one science, on Wednesdays and Saturdays after lunch, rest is given. 6. Corporal punishment is prohibited for teachers. 7. The order of the Public Assistance has diligent care so that teachers and schools receive everything that is certain everywhere regularly, while careless and faulty teachers, upon consideration of complaints, replace and appoint in their place their patronizing and serviceable. "
Thus, it should be noted that public schools are part of the jurisdiction of a secular authority, the Order of Public Charity. A new trend appears in pedagogy, which is characterized by an individual attitude towards each child, his uniqueness, the desire for the all-round development of a person in an atmosphere of respect and self-respect, courtesy.
The formation of the new system of educational institutions was based on the Austrian model. This statute, approved on December 6, 1775, laid out the foundations of the new system. Folk schools were subdivided into elementary and secondary schools, in which, in addition to the initial subjects, Latin was taught, drawing, land surveying, the foundations of agriculture, geography, and history. A new teaching method was introduced in all schools: simultaneous teaching with all students in the classroom and catechesis; some defamatory and unhealthy punishments were expelled from the disciplinary rules. Private teaching had to obey the method adopted in government schools. "Home" teachers were required to take the exam at the teachers' seminary or main school. Each school was run by its own trustee or supervisor, and several schools were run by a head trustee. The main administration of primary public education was concentrated in Vienna in the institution at which the main teachers' seminary was located.
In 1782, Catherine appointed a "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools" headed by Senator P.V. Zavadovsky. In the same year, the Commission proposed a plan for the opening of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions, which was used in the "Charter for public schools of the Russian Empire" (1786). Primary or popular schools have their task to communicate the basic initial knowledge necessary for everyone, as a person and a member of the community. Such schools are called "folk" because they mean the satisfaction of the needs of the people. It was argued that education should begin with an early age. In April 1782, Article 83 of the Charter of the Deanery instructed the city authorities in each part of the city to have a "people's school without money." Public schools were provided for children of both sexes, but the majority of the students - over 90% - were boys.
The insignificant number of female students in public schools was explained by traditions, according to which for women - future mothers and housewives, education seemed to be an unnecessary luxury. However, it was at the end of the 18th century that these stereotypes began to break down.
Fyodor Ivanovich Yankovich de Marievo (1741-1814), a prominent figure in Russian state pedagogy (1741-1814), who worked in Russia in the field of public education for more than 20 years, takes an active part in the work of the commission.
The commission was entrusted with: compiling educational books, composing a plan of public schools and their structure, establishing schools throughout the empire, starting with the Petersburg province, and preparing capable teachers. According to the curriculum developed by Yankovich and adopted by the commission, all public schools were divided into 3 categories: small, with 2 classes, middle, with 3 classes, and main, with 4 classes and 5 years of study. In small schools it was supposed to teach the Law of God, reading, writing, the rudiments of grammar, drawing, arithmetic and read the book: "On the Positions of Man and Citizen." In secondary schools, the first 2 classes were a small school, and in the third, they taught: a lengthy catechism, sacred history, Christian morality, an explanation of the Gospel, arithmetic, grammar, general Russian history and brief geography... In the main schools, geometry, architecture, mechanics, physics, natural history and the German language were added to the listed subjects. The main theoretical foundations were set forth in the "Guide to teachers of the first and second grades of public schools in the Russian Empire" (1783) The guide was drawn up according to the Austrian model and contained the following recommendations: you need to teach everyone collectively, that is, together all at once the same thing. For this, the students need to be divided into classes and not each one should be taught separately, but the whole class. When a student reads or responds, the whole class follows him. Books should be the same for everyone. Cumulative instruction and reading have reformed schooling... Before, each student studied on his own, he was given special tasks, each had different books. Now the teacher learned the lesson with the class, the students read and read themselves, wrote on the blackboard, the students also wrote, when answering, the class carefully followed the answer. Methods for teaching arithmetic were developed, which should have been learned only after mastering reading. It was recommended that the teacher solve an example problem on the blackboard himself, then the best student solves the problem at the blackboard, then all the students solve the problem. A teacher must possess a number of virtues: to be peaceful, to be decent, to have constant vigor of spirit and body, to be patient and attentive, to be fair. Corporal punishment is prohibited, punishment in the form of deprivation of pleasant things is allowed. A new trend appears in pedagogy, which is characterized by an individual attitude towards each child, his uniqueness, the desire for the all-round development of a person in an atmosphere of respect and self-respect, courtesy.
But this system was used in a limited way, since there were no teaching staff. The training of teaching staff was entrusted to the main schools. The teachers' seminary has trained a total of 420 teachers who have worked in various educational institutions. Often they were poorly prepared and, as a result, invited foreigners. Unfortunately, foreigners have had an impact not only in the sense of bringing the accumulated in Europe scientific knowledge, but also on the spiritual life of Russians. Their impact on cultural development Russia has acquired a negative character.
2.5. Expansion of public schools
During the reign of Catherine II, especially since the formation of the Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools in 1782, many cities were provided with schools. In the provincial cities, the so-called main four-year public schools were created, and in the county towns, small two-year schools. In the villages, however, only in the first half of this century began to organize public schools, and primarily in the villages of state peasants, through the efforts of the Ministry of State Property.
In the Manifesto on the granting of liberty to the Russian nobility, Catherine II wrote about the state's hopes for the spread of education among the younger generation of the nobility.
The commission studied the state of affairs in the class schools and came to the need for reforms. In addition to noblewomen, the first female educational institution in Russia began to accept "bourgeois girls."
A gymnasium and a Noble boarding school were opened for male noble children. The most talented graduates of the Corps of Pages were sent to continue their studies abroad. But Catherine II was disappointed in this practice: the pupils of the prestigious corps were recruited abroad for freedom-loving Western ideas.
The result of the Commission's work in relation to privileged estate schools was a number of proposals for organizing the educational process. These recommendations formed the basis of the principles of teaching in educational institutions Russia. First, in accordance with the common European experience, it was proposed to overcome multidisciplinary subjects in educational programs. Secondly, teachers were given guidelines combine lecture forms of work with a survey of students in order to find out the quality of the study of the material. Thirdly, more or less permanent learning programs by years of study, introduced a system of general and private examinations. Finally, class schedules appeared in educational institutions, and the duration of a lesson was clearly defined in accordance with the age-specific psychological characteristics of students.
It was at the end of the 18th century that a rather harmonious structure of schools of an all-estate folk character arose. In addition to these schools, educational institutions of an elite nature, various in form and purpose, were opened, which made it possible to realize the intellectual needs and social needs of the nobility. The presence of such schools increased the interest in education, the acquisition of which became prestigious. The public schools were subordinate to the Governing Senate; P.V. Zavadovsky was appointed their chief director. The general management of public education in the provinces was entrusted to the Orders of public charity, the direct management of the spread of education and the opening of schools in the provinces was entrusted to the directors of public schools. The directors had to monitor the selection of personnel, regularly visit the district schools - each at least once a year. In the county towns, rangers were elected to oversee the schools. The schools were to be supported by local funds of urban societies, interest from the capital of Public Charity Orders and other non-state sources of income. The almost complete absence of its own scientific and teaching staff objectively forced Russia to use foreign specialists. Unfortunately, foreigners influenced not only in the sense of bringing in the scientific knowledge accumulated in Europe, but also on the spiritual life of Russians. Their impact on the cultural development of Russia has become negative. In organizing general education institutions, advanced foreign experience was used, but not copied, but flexibly adapted. Gradually, an attitude towards education as the most important tool for the upbringing of the younger generation was formed. All educational institutions, in addition to general educational tasks, were obliged to solve the tasks of instilling patriotism in the spirit of devotion to the Tsar and service to the Fatherland.
Thus, the success of the reform was undeniable. If in 1782 there were only 8 public schools in the country with 518 students, then at the end of the century there were 288 schools with 22,220 students. The main public schools, opened in 25 provincial cities, small schools, along with class schools, a university and gymnasiums, constituted the education system in Russia at the end of the 18th century. In total, there were 550 educational institutions in the country with 60-70 thousand students.
Already in 1786, in accordance with the Charter of public schools adopted on August 5, 1786, in each provincial city, the main four-year schools with a five-year course of study began to be created. They were similar in type to high school, in county towns - small two-year students. The director was one of the authors of the project of the system of public schools, teacher F.I.Yankovich de Mirievo.
The charter prescribed the rules for students of public schools, guidance for teachers of the first and second categories of public schools in the Russian Empire.
On the classes of the main public schools.
1. In each provincial city there should have been one main four-year public school, where young men should be taught the following subjects:
2. In the first grade, teach reading, writing, the initial foundations of Christian law and good manners. Starting with the knowledge of letters, teach to fold and then read the primer, rules for students, an abbreviated catechism and sacred history. Students, in this way, are forced to read at the onset of the second half of the first year, to write with words, to pronounce and write numbers, church and Roman numbers and, moreover, to teach them the initial rules of grammar contained in the table on the knowledge of letters, which is in the book under the title: "Guide to teachers I and II classes ".
3. The books by which the youth of the above-mentioned subjects of this class are to be taught are the following, published by order of E. and. in .: 1) an alphabet table, 2) a table for warehouses, 3) a Russian primer, 4) rules for students, 5) an abbreviated catechism, 6) sacred history, 7) copybooks, and 8) a manual for calligraphy.
4. In the second grade, or category, observing the same subjects of Christian law and good-naturedness, begin to read a lengthy catechism without proof from scripture, a book about the positions of a person and a citizen and the first part of arithmetic; repeat sacred history, continue calligraphy and teach grammar rules. In this category, also begin to teach youth and drawing.
5. The books by which to teach young people in this class are the following, published by the highest order of Catherine II: 1) a lengthy catechism, 2) sacred history, 3) a book about the positions of a person and a citizen, 4) a handwriting guide, 5) copybooks and 6) the first part of arithmetic.
6. In the third grade, drawing should continue, the reading of the explanations of the gospels, the repetition of a lengthy catechism with the proof of scripture, the teaching of the second part of arithmetic and the first part of general history, an introduction to general European geography, and then the land writing begins. Of the Russian state and Russian grammar with spelling exercises.
7. The books by which to teach in this category are the following, published by the highest order of Catherine II: 1) a lengthy catechism, 2) explanations of the gospels, 3) the second part of arithmetic, 4) the history of the general first part, 5) general and Russian geography states, 6) general drawings of the globe, Europe, Asia, Africa, America and the Russian state, 7) the globe or globe, 8) Russian grammar.
8. In the IV category, repeat Russian geography, continue drawing, general history, Russian grammar, while exercising the youth in common works written in the hostel, such as in letters, bills, receipts and the like. Teach Russian history, general geography and mathematics with problems on the globe; also foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture; assuming from the mathematical sciences in the first year geometry and architecture, and in the second - mechanics and physics with the continuation of architecture.
9. Books by which young people should be taught in this class: the essence of the following, published by the highest order of Catherine II, such as: 1) Russian grammar, 2) Russian geography, 3) general geography, which is an introduction to the knowledge of the mathematical world , 4) Russian history, 5) general history of the second part, 6) general drawings of the globe, Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Russia, 7) globe or globe, 8) geometry, 9) architecture, 10) mechanics, 11 ) physics, 12) outline of natural history.
For the first time in schools, unified curricula, classroom-lesson system were introduced, teaching methods were developed. Continuity in learning was achieved by community curricula small schools and the first two grades of main schools.
In the small public school, the same subjects were to be taught as in the 1st - 2nd grades of the main public school (with the exception of foreign languages).
Attention was also paid to the attitude of teachers to teaching. In particular, it was indicated "... the order of the public charity to have diligent care so that teachers and schools receive everything that is definite everywhere regularly, careless and faulty teachers, upon consideration of complaints, should be replaced and replaced in their place by their cheerful and serviceable ...".
The main public school was supposed to have 6 teachers, and the small one - 2 teachers. Teachers had to do their best to make students understand their subject; use the books specified in the charter; to set an example of courtesy, kindness, friendliness, piety by their behavior; help each other with deeds, advice; showed each other the respect they owe to their students. The directors of public schools were chosen and appointed by the governor general. The director had to love science, order, know the price of education. He sat in the Order of the Public Charity on matters related to schools. The director observed that those working in the school knew the way of teaching and learning, especially in grades 1 and 2. The director must inspect the public schools in the provincial town once a week, and the district schools once a year. In the district schools, a superintendent was elected from the citizens of the city. All folk and home schools depended on the Main Government of the schools in the Russian Empire, which was directly under the authority of Her Imperial Majesty and reported on school affairs to the Empress herself.
The introductory part of the Charter of public schools substantiated the role of education as "the main support for the general welfare of the state." On the "support" of the state treasury annually spent from 600 to 800 thousand rubles, which amounted to only 1.3 - 1.6% of the total expenditures of the empire, each student cost the budget 38 - 48 rubles.
Public schools were provided for children of both sexes, but the majority were boys. However, by the middle of the next century, the situation with female education had changed, especially in the cities. In the same period, another tradition began to collapse: in small and main public schools, children of serfs studied along with children of free estates. According to A. N. Ryzhov, the share of serfs in public schools was about 50%, and in some regions, for example, in the Moscow province - 70%.
Peasant children studied in parish schools, and on the initiative of some enlightened landowners, special primary schools were created.
schools for teaching children of serfs and courtyards.
Having emerged in the era of Catherine, the idea of non-class education was not perceived by various categories of Russian society. Most likely, this was impossible in the conditions of the formation and development of estate self-government in 1785.
So, public schools, which began to be created in the provinces since 1786, differed from traditional forms of education not only in the set of subjects, but also in the possibility of simultaneous, fast and high-quality teaching of large groups of students on the basis of the classroom-lesson system, which was first introduced into Russian pedagogical practice. ... This required efforts and expenditures on the part of the state, not only for preparation professional teachers, but also on the creation of uniform textbooks and teaching aids.
Gradually, an attitude towards education as the most important tool for the upbringing of the younger generation was formed.
All educational institutions, in addition to general educational tasks, were obliged to solve the tasks of instilling patriotism in the spirit of devotion to the Tsar and service to the Fatherland.
Output
Based on the work done, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Among the main factors that determine the social and moral - oriented orientation, can be attributed to the desire of Catherine II - to educate the nation, which she was supposed to rule. Catherine II knew that it would take a long time to wait for the results, but she hoped that they would be.
2. Analysis of pedagogical writings, reforms, laws, acts adopted during the reign of Catherine II were aimed at creating a “new breed of people”. The main goal is to educate a spiritual and moral person who can apply the knowledge gained in life. Special attention it was necessary to pay attention to the individual abilities of children in order to continue the development of these abilities in the future.
3. On the proposal of the Commission on the establishment of public schools, a law was adopted in the Russian Empire to provide all the people of the country, including serfs, with the entire spectrum of education: from primary to higher education. Education was supposed to be wordless and free.
4. Problems, organization of primary educationwere associated with funding, parenting mentality, a lack of teaching staff, and children's unwillingness to learn.
The hypothesis of my work was basically confirmed. It can be argued that the pedagogical views of CatherineII, the problems of organizing primary education had a social orientation, were morally oriented, imbued with the idea of the priority of education over teaching, which is still relevant today.
Conclusion
Thus, in this work, the views of Catherine II on the problems of organizing primary (public) education in Russia were studied.
Such schools are called "folk" because they mean the satisfaction of the needs of the people.Primary school acquired a truly massive national character and was the basis for the spread of not only literacy, but also the gradual involvement in civil, socio-cultural and political life of various segments of the population.
The school reform of 1780 was the first attempt to create a state system of public education. The basis new school the principles of all-class and free education were laid.
The educational reform as a whole has achieved its goals. Local reasons, such as distrust of the population or even aggressively negative attitude of the population towards the government's attempt to centrally, forcibly educate their children, interfered. The major failure of the reform was caused by the lack of funds in the provinces. The public contribution to the development of the public education system was uneven and largely depended on the position of local governors.
Subsequently, however, the funding of the school was entirely entrusted to the urban community. A fee was collected from wealthy parents, which was to be used to educate the “have-nots”, and the “poor” philistine children had to study free of charge. In addition, an additional amount for school needs was allocated from city revenues. The school kept income and expense books, which were regularly checked, and then were to be stored in its archives.
Society did not extend its care to the education of serf children, but took care of the education of girls. Many nobles did not want to send their children to public schools, where they studied everything, without division into estates. This served as an incentive for the development of private education; more and more private boarding houses were opening in Russia.
If the nobility and the most enlightened part of the city dwellers made rather generous donations to schools, then the majority of the merchants and middle class considered the teaching of classical languages and literature to be completely useless. The main reason for the reluctance to teach their children was that the townspeople did not fully realize the practical value of public education. There was an acute shortage of trained teachers and officials.
By the end of the 18th century, historical conditions for the formation of a state system of public education as a phenomenon of world culture with pronounced features of national identity had developed in Russia.
Attempts were made to educate non-Russian peoples. In the mid-1980s, Catherine II ordered the creation of dictionaries of small Russian ethnic groups. These plans were not fully implemented, but were aimed at strengthening a single autocratic, centralized state on a multinational basis, taking into account the diversity of religious conditions in different regions.
As an empress, ruler of a huge state, Catherine could not help but correlate her pedagogical views with the needs and requirements of the state. Therefore, her pedagogical views, in contrast to practicing teachers, found a direct continuation in the state educational policy.
Thus, the goal of our work has been achieved, the tasks have been solved, the conditions put forward in the hypothesis have been confirmed.
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As in previous centuries, the main subject, the main active creative element in the field of culture, were representatives of the ruling class of the nobility. Crushed by exploitation, the downtrodden and ignorant peasantry had neither the means, nor the strength, nor the time, nor the conditions for obtaining an education, for activities in the field of science, literature, and art. Therefore, it is quite understandable that here we will talk about achievements, mainly in the field of noble culture.
At the same time, the needs and consequences of the country's socio-economic development were confronted with science, education, socio-political thought, etc. tasks that went beyond the needs of the nobility. This introduced in the 18th century to active activity in some areas of culture immigrants from the urban bourgeoisie, merchants, white clergy, state and economic peasants. Since the time of Peter I, education in Russia has acquired an increasingly clear secular character, an ever more definite practical orientation. At the same time, the traditional form of "teaching to read and write" was still the most widespread and ubiquitous. It is about teaching the reading of the Book of Hours and the Psalter by clerks and other clergymen.
2.1 Educational reform of Catherine II
The period of the highest development of schooling in Russia in the 18th century. it turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). Catherine showed a special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment were of particular interest to the Russian empress. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the "University Plan for Russia". The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. Nobility preferred to study secular manners, enjoy the theater and other arts. Notable successes were made by special military educational institutions - the Land and Sea Cadet Corps. The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the estate principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. For example, in Russia in the 18th century, the works of Jan Amos Komensky, Fenelon, "Thoughts on education" by Locke were well known. Hence, a new formulation of the school's tasks: not only to teach, but also to educate. The humanitarian ideal that arose in the Renaissance was taken as a basis: it proceeded "from respect for the rights and freedom of the individual" and eliminated "from pedagogy everything that bears the character of violence or coercion" (PN Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required maximum isolation of children from the family and handing them over to the teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was again shifted from parenting to teaching. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was planned to establish three types of general education schools - small, middle and main. They taught general education subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, the rudiments of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. In the main - a detailed course of geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises on business letter, foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture. The class-lesson system of Comenius was introduced, attempts were made to use visualization, in the senior grades it was even recommended to induce independent thought work in students. But basically didactics came down to memorizing texts from a textbook. The teacher's relationship with the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited. In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, the state-owned "Foundling Home for Foundlings and Homeless Children" was opened - the first Moscow specialized institution for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The empress herself donated 100 thousand rubles to the foundation of the building and allocated 50 thousand annual receipts from her funds, urging her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who strove through closed educational institutions to create a "new breed of people" - educated and hardworking.
Ekaterina carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. For example, in Russia in the 18th century, the works of Jan Amos Comenius, Fenelon, and Locke's Thoughts on Education were well known. Hence, by the way, a new formulation of the tasks of the school: not only to teach, but also to educate. The humanitarian ideal originated in the Renaissance was taken as a basis: it proceeded "from respect for the rights and freedom of the individual" and eliminated "from pedagogy everything that bears the character of violence or coercion" (PN Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required maximum isolation of children from the family and handing them over to the teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was again shifted from parenting to teaching.
The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was planned to establish three types of general education schools - small, middle and main. They taught general education subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, the rudiments of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history and a brief geography of Russia were added, and in the main - a detailed course of geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture. The class-lesson system of Comenius was introduced, attempts were made to use visualization, in the senior grades it was even recommended to induce independent thought work in students. But basically didactics came down to memorizing texts from a textbook. The teacher's relationship with students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited.
For the system of general education schools, it was necessary to prepare teachers. For this purpose, in 1783, the Main Public School was opened in St. Petersburg, from which, three years later, the teacher's seminary, the prototype of the pedagogical institute, was separated.
Catherine II, following the Austrian model, carried out a pedagogical reform. In the 1780s, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systemic development of women's education began, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics room, an anatomical theater were founded, Botanical Garden, tool shops, printing house, library, archive. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.
Moscow Orphanage
In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. The Widows Treasury was created to help widows.
Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.
New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.
Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens - the first women's educational institution in Russia, which laid the foundation for women's education. Founded on the initiative of I. I. Betsky in accordance with the decree of Catherine II in 1764 in St. Petersburg, at the Resurrection Smolny Novodevichy Convent (designed by Rastrelli), under the name "Educational Society for Noble Maidens."
The institute accepted the daughters of the nobility and prepared them for court and social life. The program included teaching literature, history, geography, foreign languages, music, dancing, drawing, secular manners, etc. The teaching lasted 12 years and was divided into four ages of 3 years each.
Pupils were required to wear special uniforms of a certain color: at a young age - coffee, in the second - blue, at the third - gray and at an older age - white. Upon graduation, the six best graduates received a "code" - a gold monogram in the form of the empress's initial, which was worn on a white bow with gold stripes.
Catherine II made a significant contribution to the development of culture and art in Russia. She herself received an excellent education at home: teaching foreign languages, dancing, political history, philosophy, economics, law and was considered an intelligent and educated woman. Under Catherine, the Russian Academy, the Free Economic Society were created, many magazines were founded, a system of public education, the founding of the Hermitage, the opening of public theaters, the emergence of Russian opera, the flourishing of painting were created.
A number of events of the era of "enlightened absolutism" were of progressive importance. For example, Moscow University, founded on the initiative of Shuvalov and Lomonosov in 1755, played a huge role in the development of education, Russian national science and culture, having graduated a large number of specialists in various fields of knowledge. In 1757. The Academy of Arts began training. The popularization of church land tenure significantly improved the position of the former monastic peasants, who received arable land, meadows and other land, on which they had previously served corvee, saved them from everyday punishment and torture, from service in the courtyard and forced marriages.
In the second half of the century, the authorities made an interesting attempt at reforming education and upbringing. Its initiator and active guide was Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy. The accession of Catherine II, whose mother was once introduced to Betsky, brought him enormous wealth and leadership over a number of institutions - the Academy of Arts, the Land Gentry Cadet Corps and educational homes in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute.
Betskoy based his pedagogical reform on the idea of creating a new breed of people through education. According to his thought, borrowed from the French enlighteners and supported by the empress, to give youth a good education and moral development. For this, students need to be isolated from the inert environment and placed in closed schools. These efforts by Betsky contributed to the spread of general education. He also laid the foundation for women's education.
During the reign of Catherine II, such masters of the pen as Vasily Lukich Borovikovsky, who gained fame for portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, many nobles, were created, Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, in the 60s, an academician, taught at the Academy of Arts, Fedor Stepanovich Rokotov, who worked together with Lomonosov, painted a coronation portrait of Catherine II, which she really liked.
Conclusion
Historical meaning the activities of Catherine II is determined on the basis of what was said in the abstract about certain aspects of Catherine's policy. The historical significance of the Catherine's era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of the previous history were summed up, the historical processes that had developed earlier were completed. This ability of Catherine to bring to the end, to full resolution, the questions that history posed to her, makes everyone recognize her as a paramount historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses.
Catherine's ability to summarize is visible in Russian diplomacy in the era of Catherine and in solving the main tasks inherited by her from the 17th century; consolidation of the achievements of Peter the Great in the Baltic States; reunification of lands inhabited by Belarusians and Ukrainians who are related to the Russian people. Winning a decisive voice in European affairs.
From the fact that at the end of the 18th century the policy of Russian absolutism was aimed at preserving and strengthening the feudal-serf system, the dominant position of the nobles in the economy and political life, Catherine II, having ascended the throne in a period of exacerbation of the class struggle of the peasantry against serfdom, tries to involve enlightened people recognized by the Western world in the analysis of problems and the search for ways out of them. This is clearly seen from the attempts to attract them to one of the major actions of the policy of "enlightened absolutism", namely to a competition for the right of peasants to own land.
With the death of Empress Catherine, a whole epoch of Russian history ended. Catherine herself and her associates were able, relying on the forces of the people, to achieve brilliant success in foreign policy, military actions, and in the internal structure, and in cultural endeavors.
Reforms of Catherine II (briefly)
Catherine II, like most monarchs who ruled at least some significant time, strove to carry out reforms. Moreover, Russia got to her in a difficult situation: the army and the navy were weakened, a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc. Next, we will briefly describe the essence of the transformations carried out during the reign of Empress Catherine II.
Provincial reform:
"The institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the previous administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, they began to divide territories into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called the governor. Each province was headed by a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury was subordinate to him. The highest official of the county was the police captain. The centers of the counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.
Judicial reform:
For each estate, its own court was established. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople by magistrates, and the peasants by reprisals. Also, conscientious courts were established from representatives of all three estates, which served as a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elective. The higher authority was the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.
Secularization reform:
It was held in 1764. All the monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.
Senate reform:
On December 15, 1763, the manifesto of Catherine II was published "On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Yustits-, Votchinnaya and Revision-collegiums, on the division of cases according to these". The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Attorney General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.
Urban reform:
The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elected institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as services to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild craftsmen; foreign and nonresident guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; Posad people - those who were engaged in handicrafts and crafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.
Police reform:
In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to him, the department of the deanery became the organ of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and chief of police, as well as townspeople, determined by elections. The court for social violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized development and bribes were carried out by the police themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was referred to the court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, reprimand, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and, in addition, the prohibition of certain activities.
Education reform
The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of comprehensive schools in Russia. They were of two types: main schools in provincial cities and small ones in county ones. These educational institutions were supported at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study there. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) - a commercial school.
Monetary reform
During the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the loan office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.
Faculty of History of World Culture
ESSAY
In the discipline "History of Russian Culture"
on the topic: EDUCATION IN THE EPOCH OF CATHERINE II
Performed
4th year student
Correspondence department
Checked:
St. Petersburg
Introduction .. 3
1. General characteristics of education in Russia before the 18th century .. 5
2. Explicit and hidden paradoxes of the enlightened Catherine's age 7
3. Analysis of the practice of Russian secular education. 11
Conclusion .. 18
The first state decision on the creation of schools in Russia belonged to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich: “... began to put churches and priests and people for baptism on the city and lead them in all cities and villages. Sending the beginning of the children to the deliberate children and giving the beginning to the book teaching ”.
Since the term school came to Russia much later in the XIV century, schools of "book teaching" in schools specially organized in cities at the prince's courts and temples became quite widespread already in the X century.
The development of true enlightenment in Russia is attributed by many researchers to the 16th century. The need for education and a low level of education were stated even in Stoglav: “... why they do not know how to read and write, and they fix the answer: we are learning from our fathers, or from our masters, but we have nowhere to learn from anywhere; how much our fathers and masters can, that is why they teach us, but their fathers and their masters, we ourselves can only do little ... but they have nowhere to learn ”.
The handicraft way of transferring knowledge did not satisfy the growing needs of the Russian state, negatively reflected on material wealth, aggravated the lag in economic development in comparison with the countries of the West and the East.
Russian enlightenment in the 16th - 17th centuries was of a local nature. Clause 6 of the "Privileges of the Moscow Academy" read: "We believe the Tsar's decree without tampering; no one else is here in the reigning city of Moscow and in our other powers. languages without the knowledge and permission of the schools of the guardians and teachers of the house teachers do not keep and do not teach their children, but in this one common school they learn, even from different house teachers, even more from foreign and non-believers, contrary to what the faith of our Orthodox there is no controversy and no disagreement. " Nevertheless, at the level of ideas, it is possible to talk about the gradual formation of new ideas about the Orthodox ideal of a person and about changes for the purpose of education and upbringing.
Following ancient traditions, the boyars prepared their children to manage the family estate, peasants to work on the land, and artisans to engage in their profession. The volume and content of children's education were dictated by these very circumstances. General, relatively similar, was that part of the preparation for life, which can be conditionally called moral education in the spirit of Orthodoxy.
Orthodox scholarship was limited to religious and religious-moral knowledge. The ability to read, write and count were only the means necessary for familiarizing with Orthodox spiritual culture as such. Rhetoric skills belonged to the category of special ones, necessary only for the ministers of the church.
Schools were the conductors of the Orthodox faith and morality, but there is no need to talk about the emergence of the education system during this period. Perhaps, such training did not pursue other than the goals of moral education in the spirit of Orthodoxy. In any case, such an assumption is possible, since at the end of the monastery school, the highest for that time, the child no longer received any opportunity to continue his education.
It is important that in the 17th century the circle of people who became available to education expanded significantly. Let nominally, but the right to enter the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy had both natives of the noble estates, and children of parents of clergy, and simply free Orthodox Christians.
The dynamics of the creation of state special educational institutions in the Peter's era was very high: in 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, the Engineering and Artillery School, the Moscow "multilingual" school - the school of translators were established; in 1704 a school of translators was opened in St. Petersburg; in 1707 - a military medical school; in 1712 - School of Engineering for noble children; in 1714, a decree was issued on the establishment of digital schools in cities for children of the lower classes and ranks everywhere; in 1719, the Engineering and Artillery Schools were opened in St. Petersburg, admiralty schools for children of lower naval ranks, similar in status and content of education to urban digital schools.
Thus, the Russian school made a kind of leap from an Orthodox school of “book teaching,” which actually did not meet the requirements of the time for a long time, to a special state school characteristic of Europe during the modern period.
2. Explicit and hidden paradoxes of the enlightened Catherine's age
The structure of Russian society in Catherine's era was characterized by tough social barriers between classes, estates and groups.
In the 18th century, there was a large-scale expansion of value attitudes that penetrated from Western Europe, which was actively promoted by both the ideology and the policy pursued by the Russian state.
The educational policy of Catherine, like Peter I, was based on the Russian interpretation social development, according to which the will of the autocrat dictates the laws of being.
The sphere of education was privatized by the state, the authorities, declared the sphere of state interests, therefore any public initiatives in it are permissible only with the knowledge, permission and control of the authorities. Education was elevated to the rank of a creator, not limited by the laws of social and cultural life; education was seen as a powerful means of forming a given type of personality, transforming society. State pedagogy was guided by the interests of society, there was no place in it for a person and his personal qualities. Moreover, in Russian society, where all relations ran along the "state-subject" axis, education could not but be placed at the service of the state.
Since the 18th century, the sphere of education and pedagogical thought of the Russian Empire were guided mainly by the experience of European countries (England, France, Austria, Germany), their philosophy and pedagogy, but also culture. It was mainly uncritical borrowing, unconditional transfer of social and cultural, up to everyday life, experience. European countries to educational institutions and educational system Russia. The scale of borrowing in the 60s of the 18th century was characterized by Kapterev: “Every Russian teacher dragged from a German everything he liked. Not only private techniques and methods of teaching were borrowed, not only general guiding ideas and whole pedagogical world outlook were borrowed, even people, who carried out the principles of German pedagogy, were borrowed. The Ministry of Education under Minister Tolstoy registered Germans and Czechs as teachers of Russian gymnasiums and even as inspectors and directors, although these foreigners did not know how to speak Russian; the Germans opened a Russian seminary to train teachers for Russian secondary educational institutions; various plans, programs and systems that were supposed to be introduced into Russian schools were sent for review and approval by foreign scientists and teachers. It was impossible to go further than such subservience to foreign countries, obviously, a reaction should have come. "
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