IN early XIX in. the territory, now called the FRG, was a motley conglomerate of German states - small, smallest and very tiny (the territory of some did not represent a single whole, but was interspersed with separate pieces in the territory of larger neighbors).

Paraphrasing the famous words of Danton, the Germans sarcastically that "the land of these dwarf states can be carried away on the soles of their boots."

The abolition of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation by Napoleon in 1806, and then the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. led to the initial processes of secularization and mediatization, i.e., the elimination of church state entities and the merger of the smallest states into a single whole. By the middle of the XIX century. out of more than 300 states, only 38 remained that entered the German Confederation. It included 34 states (kingdoms, principalities, duchies) and 4 "free cities" (Hamburg, Frankfurt, Bremen, Lubeck).

During this period, the question of the need for further economic and political consolidation arises before the German states. First of all, the need for unification was dictated by the growing power of German capitalism, the normal development of which was hampered by numerous customs barriers at the borders of states (contemporaries wrote that there are more customs barriers on German roads than telegraph poles). Customs barriers (partially eliminated in 1834 by the creation of the Customs Union), as well as the lack of a single common German citizenship, hindered the migration of free labor, the market for which was very extensive. A paradoxical situation arose when it was easier for the Germans to travel to the New World than to the neighboring German principality or kingdom.

The lack of land and landlessness of the German peasantry, the authoritarian political regime established in many German states, contributed to a very intensive migration process. As a result, millions of Germans ended up in the United States, Africa and Russia - to this day, the Federal Republic of Germany adheres to the so-called. "Principle of blood" - wherever a German lives, he has all the rights to the earliest possible acquisition of German citizenship.

In the first half of the 19th century. the fragmentation of Germany did not contribute to the consolidation of the German working class, the growth of its self-consciousness and political activity, therefore the revolution of 1848 in Germany was reduced to such insignificant results.

In order for the state to have authority on international scene, it should act like integral system, also a certain weight to the state is given by a single army, navy, representative institutions, monetary unit, etc. The German states did not have all of the above, but there was a so-called Allied Seim - an all-German advisory body. It must be admitted that his decisions were ignored even by the smallest German states, if they affected their interests. German merchants abroad had a hard time, especially in troubled regions of the world. So, American, English and French merchants could hope in case of offense to defend their rights by ambassadors, consuls, and even warships. Meanwhile, the German merchant relied only on himself and on God.

Intra-German trade was also a risky business - the diversity of law, the inconsistency of measures, weights, monetary units, customs barriers did not contribute to its development. It should also be noted that political regimes in most German states were of a pronounced reactionary character - the constitutions adopted in a number of German states did not significantly affect the semi-absolutist monarchy. The monarchs proposed to rely not on the bourgeoisie, but on the landowners - the cadets, therefore the process of the so-called. The "initial accumulation of capital" (a necessary condition for the normal development of capitalism) was very difficult. There are hardly more than a dozen large industrial enterprises that existed in Germany during this period.

Progressive-minded Germans were well aware that the preservation of such a position in German capital and economy is fraught with an ever greater lag behind their European neighbors (and from Russia), therefore, questions about the need to unite the country began to be raised in the early 40s. XIX century.

The famous appeal of the communists "Workers of all countries, unite!" attributed primarily to the German workers, divided citizens. Back in 1848, K. Marx in his work "Demands of the Communist Party in Germany" formulated the ultimate goal of the struggle for unification - "All Germany is declared a single, indivisible republic." Until the end of his life, K. Marx continued to wait for a revolution in Germany and saw no other way to genuine unification, except as a revolutionary one.

A new stage in the struggle for the unification of Germany was associated with the increase in the power of Prussia, which claimed to be the unifier of the country. Prussian army in the middle of the 19th century was one of the most disciplined and numerous armies in Europe. In 1850, the military reform, which made it possible to deploy a large army in case of war at the expense of trained reservists (reduced service life for soldiers and officers, universal conscription).

Since 1834, when under the auspices of Prussia was created Customs Union of the 18 German states (excluding Austria), the antagonism between the two leading German powers begins to build up and eventually leads to war.

Meanwhile, there were also opponents of the unification of Germany. First of all, these are the German princes themselves (especially in Catholic southern Germany), who were afraid in the event of unification to lose serious monarchical privileges. Then we should mention the reactionary nobility, who continued to consider themselves Austrians, Prussians, Saxons, and not a single German nation.

It must be remembered that the unification of Germany was never a purely internal German affair. Due to its central European position, this territory has been the object of the most close attention of the powerful European neighbors - France, England and Russia. None of the above powers was interested in creating a unified German state - “divide et impera” - a slogan that has not lost its relevance today, and even more so in the 19th century.

Meanwhile, the opposition of the European powers could have become fatal if not for the policy of the greatest statesman Germany - Otto von Bismarck.

Bismarck was able to play on the interstate contradictions of England, France and Russia and create literally under their noses a world power, which twice during the XX century. launched the largest and bloodiest wars in history (which hit England, France and Russia in the first place).

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) was born into the family of a Prussian landowner and was not known as a politician until the age of 33. He appeared on the political arena during the German uprising of 1848. His debut was not very successful - an ardent counterrevolutionary who tried to defend the monarchy ("Prussian Vendee"). He gained such scandalous fame that King Frederick William IV was afraid to approach him at receptions in the palace, so as not to be considered a reactionary. However, the monarch noticed such a bright personality and wrote in his diary about Bismarck: "An ardent reactionary, can be used later and with unlimited domination of bayonets."

After the revolution of 1848, Bismarck carried out many assignments of the king - either as a deputy of the Prussian Landtag (pseudo-parliament), then as an envoy of Prussia in the Allied Diet, and then in the diplomatic field in St. Petersburg and Paris. One of the few Prussian leaders who knew the Russian language and was even awarded the Russian Order of A. Nevsky, Bismarck remembered the vast expanses of Russia and the character of its people for his whole life (he was a supporter of preserving eternal friendship with our country, realizing that it was impossible to defeat it).

In the period from 1851 to 1862. Bismarck is emerging as the greatest diplomat and politician of his time. While still an envoy to the Union Diet, he realized that Germany should become a single state, and the process of unification should be led by the monarch and the nobility, forcing the German bourgeoisie to dutifully follow.

He began to implement his plan of unification in the 50s. XIX century, initially in the diplomatic sphere. In 1862 Bismarck was appointed Minister-President of Prussia. In one of his first speeches as head of government, he formulated before the Landtag the basic principles of his future politics: “Prussia has too heavy weapons that should serve something. The great questions of the time are decided not by speeches and decisions of the majority, but by iron and blood. Germany looks not at Prussia's liberalism, but at its power, and this power should be demonstrated to the whole of Europe, showing that Prussia has ceased to be the fifth wheel in the European chariot. The power of the Prussian war machine should also be demonstrated by its own liberal bourgeoisie, which forgets who is the boss. "

During this period, the Prussian army is trained and armed according to last word military equipment(modern weapon etc.). She had to show the people that it was not in vain that she was kept:

1) a good opportunity to demonstrate this power presented itself - the reason for the first war was the aggravation of relations with Denmark due to two duchies, mainly inhabited by Germans;

2) soon the Prussian troops won a victory with the support of Austria and captured Schleswig and Holstein. In 1866, Prussia opposed Austria and defeated her. As a result, Austria recognized the right of Prussia to create the North German Confederation;

3) subsequently, Prussia carried out military operations against France, which was defeated and was forced to conclude peace.

By 1871, the unification of Germany was completed (see diagram 18). On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, the creation of the German Empire was announced - the king of Prussia and the president of the North German Confederation, Wilhelm I, became emperor (this was done under pressure from Bismarck), and Otto von Bismarck became the imperial chancellor.

In 1871, the Second German Empire was proclaimed. It was declared an "eternal union", which included 25 states with different political status: 4 kingdoms, 6 grand duchies, 5 duchies, 7 principalities, 3 free cities (Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck), as well as Alsace-Lorraine, which has a special status seized from France. At the same time, none of the subjects included in the union could neither leave nor be expelled from it. Disputes between individual states were under the jurisdiction of the imperial Bundesrat. This central union body in the legislative sphere formally had equal rights with the imperial parliament - the Reichstag. In fact, his powers were even broader, since the Bundesrat had the right to dissolve the Reichstag, and also had legislative initiative.

In addition, the laws of the empire could only be adopted with the mutual consent of the Reichstag and the Bundesrat. The member states had 58 votes in the Bundesrat. At the same time, Prussia played a special role in his activities, which had 30% of all votes and the right of veto to amend the constitution. Since the Kaiser (in 1871 he was William I) was simultaneously the Prussian king, and the Reich Chancellor headed the Prussian government, this situation sharply strengthened both the central power and the power of Prussia. In the competence of the monarchies and free cities that made up the empire, there were actually only enlightenment, church politics and administration. Some of the constituent parts of the empire. had the right to keep limited military contingents.

Bismarck served as Reich Chancellor for 19 years. This period in German history was characterized by an effective and successful foreign policy... Bismarck pursued a course of creating alliances with the strongest European powers, primarily with Russia and Austria-Hungary. However, his domestic policy caused serious discontent in the country: he was intolerant of opposition (Catholics, socialists and supporters of the rights of the constituent parts of the empire). Despite this, under Bismarck, the formation of the social democratic movement in Germany took place. Thanks to the activity of F. Lassalle and the followers of K. Marx, mass workers' organizations arose in Germany, and in 1875 the Marxists and Lassalleans united in the Socialist Labor Party (since 1890 - the German Social Democratic Party, traditionally abbreviated as the SPD). Under pressure from the Social Democrats, Bismarck agreed to the introduction of universal suffrage for men in Prussia (1867), implemented social legislation that anticipated some of the features of the welfare state.

In the 1870s, Bismarck launched a "struggle for culture" (kulturkampf) aimed at weakening the influence of the Catholic Church.

In the 1880s and 1890s, Germany took an active part in the imperialist division of the world. She acquired significant colonial possessions in Africa (German East Africa and German Southwest Africa) and in Pacific... Germany established control over New Guinea, Micronesia (Nauru, Palau, Marshalls, Caroline and Mariana Islands were bought from Spain), Western Samoa. In Asia, Germany owned the port of Qingdao on the Shandong Peninsula (captured in 1897). Acquisition of colonies in different parts light inevitably led Germany to a conflict with the "ruler of the seas" Great Britain, which had the world's largest colonial empire, and forced the construction of a powerful ocean-going fleet (naval programs adopted in late XIX century, made it possible to create by 1913 the second most powerful fleet in the world after the British).

The conflict with France, which sought to return Alsace and Lorraine, also persisted. The new emperor Wilhelm II, who ascended the throne in 1888, dismissed Bismarck in 1890. He took a course on the formation of obedient governments (the governments of von Caprivi, von Bülow and others), seeking to increase his own power in the empire. In domestic policy after short period liberalization (in particular, the ban on the activities of the SPD was lifted) Wilhelm II continued the repressive measures of Bismarck. He changed the country's foreign policy, proclaiming ideas of German greatness and a special role for Germany in world politics. The active militarization of the country that followed these statements alerted European leaders. In addition, William II did not renew the contract with The Russian Empire, concluded by Bismarck, which led to the Russian-French rapprochement and the subsequent formation of the Entente. As a result, at the beginning of the 20th century, two blocs emerged in Europe - Great Britain, France and Russia, on the one hand, and Germany and Austria-Hungary, on the other.

Plan
Introduction
1. History
2 Administrative divisions
3 Armed Forces
4 Central management
5 Colonies of Germany
6 First World War
7 German Empire (1918-1934)
8 German Empire (1934-1945)
Bibliography
German empire

Introduction

German Empire (German. Deutsches Reich); the term Kaiser's Germany is also found) - the name of the German state in 1871-1945. After the November Revolution of 1918, it continued to be called the German Reich ( Deutsches Reich) - a term that includes the Kaiser era. Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern are considered the founders of the German Empire. Sometimes it is also called the "Second Reich". The German Empire ceased to exist in May 1945, after being defeated in World War II. Currently, in historiography, the name "German Empire" is used, as a rule, only for the period 1871-1918. (which corresponds to the term German historiography Deutsches Kaiserreich). Terms such as the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich, as a rule, do not refer to this term.

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles. Bismarck in white in the center of the picture.

1. History

In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began. Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck and King William I hoped to unite Germany as a result of the war and undermine the power of France. The French emperor Napoleon III strove to prevent the unification of Germany and preserve the European hegemony of France. The troops of the North German Confederation won a complete victory. On January 18, 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck and Wilhelm I announced the creation of the German Empire. The empire was quickly joined by states that were not part of the North German Confederation - Bavaria and other South German countries. Austria did not become part of Germany. The five billion francs that the French paid the Germans as indemnity provided a solid foundation for the German economy. Bismarck became the second person in Germany, but this is only formally.

After the death of Wilhelm in 1888, the terminally ill Frederick III ascended the throne. The second Emperor reigned for only 99 days.

After the death of Frederick, his son Wilhelm ascended the throne. Shortly before his accession to the throne, Germany acquired colonies in Africa and Asia (Togo, Cameroon, German South-West Africa, the port of Qingdao), a military alliance was concluded with Austria and Russia (Russia soon left the alliance) against France and England, were increased army and navy. At the same time, a progressive income tax was introduced (the tax rate depends on income, and increases with income). On November 9, 1918, a revolution began in Germany, as a result of which the monarchy was overthrown, and Wilhelm was forced to flee to the Netherlands.

2. Administrative divisions

After the unification of Germany, the rulers of the once independent German states retained their power and obeyed only the emperor - the king of Prussia. So in Germany there was no unified system administrative division.

The united state included:

Four semi-autonomous kingdoms:

Prussia

Saxony

Bavaria

· Württemberg.

The governments of the three "free Hanseatic cities" have retained their power:

Hamburg

· Bremen.

In addition, there were six Grand Duchies with Grand Dukes:

Hesse and Rhine

Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Oldenburg

· Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

Five Duchies:

Anhalt

Braunschweig

Saxe-Altenburg

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

Saxe-Meiningen

Seven Principalities:

Waldeck

Reuss junior line

Reuss senior line

Schaumburg-Lippe

Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen

· Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.

The "Imperial Land" Alsace-Lorraine was allocated to a separate territory.

3. Armed forces

4. Central management

According to the constitution, the presidency belonged to the Prussian king, who enjoyed the title of German emperor. The emperor had the right to participate in legislative matters only as a Prussian king. The emperor had the right to promulgate laws; but since, according to the constitution, he did not even use the delaying veto, this right is a simple duty of the executive branch. The emperor was given, however, a fairly broad right to issue his own orders. The emperor was given the right in cases threatening public safety, both in the military and in Peaceful time, declare any part of the empire (with the exception of Bavaria) under siege.

The Emperor had the power to appoint and dismiss all major imperial officials, starting with the Chancellor. The Imperial Chancellor was the main body of executive power and at the same time the only person responsible to the Union Council and the Reichstag for all actions of this power. Apart from the Reich Chancellor himself, there were no ministers in the German Empire. Instead of them, there were state secretaries subordinate to the Reich Chancellor, who presided over the imperial departments (German. Reichsämter). This is how the Reichseisenbahnamt, Reichspostamt, Reichsjustizamt, Reichsschatzamt, the Alsace-Lorraine administration, foreign and domestic political departments, the Reichsmarineamt and finally the Reichskolonialamt appeared.

5. Colonies of Germany

Germany joined the colonial race very late - in the mid-1880s. Nevertheless, this did not prevent her from acquiring quite significant holdings in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

On the African continent these are Togo, Cameroon, German East Africa and German South West Africa.

· Togo - from the late XIX - early XX century, together with a part of Ghana - a German colony.

· Cameroon - from the end of the 19th century - a protectorate of Germany.

· German East Africa - mainland Tanzania (Tanganyika), Rwanda and Burundi.

· Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania). Since the 1880s - under the rule of Germany.

· Burundi. Before colonization - Burundi. Since 1903 - included (as part of Rwanda-Urundi) in the German East Africa colony.

· Rwanda. From the end of the 19th century, it was captured by Germany and included (as part of Rwanda-Urundi) into the German East Africa colony.

· German Southwest Africa - Namibia. Since 1884 - the German protectorate of German South-West Africa.

In Asia- the port of Qingdao (Kaichou) on the Shandong Peninsula, captured in 1897, and then "leased" from the Chinese government for 99 years.

In Oceania- New Guinea, Micronesia (Nauru, Palau, Marshalls, Caroline, Mariana Islands), Western Samoa.

German New Guinea

· New Guinea. From the mid-1880s, the northeastern part of the island was colonized by Germany.

· Nauru. Since 1888 - part of the German protectorate New Guinea.

· Palau. Since 1899 - a German colony.

The Mariana Islands were sold by Spain to Germany in 1889

· Marshall Islands captured in 1885. Since 1886 - a German protectorate.

· The Caroline Islands are also bought from Spain.

· Western Samoa. At the end of the 19th century, it was captured by Germany.

After losing the First World War, Germany lost its overseas possessions. Togo and Cameroon were divided between Britain and France. Tanganyika went to Great Britain, Rwanda and Burundi to Belgium. Namibia was ceded to the South African Union. Qingdao is captured by Japan, New Guinea by Australia. The Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, Palau went to Japan, Western Samoa to New Zealand. At the end of World War II, Japan lost its recent "German" acquisitions.

6. World War I

The beginning of the war was successful for Germany: Russian troops were broken in East Prussia, the German army occupied Belgium and Luxembourg, invaded Northeastern France. Paris was saved, but the threat remained.

Germany's allies fought worse: the Austrians were utterly defeated in Galicia, the Turks suffered many defeats on the Caucasian front. Italy betrayed its allies and on May 23, 1915 declared war on Austria-Hungary. Only with the help German army the Austrians and Turks regained some positions, the Italians were defeated at Caporetto.

Germany won many victories in the course of active hostilities, but by 1915 a trench warfare began on all fronts, representing a mutual siege - of attrition. Despite its industrial potential, Germany could not defeat the enemy in trench warfare. The German colonies were occupied. The Entente had an advantage in resources, and on November 11, 1918, two days after the start of the revolution, Germany surrendered. After the war, the country lay in ruins, absolutely exhausted. As a result, Germany was swept economic crisis, at the height of which in December 1922 a kilogram of bread cost about 130 marks, and a year later - over 300 billion. In July 1923, the gold mark was worth 262 thousand paper marks, and in November - already 100 billion. Thus, in four months the price of the paper stamp fell 382,000 times.

German Empire (1918-1934)

German Empire (1934-1945)

Bibliography:

1. The arrest of Reich President Karl Dönitz and the "Flensburg government"

2. Hyperinflation in Germany in 1923.

Indicate the decade when this draft treaty was drawn up. Name the imperial who ruled Russia during the period of the union as one of the steps

which was the conclusion of this contract. Indicate the name of the military-political bloc, which in the future will include both countries that have entered into this treaty.
Inspired by the same desire to preserve peace, France and Russia, with the sole purpose of preparing for the demands of a defensive war caused by an attack by the troops of the Triple Alliance against one of them, have agreed on the following provisions: 1. If France is attacked by Germany or Italy, supported by Germany, Russia will use all the troops it can have for an attack on Germany. If Russia is attacked by Germany or Austria, supported by Germany, France will use all the troops it can have to attack Germany. (Initial French draft: "If France or Russia is attacked by the Triple Alliance or Germany alone ...") * 2. In the event of the mobilization of the troops of the Triple Alliance or one of its member powers, France and Russia immediately, upon receipt of news of this, without waiting for any preliminary agreement, mobilize immediately and at the same time all their forces and move them as close as possible to their borders. (The original French project: "In the event of the mobilization of the forces of the Triple Alliance or Germany alone ...") 3. The active armies to be used against Germany, from France, will equal 1,300,000 people, from Russia - from 700,000 to 800,000 people. These troops will be fully and promptly brought into action, so that Germany will have to fight at once in the east and in the west. 4. The general staffs of both countries will constantly communicate with each other in order to prepare and facilitate the implementation of the measures envisaged above. They will communicate to each other in peacetime all data concerning the armies of the Triple Alliance that are known to them, or will be known to them. The ways and means of intercourse during the war will be studied and provided in advance. 5. Neither France nor Russia will conclude a separate peace. 6. This Convention will remain in force for the same period as Triple Alliance... 7. All of the above items will be kept in the strictest confidence.

Russia was exhausted in the means of fighting the barbarians. It was impossible to restrain their predation, which was their usual ... fishing, by any measures and agreements.

Monomakh made 19 peaces with them, gave them a lot of clothing and cattle - and all in vain. For the same purpose, the princes married the khan's daughters; but the father-in-law still plundered the region of his Russian son-in-law without any regard for the property. Russia dug in its steppe borders with ramparts, fenced off a chain of forts and military settlements, undertook campaigns in the very steppes ... "Questions 1) What barbarians in question? 2) At which congress of Russian princes was the question of how to preserve the unity of Russia and unite it to fight its warlike neighbors was discussed? 3) When were the successful joint campaigns of the Russian princes in the steppe made, which made it possible for a while to contain the raids of warlike neighbors?

1. Queen Victoria belonged to the dynasty:
A. Stuarts B. Hannovers V. Tudors G. Windsor.

2. He was the most iconic figure among the Tories in the second half of the 19th century.

3. On the initiative of the Conservatives, the electoral reform was carried out in:
A. 1866 B. 1867 B. 1868 G. 1869

4. The Queen of England was proclaimed Empress in 1876 ...
A. Britain B. Great Britain C. India G. seas.

5. The first leader of the Labor Party was:
A. Macdonald B. Lloyd George W. Asquith G. Gladstone.

6. He was the most iconic figure among the Whigs in the second half of the 19th century:
A. Gladstone B. Pitt W. Macdonald G. Disraeli.

7. The Irish Home Rule Bill became law in ...
A. 1913 B. 1914 V. 1915 G. 1916

8.In 1906 - 1916. actually was in power:
A. Gladstone B. Asquith W. Lloyd George G. Disraeli.

9.In 1882, the English protectorate regime was established over:
A. India B. South Africa B. Egypt G. Belgium.

10. This country surpassed England in the pace of its development at the end of the 19th century:
A. Germany B. France C. Italy D. Belgium.

"Great Britain at the end of the Victorian era"

Option I

1. Queen Victoria belonged to the dynasty ...

A) Stuarts; B) Hanover;

C) The Tudors; D) Windsor.

2. Was he the most iconic figure among the Tories in the second half of the 19th century?

A) Gladstone; B) Asquith;

3. At the initiative of the Conservatives, electoral reform was carried out in ...

A) 1866; B) 1867; C) 1868; D) 1869.

4. The Queen of England in 1876 was proclaimed Empress….

A) Britain; B) Great Britain;

In India; D) seas.

5. The first leader of the Labor Party was ...

A) MacDonald; B) Lloyd George;

C) Asquith; D) Gladstone.

_________________________________________________________

Option II

1. Was he the most iconic figure among the Whigs in the second half of the 19th century?

A) Gladstone; B) Pitt;

C) MacDonald; D) Disraeli.

2. The Irish Home Rule Bill became law in ...

A) 1913; B) 1914; B) 1915; D) 1916.

3. In 1906-1916. actually was in power ...

A) Gladstone; B) Asquith;

C) Lloyd George; D) Disraeli.

4. In 1882. The regime of the English protectorate was established over ...

A) India; B) South Africa;

C) Egypt; D) Sudan.

5. This country surpassed England in the rate of its development at the end of the XIX century.?

A) Germany; B) France;

C) Italy; D) Belgium.

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Formation of the German Empire

In the course of the revolution in Germany, the question of the national unification of the country and the structure of a united Germany was raised. The difficult question was under whose auspices the unification of Austria or Prussia would take place. Most of the German bourgeoisie supported the plan for the creation of "Little Germany", ie. unification of the German states under the auspices of the Prussian dynasty of the Hohenzollerns without the inclusion of Austria.

In 1862, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), the Bundeschancellor, responsible only to the president of the North German Confederation, who was the king of Prussia, was put at the head of the Prussian government. Bismarck began to unite Germany with "iron and blood." The first steps in the unification process were the wars of Prussia with Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866.

According to the Prague Peace, the states of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, Frankfurt were annexed to Prussia. Austria withdrew from participation in the solution of German questions. The Prague Peace also provided for the creation of the North German Confederation from the states located north of the river. Mine. Prussia has now become the undisputed leader of Germany's national unification.

Russia maintained neutrality and thus facilitated the unification process of Prussia. In the North German Alliance formed in 1867, Prussia played a leading role, which was ensured primarily by the transfer of command over the allied forces to it.

The interests of the bourgeoisie were supported by the introduction of complete freedom of movement, a unified system of measures and weights, and the abolition of the remnants of shop privileges, which opened up wider opportunities for the successful development of capitalism and strengthened the alliance of the bourgeoisie with government circles. However, the bourgeoisie did not actually get access to political power... Remnants of feudalism continued to affect various areas of life.

The military and political successes of Prussia frightened France. The government of Napoleon III considered it timely in 1870 to start a war against Prussia. Prussia turned out to be more prepared for war than France. If Prussia mobilized over 1 million people, then the French army after mobilization numbered 500 thousand people. The weapons of the Prussian army were also superior in quantity and quality.

At the first stage, the Franco-Prussian war was historically progressive for the Germans, as they sought to complete the national unification of Germany. France, on the other hand, set itself the goal of delaying the unification of the German states into a single state and retaining its predominant influence in Europe.

On August 4, 1870, German troops launched a general offensive. France immediately began to fail. In the battle in the Sedan area, the outnumbered German troops dealt a crushing blow French army... On September 2, by order of Napoleon III, the sedan fortress surrendered. Since September 1870 the character Franco-Prussian War is changing. Now France is waging a war of liberation, and Germany is an aggressive one - she is striving to sever Alsace and Lorraine from France.

On October 27, 1870, without a fight, Marshal A. Baeen (1811-1888) surrendered the Metz fortress with an army of 180,000. With the surrender of the French, significant enemy forces were freed up to secure the siege of Paris. On January 18, 1871, William I (1797-1888) was solemnly proclaimed the crown king of the German Empire in the palace of the French kings of Versailles.

Fear of revolutionary actions by the workers forced the French government to conclude peace as soon as possible. On January 28, a truce was signed on difficult terms. The peace treaty, concluded on May 10, 1871, was even more difficult. France pledged to pay 5 billion francs in indemnity, ceded to Germany Alsace and the northeastern part of Lorraine.

Prussia's victory over France completed the unification of Germany into a single state - the German Empire.

The completion of the unification of Germany took place "from above", during the war of conquest. Prussian Junkers (large landowners) in the unification process acted as the dominant force, in which the policy of militarism played a huge role.

Those German states that remained outside the North German Confederation were subordinated to Prussia by Bismarck. The German Empire united 22 Germanic monarchies and three free cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg. In April 1871, the German constitution was adopted, which approved the federal state structure countries.

The national unification of Germany was a progressive phenomenon contributing to the further development of capitalism in the country. However, the form of unification led by the Prussian monarchy was reactionary and dangerous for the peoples of Europe. Germany's triumph turned its military forces into an essential instrument of domestic and foreign policy. The ruling circles put forward the goal of Germany's breakthrough to world domination.