Italian art of the 16th century. High Renaissance.
Fresco by artist Rafael Santi Athenian school" has another name - "Philosophical Conversations". The size of the fresco, the length of the base is 770 cm. After moving to Rome in 1508, Raphael was entrusted with painting the pope's apartments - the so-called stanzas (that is, rooms), which include three rooms on the second floor of the Vatican Palace and an adjacent hall. The general ideological program of the fresco cycles in the stanzas, according to the plan of the customers, was supposed to serve to glorify the authority catholic church and its head, the Roman high priest. Along with allegorical and biblical images, episodes from the history of the papacy are depicted in separate frescoes; portrait images of Julius II and his successor Leo X are included in some compositions. Often the very choice of fresco subjects carries a certain allegory. But the figurative content of Raphael's compositions is not only wider than this official program, but essentially contradicts it, expressing the ideas of a universal humanistic content.

In this regard, the general design of the first of the stanzas painted by Raphael is indicative - the so-called Stanza della Senyatura (which in translation means the signature room - papal decrees were sealed here). Apparently, one of the representatives of humanistic thought grouped around the papal court participated in drawing up the program for its painting. The theme of the painting is four areas of human spiritual activity: theology is represented by the mural "Disputation", philosophy - "Athenian School", poetry - "Parnassus", justice - "Wisdom, Moderation and Strength". On the vault, above each fresco, there is an allegorical figure in a round frame, symbolizing each of these types of activity, and in the corner parts of the vault there are small compositions, also related in their subject matter to the content of the corresponding frescoes.

The best fresco stanz and the greatest work Raphael should generally be recognized as the "School of Athens". This composition of the artist is one of the most striking evidence of the triumph of humanistic ideas in Renaissance art and their deep connections with ancient culture. In a grandiose enfilade of majestic arched spans, Raphael presented a collection of ancient thinkers and scientists. In the center, among the characters grouped at the powerful arched abutments, in the niches of which the statues of Apollo and Minerva are placed, Plato and Aristotle are depicted. Their gestures - the first pointing to heaven, the second stretching his hand to the earth - give an idea of ​​the nature of their teaching. To the left of Plato is Socrates, talking with the audience, among whom the young Alcibiades in armor and helmet stands out. Directly on the steps, like a beggar at the stairs of the temple, Diogenes, the founder of the school of cynics, settled down at ease. Below in the foreground - two symmetrically placed groups: on the left - kneeling down with a book in his hands Pythagoras with his students; on the right, also surrounded by students, flexible beautiful young men, Euclid (or Archimedes); bending low, he draws with a compass on a slate lying on the floor. To the right of this group are Zoroaster and Ptolemy (in a crown), each of them holding a sphere in his hand. At the very edge of the fresco, Raphael depicted himself and the painter Sodom, who had begun work in this stanza before him. In the foreground, slightly off-center to the left, Heraclitus of Ephesus is shown sitting in deep thought.

The figures in the "School of Athens" are larger than in the "Disputation", and the whole fresco as a whole looks more monumental. Characteristics acquired a special convexity actors. Plato and Aristotle turned out to be the spiritual focus of this collection not only due to their central position in the composition, but also due to the significance of the images. In their posture, in their gait, a truly regal grandeur is poured, just as on their faces we feel the seal great thought. These are the most ideal images of the fresco; No wonder the prototype of Plato in the Raphael composition was a man of such an outstanding appearance like Leonardo da Vinci. The appearance of some other philosophers and scientists is more endowed with features of life characteristic. So, in the image of Euclid, busy solving some geometric problem, the architect Bramante is depicted with his powerful, enlarged bald forehead. Magnificent in its laconic expressiveness is the image of the stoic Zeno, placed at the top on the right side of the fresco: already in one silhouette of his figure wrapped in a dark cloak, separated by intervals from other characters, the feeling of his spiritual loneliness is conveyed. II, finally, the image of Heraclitus, captivating with its poetic power, inspired by the prophets of Michelangelo from the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. According to some researchers, in the gloomy Heraclitus, Raphael captured the appearance of Michelangelo himself. But no matter how expressive the individual depiction of the heroes, it is no less important that the general atmosphere of high spiritual uplift, characteristic of the "Athenian School", is expressed in the entire pictorial structure of the fresco.

An important role in achieving this impression is played by the nature of the environment surrounding the participants in the scene. If in the "Dispute" in the symmetry and geometric correctness of its upper part there is a hint of harmony, as it were, pre-established from above, then the real environment of the "Athenian School" - majestic architecture - is perceived as an act of the mind and human hands, as the realization of his high creative thought. While in the characters of "Disputations" there is - in accordance with her idea - a shade of reverent contemplation in the face of the highest truth, the heroes of the "Athenian School" are characterized by a special inner activity, increased spiritual energy. The viewer is captured by the feeling of the undivided power of the human mind, embracing the whole world. The expressiveness of individual images and groups in the "Athenian School" is enhanced by compositional means. So, despite the fact that Plato and Aristotle are depicted in the background, among many other participants in the scene, Raphael achieved their clear separation due to the fact that the most distant of the arches of the majestic enfilade covers only these two figures. But even more importantly, both of them are depicted not standing still, but moving forward, straight at the viewer. Their solemn tread, as if inextricably linked with the movement of mighty architectural masses and arched spans, not only gives the main characters of the fresco the function of a dynamic center of the composition, but also gives them an increased power of figurative impact. Starting from the depths, this movement seems to be resolved in a plane, spreading in breadth and harmoniously culminating in a powerful arched coverage of the fresco's semicircular frame.

It has been suggested that the architectural background of the "School of Athens" was inspired by the design of St. Peter's Cathedral, which at that time was being developed by Bramante. Regardless of whether the idea of ​​the background goes back to Bramante or belongs to Raphael himself, we have before us the most classic of all the images of the monumental architecture of the Renaissance, the purest expression of the very spirit of the High Renaissance, which, unfortunately, did not receive practical implementation in the architecture of that time on such a scale. . As for the coloring of the School of Athens, in accordance with the nature of the images and the predominance of linear-plastic means of expression, the objective qualities of color and its independent expressiveness recede into the background in this fresco.

Depicts one of the remarkable phenomena of ancient history. Originating in ancient Athens in the classical period, this school has become a standard institution for the education of a free harmoniously developed person.

Education in Ancient Athens: features

In democratic Athens, especially during the reign of Pericles, the upbringing and education of citizens was given great value. Education took place within the framework of the principle of kalokagatiya - a set of "virtues": body culture and readiness to fulfill civic duties. The first was classified as external culture or body culture, and the second as internal culture.

Another principle of education in Athens was agonistics. That is, the spirit of competition based on personal superiority was used.

Types of schools in ancient Athens

Among the main types of Athenian schools are:

  1. Schools for teaching teenagers literacy and music (from 7 to 13-14 years old):
      grammarian (didaskala teachers taught counting, writing, reading); kifarista (teaching literature, singing, recitation, drawing, playing music).
  2. Palestra - sports schools.
  3. Gymnasiums are schools for continuing adult education.

Description of the Athenian school

IN educational schools boys were taught to read and write. Teenagers of any class, both urban and rural, could study here.

What was taught in the Athenian schools? In grammarians, counting was taught with the help of fingers, then pebbles, and later - a board with pebbles, resembling an abacus. junior schoolchildren studied writing. They wrote with pointed metal or bone sticks - style or stylo (s). At the other end of the stylus was something like a spatula - for leveling the surface and erasing erroneous entries. Letters, texts were written on boards covered with a layer of wax. Senior students wrote with a reed on papyrus.

In addition to learning to write, in the Athens school of citharist, teenagers learned to read, mainly on historical and artistic material - Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" and myths, poems by famous Greek poets and plays by playwrights Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus (at an older age) . The teachers also instilled in them the skills of drawing and playing music. Moreover, music-making began to be mastered only after acquaintance with poetry. In addition to playing musical instruments, the young men also mastered musical notation. And the art of playing the flute was included in the curriculum of the Athenian schools after the Persian wars.

In the course of the upbringing and educational process, the teacher could not only apply incentive methods, for example, let them write on papyrus earlier, but also punishments. To do this, he always had an oxtail whip in his hands.

In ordinary schools, from the very beginning of education, gymnastics was introduced, because without physical beauty and health it is impossible to bring up a harmoniously developed person.

As the story says

Athenian schools and gymnasiums emphasized outer shape. For more serious sports, palestras served. Their boys could attend from the age of twelve. In the palestra they practiced gymnastics, which then included running, wrestling, jumping, and throwing the javelin and discus.

The main ideal of a sports figure was the sculptures of famous Greek masters exhibited in the porticos of the palestra: Myron "Discobolus" and Polikleitos "Diadumen" and "Dorifor".

Classes in good weather took place in the restyle - the inner open courtyard, and on cloudy days - in the covered galleries or porticos that surrounded it. Since the boys practiced naked and anointed their bodies with olive oil, after classes they washed with water from a fountain, well or bath located on the territory of the palestra.

It is interesting that in the palestras they were still taught the principles of eloquence and the singing of songs, which later the young Athenians sang at feasts. Also pundits they talked about politics and morality.

Education in gymnasiums

Gymnasiums served to continue education, and adult citizens of Athens were engaged in them. Opportunities for both spiritual and sports development of a person were presented here.

Gymnasiums were usually built outside the city among beautiful nature. They had playgrounds for gymnastics, swimming pools and baths, as well as rooms for relaxation and long intellectual conversations and disputes.

Here one could attend the speeches of famous scientists of that time, as well as learn eloquence and rhetoric, the ability to competently argue and defend one's opinion.

The role of educators in Athenian education

In Athenian society, in the families of noble citizens, it was accepted that boys under the age of seven only played outdoor games, but then a teacher was selected for them to accompany and educate. The very word "teacher" in Greek literally means "accompanying the child." Usually, an old, sometimes crippled slave, who sometimes even had poor hearing and almost did not speak Greek, was taken to this position.

The teachers were responsible for the child's daily attendance at school: they accompanied her to and from school, carried school supplies and musical instruments, which any Athenian should have been able to play. Most often it was a flute.

At home, the duties of the teacher included teaching the boy etiquette and good manners. Also, the teacher had to punish the pupil with rods for non-compliance with the requirements and faults.

History of Plato's Academy

The history of the Athenian school is connected with the philosophical movement of the associates and followers of the Greek thinker Plato, who stood at its foundation. Representatives of the current from the 4th century. BC e. gathered within the walls of the Athens Academy, also founded by Plato.

The main didactic teaching method used at the Academy is dialogue or, in other words, dialectics. It was mastered at two conditional levels of education: for juniors and for seniors. Various subjects were studied here, but special emphasis was placed on astronomy and mathematics.

The Academy has had four renewals. Under Speusippus, Plato's nephew, the Academy began to teach on a paid basis and trained mainly orators and statesmen. The Platonic-Pythagorean philosophy was widespread here. And the Academy itself became a spiritual center for aristocrats and educated Athenians. Even women aspired to study at the Academy.

The case of Speusippus was continued by Xenocrates, who attracted all the celebrities of vast Greece. Further, the Academy was alternately headed by the followers of the same philosophical doctrine - Polemon, Crates and Krantor.

Arcesilaus, on the other hand, turned the vector of the Academy in a different direction: he adhered to the theory of complete abstinence from judgments, clarified the point of view of his listeners and had an active conversation with them. The focus was on the mind of the student, not the authority of the teacher. He opposed dogmatism. Arcesilaus was succeeded as head of the Academy by Lakid and Carneades. The latter denied the sensual and instinctive perception of the world and the attempt to know it through them.

An attempt to revive the Academy in the spirit of Plato was made by Antiochus of Ascolon.

The famous creation of Raphael

The fresco painting "The School of Athens" is one of the maestro's greatest creations. It was created to decorate the papal palace in the Vatican and is placed on one of the walls of la Stance della Seniatura. What was depicted on the fresco had little in common with the real Athenian school, apparently the gymnasium. In absolutely not ancient, but more Renaissance architecture, there are figures of adults dressed in antique clothes.

Among them you can find artistic images in which Raphael embodied his idea of ​​​​the most learned minds. Ancient Greece- Aristotle, Plato, Heraclitus, etc. It is believed that in these three men the master depicted with the transfer of a portrait likeness of the three titans of the Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti and himself - Raphael Santi.

According to the story, all the characters depicted by Raphael are divided into groups, each of which is busy with some kind of business: they listen to the stories of the sages, argue, study documents and the latest instruments, and conduct philosophical conversations. This is the territory of the "spirit". But the territory of the "body" on the fresco is missing - the author did not depict athletes or places for taking water procedures.

Santi Raffaello was born in early April 1483 in central Italy. Often his surname sounded in the Latin manner as Sanzio or Santius. The artist himself, deducing the signature on his canvases, used the Latinized version of his name - Raphael. Under this name, he became famous throughout the world. And his large-scale fresco "The School of Athens" became known even to those who are very far from the world of fine arts.

First steps in art

As a child, Raffaello knew that he would be an artist. His first experiments in drawing took place under the strict guidance of his father, Giovanni Santi. Along with the lessons of the parent, the future master mastered the technique of painting from Timoteo Viti, a well-known Umbrian artist in those days. When Santi Jr. was 16 years old, he was sent as an apprentice to Pietro Vannucci. Under the influence of this man, Raphael reached the true heights of skill and perfectly studied the basic techniques of art.

The earliest, youthful paintings by Raphael are three canvases: “The Archangel Michael smiting Satan” (today the work is in Paris), “The Dream of a Knight” (the exposition is in London) and “The Three Graces” (his last refuge is Chantilly). That's how it started creative way Rafael Santi. The "School of Athens" appeared when the author was 25 years old.

The Greatest of Frescoes

Raphael came to The eternal City in 1508. Pope Julius II invited him here. Here the artist had to paint the stanzas (ceremonial halls) of the Vatican Palace. Stanza della Senyatura was painted by Raphael, conveying in picturesque images four spheres of human mental activity: "Disputation" (theology), "Athenian school" (philosophy), "Parnassus" (poetry) and "Wisdom, Measure, Strength" (jurisprudence). And the maestro painted the plafond with paintings that ideologically resonate with the main compositions and carry biblical, allegorical and mythological meanings.

The painting "The School of Athens" became the embodiment of the greatness of philosophy and science. The main paradigm of the fresco is also one of the most important thoughts of the humanists. It can be roughly formulated as the possibility of harmonious harmony between different branches of science and philosophy. The arches of the majestic architectural masterpiece are decorated with groups of scientists and philosophers of Ancient Greece.

"School of Athens" (Raphael). Description

In total, the picture shows more than fifty figures. In the center of the fresco are Aristotle and Plato. They convey the wisdom of the times of Antiquity and represent two philosophical schools. Plato points his finger to the heavens, while Aristotle stretches out his hand above the earth. A warrior dressed in a helmet - this is He attentively listening to the great Socrates, and he bends his fingers in his hands, telling something amazing. On the left side, near the stairs, the students surrounded Pythagoras, who is busy solving mathematical questions. The "School of Athens" found a place for Epicurus, whom Raphael depicted in a wreath of grape leaves.

For the image of Michelangelo, the artist chose the image of Heraclitus and painted him as a man who, leaning on a cube, sits in a thoughtful pose. Diogenes is seated. To his right is Euclid, who is measuring something on a geometric drawing with a compass. Stair steps are the stages at which the mastery of truth takes place. Euclid was accompanied by Ptolemy (holding in his hands) and Zoroaster (holding the globe of heaven). To the right of them is the figure of Raphael himself, looking at the audience.

Other characters

Although the "School of Athens" is a fresco of more than 50 characters, it feels light and airy, characteristic of Santi's style. In addition to the figures described above, the canvas presents to the public such characters as Spekvsipp (a philosopher depicted with a beard and in a brown toga), Meneksen (a philosopher dressed in a blue toga), Xenocrates (a philosopher, in a toga white color). There is also Pythagoras, drawn with a book in his hands, Critias (in a pink robe), Diagoras of Melos - a poet with a naked torso, and other historical figures.

Like all the world's masterpieces of art, the "School of Athens" presents the public with a couple of unknown figures. So, no one knows who is depicted on the fresco on one leg, and who owns the back in pink clothes. But the artist's favorite is easy to identify: she personifies Hypatia.

The stanzas in the Vatican were painted by the genius Raphael for ten years - from 1508 to 1518. Santi himself worked for only four years (1508-1512). The rest of the time, the painting was performed by the maestro's students under his direction. There is one accidental, but very interesting coincidence: for four years Raphael worked on the Stanzas, and for the same number of years he worked on Michelangelo's Sistine ceiling.

The name of the famous fresco does not belong to Raphael. Historical sources say that at the very beginning the picture was called "Philosophy". "The School of Athens" is a name that does not fully correspond to what is depicted on the canvas. In the picture, besides the philosophers from Athens, there are many people who have never been in this city in their lives. In addition, the fresco contains representatives of different eras who lived in different countries and therefore unable to meet together at the same time.

Death of a great artist

Having lived only 37 years, on April 6, 1520 (on his birthday), the great Rafael Santi died. The "Athenian school" remained alive for centuries. The earthly existence of the maestro was bright and brief, like a comet. But even this time allotted by fate was enough for Raphael to be remembered as the greatest artist of the Renaissance.

Santi's death was sudden, she interrupted the rivalry between the two the greatest geniuses of his time. Both took part in the decoration and creation of the Vatican. It's about about Raphael and Michelangelo. Despite the fact that the latter was older than Santi, he outlived him by many years.

Raphael died in Rome, and his ashes were buried with honors that were worthy of such an unsurpassed genius and symbol of the era. There was not a single artist who would not spend in last way author of The School of Athens and did not mourn the maestro.

ATHENS SCHOOL of Platonism direction 1) in the middle Platonism of the 1st 2nd centuries. and 2) Neoplatonism con. 4 ser.6 c. From Ser. 1 in. BC e. Platonic dogma developed outside the walls of the Academy and even outside of Athens, primarily in Alexandria, in connection with which ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

SCHOOL OF ATHENS- ATHENS SCHOOL of Platonism, a direction in Middle Platonism 1 2 centuries. n. e. and Neoplatonism of the end of 4 ser. 6th c. 1) From the middle of the 1st c. BC e. Platonic dogma developed outside the walls of the Academy and even outside of Athens, primarily in Alexandria, in ... ... ancient philosophy

School of Athens: School of Athens direction in Middle Platonism of the 1st and 2nd centuries Athenian school direction in Neoplatonism of the end of the 4th to the middle of the 6th centuries The Athenian school fresco of Raphael ... Wikipedia

The original Greek name Ανωτάτη Σχολή Καλών Τεχνών Year of foundation ... Wikipedia

ATHENS SCHOOL OF PLATONISM- The direction in the middle Platonism I II centuries. according to R. Kh. and Neoplatonism con. IV Ser. 6th century From Ser. 1st century BC, Platonic dogma developed outside the walls of the Platonic Academy and even outside of Athens, primarily in Alexandria; in the East due to... Orthodox Encyclopedia

Fresco by Raphael "The School of Athens" This term has other meanings, see School (meanings). School, in the analysis of the development of sciences, literature, art and other areas and ... Wikipedia

School fine arts: National School of Fine Arts of Athens high school Fine Arts (Paris) School of Fine Arts (Warsaw) ... Wikipedia

As one of the hotbeds of knowledge and useful skills, it is a necessary step in the development of both an individual and a whole society. Aristotle also pointed to the interaction between Sh. and society: the common good as a goal life together of people … encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL- ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 1) Platonism and 2) Neoplatonism. The Alexandrian school of Platonism, a name that conditionally unites a number of Platonist philosophers of the 1st century BC. BC e. early 5th c. n. e., not uniformly associated with a particular institution, but ... ... ancient philosophy

Antique philosophy and philosophy (after the name of the city of Alexandria in Egypt) - 1) In the broadest sense, A. sh. encompasses the idealistic philosophy the direction of late Hellenism (1st century BC - 6th century AD), associated with the expansion of slave owners. building. In A.sh. included... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Books

  • School of Athens, Irina Tchaikovskaya. The book consists of four stories, which touch upon serious moral problems facing society and the school: is it possible to kill the weak and generally kill, is it possible to persecute ...
  • School of Athens, Tchaikovskaya I.

Raphael gave Plato the features of his famous older contemporary Leonardo da Vinci

Plato - An ancient Greek philosopher, the founder of Platonism. A student of Socrates. In Athens he founded a philosophical school.
Plato was born in 428 (427) BC. e., in the midst of the internecine Peloponnesian war, disastrous for both democratic Athens and aristocratic Sparta, who competed in hegemony over the Hellenic states - policies. Plato belonged to one of the noble Athenian families. His paternal ancestors descended from the last Athenian king Codras. Neither Plato, nor his siblings Glavkon and Adimant, nor his half-brother Antiphon were involved in public affairs. They all loved books, poetry, and were friends with philosophers.

In 408 BC. e. Plato met in Athens, his hometown, Socrates, sage and philosopher. Socrates gave Plato what he lacked so much: a firm belief in the existence of truth and the highest values ​​of life, which are known through communion with goodness and beauty. the hard way internal self-improvement.
This friendship was interrupted eight years later, when a tyranny was established in Athens, led by Plato's cousin Critias, followed by the death of Socrates.
After the death of his teacher, Plato moved to Megara to Euclid, who at first gathered the students of Socrates.

According to ancient tradition, a real philosopher was supposed to gain wisdom from those who kept it from ancient times. So, it was necessary to go to travel the world. After the death of Socrates, Plato traveled for ten whole years, until 389-387 BC. e.

Plato can be considered one of the first ancient Greek philosophers who systematically presented his understanding of the state. Plato devoted two of his largest works to social and political issues - "The State" and "Laws".
Ideal state system, according to Plato, has the features of moral and political organization and is aimed at solving important state problems. He refers to them the following tasks: the protection of the state from enemies, the implementation of a systematic supply of citizens, the development of the spiritual culture of society. To fulfill these tasks, according to Plato, means to put into practice the idea of ​​the good as the idea that rules the world.

Aristotle

Aristotle, the greatest ancient Greek philosopher, lived in 384 - 322 years. BC e. The birthplace of Aristotle is the policy of Stagira, located on the Northwest coast Aegean Sea, next to Macedonia, on which it depended. Aristotle's father Nicomachus was the court physician of the Macedonian king Amyntas III.

In 369 BC. e. fifteen-year-old Aristotle lost his parents, and his guardian, Proxenus, took care of him. Aristotle inherited significant funds from his father, this gave him the opportunity to continue his education under the guidance of Proxenus. Books were very expensive then, but Proxen bought him even the rarest ones; thus, Aristotle in his youth became addicted to reading. Under the guidance of Proxenus, he studied plants and animals.

In 367 BC. e. Seventeen-year-old Aristotle arrived in Athens and became a student of the "Academy" of Plato, where he stayed for twenty years, until the death of the founder of the "Academy" in 347 BC. e.
There is reason to believe that Plato loved his brilliant and recalcitrant student and not only passed on to him all his knowledge, but poured his whole soul into him.
For his part, Aristotle held Plato in high esteem. Aristotle already in Plato's school saw vulnerabilities Platonic idealism. Later, Aristotle will say: "Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer." Platonism will be subjected to shrewd and impartial criticism. But at first, as can be seen from the early writings of Aristotle, he fully shared the views of Plato. Until the death of Plato, Aristotle did not open his own school, although his philosophical views had long been developed.
In 355 BC. e. Aristotle's position in Athens was strengthened in connection with the coming to power in this city of the pro-Macedonian party. However, Plato's death and Aristotle's unwillingness to remain in the "Academy", headed by Plato's successor, his nephew Speusippus, prompted Aristotle to leave Athens.

At the end of the 40s of the 4th c. BC e. Aristotle was invited by Philip II to the role of the tutor of Philip's son - thirteen-year-old Alexander - and moved to the capital of Macedonia, Pella. The upbringing of Alexander by Aristotle lasted about four years. Subsequently great commander he will say: "I honor Aristotle on a par with my father, because if I owe my life to my father, then Aristotle is what gives her a price."
Aristotle did not try to make Alexander a philosopher. The relationship between teacher and student has never been warm. And as soon as Alexander became king of Macedonia, he tried to get rid of Aristotle, who had to return to his homeland - to Stagira, where he spent about three years.

Aristotle, as a universal thinker, not only possessed the entire body of knowledge of his time, but also laid the foundations for essentially new sciences: such as physics, biology, psychology, as well as logic and ethics. At the same time, the question never ceased to excite him: what, in fact, does philosophy itself do and what is its place among other sciences? Aristotle called "philosophy" the totality of scientific and theoretical knowledge about reality. At the same time, he introduced the names "first philosophy" and "second philosophy", which he also called "physics".

Rejecting the Platonic doctrine of "ideas" as the incorporeal essence of everything, Aristotle put forward the theory that everything that exists occurs and consists of two basic principles - "form" and "matter". The active and leading principle in this pair for Aristotle is the form, it is with it that he connects the solution to the problem of the universal.
God, according to Aristotle, is the source creative activity. God according to Aristotle is not the Platonic Supreme Good, but the ultimate foundation of the universe.

In political views, Aristotle proceeds from the understanding of man as a "social animal", the sphere of life of which is the family, society, state. The state (as well as the economy) Aristotle considers very realistically. The best state forms are monarchy, aristocracy, moderate democracy, the reverse side of which, that is, the worst state forms, are tyranny, oligarchy, ochlocracy (dominance of the mob).