Who created Buddhism. The concept of Buddhist philosophy

Gilded pagodas, giant statues, soothing music are famous Buddhist symbols. Previously, they were associated exclusively with the culture of the East. But in recent decades, Europeans have become actively interested in Asian teachings. Why is this happening? Let's see what the essence of Buddhism is.

The essence of Buddhism.

Brief essence of Buddhism: history and modernity

Almost 300 million inhabitants of the Earth call themselves Buddhists. The teaching was brought to people by the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who lived 2.5 thousand years ago. The legend says that the future religious teacher spent his childhood and youth in luxury, not knowing worries and worries. At the age of 29, he first saw the poverty, illness and death of other people.

The prince realized that wealth does not relieve suffering, and went in search of the key to true happiness. For six years he traveled the world, got acquainted with the philosophical theories of different peoples. Spiritual quest led Gautama to "buddhi" (enlightenment). The Buddha then taught the principles of the new teaching until his death.

• live decently and honestly;
• study the thoughts and actions of other people and their own;
• treat others with wisdom.

Buddhists believe that by following these ideas one can get rid of suffering and come to bliss.

Buddhism: the essence of religion, spiritual foundations

Gautama's teachings have spread all over the world. It has solutions to the problems of today's wealth-driven society. Buddhism teaches that wealth does not guarantee happiness. Buddhist philosophy is interesting for those who want to understand the depth of human thinking, to learn natural methods of healing.

Buddhists are tolerant of all other religions. This belief system is based on wisdom and understanding. Therefore, in world history there has never been a war in the name of Buddhism.

For any civilized person, 4 Buddhist noble truths are acceptable.

1. The essence of life is suffering, that is, illness, aging, death. Painful and mental suffering - disappointment, loneliness, longing, anger, fear. But the teaching of Buddhism does not call for pessimism, but explains how to get rid of suffering and come to happiness.
2. Suffering is caused by desire. People suffer when their expectations are not met. Instead of living to satisfy your passions, you just need to change your desires.
3. Suffering will stop if you give up senseless passions and live for today. Do not get stuck in the past or imaginary future, it is better to direct your energy to help people. Getting rid of desires gives freedom and happiness. In Buddhism, this state is called nirvana.
4. The noble eightfold path leads to nirvana. It consists of right views, aspirations, words, deeds, livelihoods, efforts, awareness and concentration.

Following these truths requires courage, patience, mental flexibility and a developed mind.

The Buddhist teaching is attractive because it can be comprehended and tested on one's own experience. This religion claims that the solution to all problems is not outside, but inside the person himself. She gives her followers resistance to any adversity, spiritual harmony and a happy measured life.

It is believed that the Buddha was the first person who managed to plunge into nirvana. After that, coming to Sarnath near Benares, he gathered around him five ascetics, who became his first disciples, and read to them his first sermon. It already briefly, in the form of four theses, outlined the foundations of his teachings. This Buddhist "creed" was called "arya satya" - noble truths. The rumor about the new prophet began to spread rapidly throughout India.

His ideas were very attractive. As the legend colorfully tells, the path of the Buddha was a triumphal procession, especially after he managed to convert the famous sage and hermit Kashyapa and 600 of his students to his faith. Even many famous brahmins abandoned their teachings and became preachers of Buddhism. But the largest number of followers of the Buddha was in the Varnas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.

Ideas of Buddhism

What was the essence of the new creed? The first noble truth was:

Everything in the world is full of evil and suffering.

The Buddha spared no effort to dispel the centuries-old illusion that clouded the mind of man: the illusion of the self-contained value of this world and its blessings. No one before him had found such strong expressions, such merciless assessments of temporary life.

He ruthlessly discarded all earthly consolations, calling to face the truth. Developing the old motives of the Upanishads, he excelled in vilifying bodily pleasures and the body itself and severely condemned people who are able to have fun, forgetting about universal sorrow.

Analyzing everything that exists, the Buddha comes to the idea of ​​the illusory nature of the world:

Everything is fragile, everything is destroyed, everything is carried away no one knows where. The demon of death reigns in the universe. All roads of life lead to the world of suffering. Everything is vain, everything disappears like a mist, the whole Universe is engulfed in incessant dying. Its very existence is meaningless. Everything is constantly flowing and changing, being in an aimless run. Everywhere we look, there is languor, dissatisfaction, the relentless pursuit of our own shadow, destruction and new creation, which, in turn, rushes towards death.

When and why did this universal whirling, which constitutes the essence of being, arise? The Buddha did not answer this question. His followers only claimed that from beginningless time there were six types of beings:

• good spirits
• Demons
• Animals
• hell dwellers
• Vainly languishing souls who have gone astray, "like sleeping in a dream."

From this being lost in being, nothing arises except illusions and torments. But what gave birth to all suffering beings, and where are the roots of their very existence? Being, answered the Buddha, is only the eternal agitation of dharmas. What it is? The definition of this concept is difficult and can only be negative.

Dharmas These are not particles or spirits, but everything is composed of them - both the material world and the spiritual-soul world.

They differ from each other according to the type of their manifestation. Therefore, later Buddhist philosophers divided them into categories and even tried to determine the number of these categories. With an imperceptible speed for ordinary perception, the vibrations of dharmas fly one after another, giving rise to the image of a transient existence. Therefore, there is nothing permanent in the world. There is no permanent body, there is no soul, just as there is no permanent "I". Thus, in his philosophy of denial, the Buddha went much further than the Brahmins, who also recognized the world as vain and illusory, but still considered the human "I" to be involved in the Eternal and Immutable.

The Second Noble Truth of the Buddha declared that:

The cause of suffering is revealed.

He declared that suffering comes from craving:

• Genesis
• pleasures
• creations
• Authorities

And similar empty earthly attachments and aspirations, symbolized by Bhava Chakka, or the Wheel of Being. The Buddha taught that even in the womb, from the very moment of conception, the future person flashes the original, undifferentiated, vague consciousness.

This consciousness forms a namarupa around itself (the psychophysical sphere in its entirety). Namarupa is divided into "six areas" - five senses and thinking. Their presence determines sensations and feelings. As a result, Trishna develops in a person:

• Thirst for pleasure
• lust for life
• The craving for lust and the related attachment to the sensual

From these vain strivings an invincible will to live is forged. It is she - this is the brainchild of Trishna - that plunges a person into the next incarnation and leads to birth, which ends with old age and death.

This is where the Buddhist formula of fate ended, but in essence it has no end. After all, after the death of a person who has not conquered desire in himself, further lives follow, after them again and again, and so on ad infinitum. Moreover, revivals can take place not only in the human form.

Philosophy of Buddhism

Merciless karma drags the sinful being through the abyss of indescribable torture, causing him to be reborn in hell or in the form of an animal. However, the question arises: if "I" does not exist, then who reincarnates, who is reborn in the bright world of the gods or in the terrible abyss of hell?

A person's actions create certain karmic forces, which do not disappear after his death, but under the influence of the law of karma form a new being. The relationship between the deceased and this being is the same as that between parents and children. Just as children bear the stamp of their fathers, so every human life has a mysterious connection with some previous one.

There is a duality and even inconsistency in this teaching, which gives rise to many questions, but which remains unexplained by the Buddha himself. Addressing the broad masses, he did not destroy the prevailing idea of ​​endless reincarnations, which make sense only if the human soul is recognized as immortal. But when he addressed the philosophers and the elect, he said that "I" does not exist.

It is said that one day a monk bluntly asked the Buddha if the atman "I" existed. But the Buddha did not answer him. "Then maybe there is no 'I'?" the monk continued to ask. The Buddha again did not answer. When the monk left, the disciples expressed surprise at the teacher's evasiveness. The Buddha replied that by his silence he wanted to avoid defending two wrong ideas: permanence and annihilation.

Obviously, he generally considered such a formulation of the question to be incorrect and did not want his followers to be distracted by the solution of these issues. (Already after his death, after almost a thousand years, Buddhist philosophers developed the doctrine of Santana, which was understood as a kind of closed individual unity, which forms a living being in every stream of dharmas. all subsequent reincarnations.)

The essence of Gautama's preaching was the third noble truth:

Ending suffering is possible.

If “manifested being” by its very essence is something painful, painful, woven from sorrows, if this senseless, disgusting existence is supported by ignorance and a stupid, seductive thirst for life, then the destruction of this thirst and the enlightenment of the spirit will bring man liberation. He will leave this ghostly world and merge with Silence and Peace.

To all those who are exhausted and exhausted in the battle with life, the Buddha promised to open the abode of tranquility. For this, he urged them to put on the armor of indifference and not expect anything from the vain world. He taught that the one who managed to conquer his desires "destroyed the thorns of existence: this is his body - the last." Such a person slips out of the muddy waves of samsara, which continue to strive their course already somewhere away from him. Such a person has reached the highest happiness, the highest being - nirvana.

The disciples repeatedly asked the Buddha about what nirvana is, but each time they received ambiguous, vague answers. The Buddha himself apparently believed that the realization of nirvana was beyond human understanding. But one can definitely say that although nirvana lay outside our being, it was not for the Buddha "naked nothingness." Perhaps he felt it as a kind of Superexistence or Absolute Beginning, close to the Brahman of the Upanishads. He resolutely denied the Personal God, the Living God.

In his universe there is nothing but nirvana and a tediously useless turmoil of dharmas. The only goal worthy of a person is liberation, freedom from everything, including oneself.

For this purpose, the Buddha proposed the "eightfold path", which is the fourth noble truth - about the path to deliverance. It included:

1. Correct views, that is, based on "noble truths".
2. Correct determination, that is, readiness for a feat in the name of truth.
3. Correct speech, that is, benevolent, sincere and truthful.
4. Right conduct, that is, not causing evil.
5. The right way of life, that is, peaceful, honest, clean.
6. Right effort, that is, self-education and self-control.
7. Right attention, that is, active vigilance of consciousness.
8. Correct concentration, that is, correct methods of contemplation and meditation.

The mastery of these principles was seen by the Buddha as a series of gradually ascending stages. Starting with an inner determination to conquer the transient excitement in himself, a person suppresses his dark and evil inclinations. He must be kind to everyone, but not in the name of Good, but in the name of freeing himself from the power of evil.

A true Buddhist “will not destroy anyone's life; and he will throw away the rod and sword, full of meekness and pity, he is compassionate and merciful to all beings endowed with life.

Buddhist rules:

• He must avoid stealing
• be chaste
• be truthful
• Gotta drop the rudeness
• Gotta drop the greed
• Gotta drop the idle talk
• Must seek justice in everything

But the observance of these moral precepts is of no value in itself. It only helps a person to develop the forces leading to nirvana, contributes to the approach to the next step, on which complete self-control will dominate and neither hatred nor love will be able to disturb inner peace.

This is the stage of final mastery of one's physical nature.

He who thinks wisely endures both cold and heat, and hunger and thirst, is not afraid of poisonous flies, wind, sun and snakes; he is meek before the word of reproach, before bodily suffering, before the most bitter torment, wearisome, restless, destructive to life.

Here Buddhism fully assimilated the tradition of previous Indian ascetics, who brought themselves into a state of complete insensibility and compared their body with the skin shed by a snake.

Final eighth step:

Path of Buddhism

Following the centuries-old principles of Yoga, Buddhists divided this stage into a number of special stages, the highest of which was the state of sambodhi, when everything human disappears in a person, when his consciousness fades away and no laws have power over him, for he plunges into the incomprehensible "calmness" of nirvana. The being who has come to this limit is the true Buddha. However, there are only a few such Enlightened Ones.

Several very important conclusions followed from these basic tenets of Buddhism. First, everyone can be saved from revivals by their own efforts. True, the path to nirvana is long and difficult; it is necessary to live many lives, rising from step to step towards the highest goal, but when victory is achieved, it is achieved only by the personal efforts of a person, and he does not owe anything to anyone.

Consequently, for the gods, who acted as guardians of people in the traditional religion, there was no place in Buddhism. The Buddha did not deny the existence of the gods, but in his teaching they were simply more perfect beings than people who had advanced further along the path to nirvana.

The Buddha considered rituals and sacrifices to be useless, but he expressed his judgments on this matter very carefully. He openly rebelled only against the bloody sacrifices associated with the killing of animals. He also rejected the authority of all sacred books, including the Vedas, but he was not an active enemy of the scriptures.

Secondly, from the point of view of Buddhism, the generosity of the seeker, his tribal origin, belonging to one or another varna turned out to be of little importance. The origin itself does not give a person anything and cannot ensure the achievement of nirvana. Although the Buddha promised salvation and attainment of nirvana only to ascetics who left their homes and freed from all attachments, many lay people accepted his teachings. At the same time, they had to fulfill the simple ethical code of Pancha Shila (Five Commandments):

1. Refrain from killing.
2. Refrain from stealing.
3. Refrain from fornication.
4. Refrain from lying.
5. Refrain from stimulating drinks.

Following these rules, a person takes a small step towards nirvana. But only monks could count on a positive change in their karma.

Founder of the religion Buddhism

Already in the first years of the existence of Buddhism, a monastic community of sangha was formed around Gautama, that is, an association of people who abandoned everything that had previously connected them with society:

• From family
• From belonging to Varna
• From property

Basically, Buddhist monks lived off the well-wishing alms from the laity; hence their usual name was bhikshu - beggar. The monk was supposed to silently, without raising his eyes, go around the houses of the laity with a cup in his hand, not asking for anything and not insisting on anything, not rejoicing at abundant alms and not upset when he did not receive it at all.

During the life of the Buddha, the first Buddhist monasteries appeared. Usually they were based in groves donated to the Teacher by rich rajas. The monks built huts and houses for general meetings there. Pantries, canteens, baths and other utility rooms appeared next to them. A special post of housekeeper was established, who oversaw the work and fussed about deliveries.

The Buddha closely observed the development of these monasteries and wrote the statutes for them with his own hand. Every step of the monk was strictly regulated in them. However, the founder of the doctrine himself, right up to his death, strictly observed the prescriptions of his charters, not allowing himself any indulgences.

The death of the Buddha did not prevent the further development and spread of his doctrine. He himself, as already mentioned, laid only its foundations. Many questions and the most important provisions of the new religion buddhism required further development and clarification. The first step towards this was taken shortly after the death of the Master.

History of Buddhism Religion

About 470 B.C. the few then still Buddhists gathered in a cave near Rajagriha for the First All-Buddhist Council, where, under the leadership of Kashyapa, the most learned of the followers of the Buddha, they approved the main points of the charter of the community and took measures to preserve the judgments and sayings of the Teacher.

(Obviously, we could only talk about a collection of short oral prescriptions and instructions from the deceased Buddha. Naturally, this took into account, first of all, frequently repeated and often heard maxims of general content, concise wise sayings, etc. In the Buddhist tradition, they were called sutras. Over time, various explanations and indications were added to the sutras as to where, when, on what occasion and for whom each of these sayings was uttered. As a result, some of the sutras have acquired a significant volume).

Shortly after the First Council, two trends emerged in the sangha:

1. orthodox
2. liberal

Representatives of the first current insisted on greater rigor in ascetic exercises and the literal observance of all the surviving precepts of the Buddha. Supporters of the second emphasized moral perfection, weakening, however, the requirements of the charter.

1. The former believed that salvation was possible only for monks who strictly observed the charter of the community established by the Buddha.
2. The second believed that under certain conditions, all living beings can achieve nirvana.

Each of these currents of Buddhism offered its own way of religious salvation, or, as they said then, its own "chariot" - yana, on which one could cross from this earthly existence to the other side of being.

The demarcation between the two schools actually took place already at the Second All-Buddhist Council, which took place a hundred years after the First. Further:

• The orthodox school was given the name Hinayana ("Little Vehicle" or "Vehicle of Individual Liberation").
• And the liberal one is Mahayana (“The Great Chariot”, or “The Chariot of Universal Salvation”).

However, within each school, Buddhism was also not homogeneous. In the III-II centuries. BC the Buddhist church is divided into many sects that challenge each other for the right to be considered the truth of the Dhamma. (Ceylon chronicles, early Indian and Tibetan historians speak of 18 Buddhist schools.)

In 253 B.C. Ashoka, one of the kings of the Mauryan dynasty, convened the Third All-Buddhist Council in Pataliputra. Here the foundations of the Buddhist doctrine that had developed by that time were approved, and heresies were condemned. Only two of the 18 schools were recognized as orthodox - Theravada and Vibhajavada, who defended the orthodox point of view. The unbelieving monks were then to leave Magadha, the main residence of the Theravadis, and go to Kashmir. There they gained strength and became known as Sarvastivadins.

Nagarjuna

The next who significantly expanded the concepts of Buddhism was Nagarjuna, who lived 400 years after the Buddha, in stories and legends he appears as an even more legendary figure than the founder of Buddhism himself. At the age of 20, Nagarjuna was already widely known for his learning. Science, however, was not his only passion.

Having gone to the mountains to the stupa of the Buddha, he took a vow and studied all three Pittakas for 90 days, comprehending their deep meaning. However, their teaching seemed to him incomplete, and Nagarjuna set off to wander in search of unknown sutras. Returning to his homeland, Nagarjuna preached Mahayana Buddhism in South India and was very successful in this. His authority grew every year.

He is reported to have expelled from the monasteries a number of transgressing bhikkhus, among whom were men of great power. After that, all Mahayana schools recognized him as their head. Summing up the activities of Nagarjuna, the Tibetan Buddhist historian Daranta writes that he supported the supreme religion Buddhism in all possible ways:

• teaching
• By building temples
• Maintenance of missionaries
• Drafting rebuttals
• And sermons

And thus contributed to the widespread dissemination of the Mahayana. But Nagarjuna had another great merit before his descendants - it was thanks to him that Buddhism turned from the doctrine of liberation and salvation for a few zealous ascetics into a close and understandable for all people. religion Buddhism.

Nagarjuna formulated the main provisions of his philosophy in 450 karikas - short verses intended for memorization and commentary. These karikas constituted Nagarjuna's main treatise, the Madhyamikasutra (Sutra of the Middle Teaching), a classic work that was then commented on by many famous Buddhists in India, Tibet, China and Japan.

Mahayana

The next course in which the Buddha from a teacher-man who indicated the path to salvation and the first to enter nirvana turns into a deity becomes Mahayana. At the same time, supporters of this trend emphasized that, for all the significance of his Buddha personality for his era, he is nothing out of the ordinary.

However, in the first centuries of our era, Mahayana Buddhism quickly spread in Central Asia, penetrated into China, and through it - into Japan and Korea. Later, it also gained a foothold in Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia and Central Asia. But in India itself, Mahayana Buddhism did not become widespread.

Hui-neng

The transfer of Buddhism from its native Indian soil to the culture and daily life of China can be considered one of the most significant events in the history of this creed. The process of its strengthening and development here was complex and lengthy. It took several centuries before Buddhist religion spread throughout the Middle Empire.

At the same time, Buddhism became strongly Sinicized and acquired specific features that make it possible to speak of it as a special dogma. Among the many new schools that appeared in the middle of the first millennium, the most original phenomenon that developed on Chinese soil was the teaching of Chan Buddhism.

Chan is believed to have originated in India as a meditative "dhyana" school of Mahayana Buddhism. For her followers, the most important moment among the huge number of legends about the Buddha was the fact of his enlightenment. Supporters of this sect urged their followers to renounce the outside world more often and, following the ancient Indian traditions, immerse themselves in themselves, concentrate their thoughts and feelings on one thing, concentrate and go into the endless depths of the existent and mysterious.

The goal of dhyana was to achieve trance in the process of meditation, because it was believed that it was in a state of trance that a person could reach the hidden depths of his "I" and find insight, the truth, as happened with Gautama Shakyamuni himself under the Bo (Bodhi) tree.

At the time when the founder of the Chan school, Bodhidharma, arrived in China, the first preachers of Buddhism began their activities in Tibet. Tibet was then barbaric mountain country located on the very outskirts of the civilized world.

However, it was he who was destined to become, over time, the most important world center of Buddhism, the place where this creed received the most complete development and became a true source of mental and moral education for the entire people.

Nowhere else in the East has Buddhism been able to achieve such complete victory over other creeds, nowhere else did he find such a strong position among the population and such power over the minds. The most powerful hierarchical Buddhist church in the world was also formed here, which received the name Lamaist by the nickname of the clergy. (Lamas are the Buddhist monasticism of Tibet; literally, "lama" is translated as "the highest".)

Asanga

After Nagarjuna big influence on the development of Buddhism was the philosophical school of the Yogacharas, which combined the ancient practice of yoga with the mythology and philosophy of the Mahayana. The founder of this system is the great scientist, abbot of the famous Nalanda monastery, Arya Asanga, who lived in the 5th century after R.Kh.

The peculiarity of the yogachars' religious practice was that, along with the traditional provisions of Buddhist ethics, special techniques of yogic contemplation, as well as mysticism - spells, amulets and secret tantras, occupied an important place in it. Thus, Buddhist Tantrism was born. (In general, Tantrism is as ancient as yoga itself, and its origins are hidden in the depths of Indian history.)

Tantras (literally - "intricacies") Called secret, magical texts and incantation formulas that give power over the world of spirits and liberate hidden powers person.

Yogacharas believed that, having mastered the art of Tantric spells and special techniques of Tantric meditation, one can achieve the state of enlightenment, merge with the deity and get out of the circle of rebirths much faster than the means indicated by the Mahayana (even during one rebirth!). However, one should not think that spells and higher power everything will be done for the person. Before resorting to the practice of tantra, the seeker must pass long haul self-knowledge and moral improvement.

Since then, magic and all kinds of spells began to play a huge role in the worship. But at the beginning of the ninth century Buddhism was severely persecuted and fell into decay. King Langdarma ordered the destruction of many temples and the destruction of images of the Buddhas. Holy books were burned, and lamas were forcibly turned into hunters and butchers. Anyone who opposed this was immediately put to death.

The next two centuries were the time of paganism. Only in the middle of the XI century. another native of India, Atisha, again revived Buddhism in Tibet, carrying out a series of reforms aimed at strengthening the traditions of the classical Maha-yana here. Through his efforts, several large monasteries were created, which later became important Buddhist centers.

But the followers of Padma Sambhava, who still emphasized magic in their religious practice, did not want to hear about strict discipline and celibacy, were dissatisfied with Ati-shi's reforms. United around the influential Sakya monastery, they opposed innovations.

Since that time, a stubborn struggle began between two Tibetan schools:

• Red hats (red clothes were worn by followers of Padma Sambhava).
• And yellow hats (it was a symbol of classical Buddhism of Atisha's supporters).

The final success of Buddhism and the completion of the formation of its Tibetan variety - Lamaism were associated with the reforms of Tsongkhapa.

Tsonkhapa

By the beginning of the XV century. include the appearance of the main work of Tsongkhapa "The Great Path on the Steps of Wisdom" ("Lamrim"). It covered the widest range of theological issues: from deep metaphysical problems to a detailed development of the foundations of monastic life.

For the lamas, Tsongkhapa's work became a fundamental book, where one could find answers to all questions without exception. At the same time, the Lamrim expounded the most important provisions of the doctrine of salvation for the lowest rank of people, that is, for those who are immersed in earthly interests and have not seriously thought about the need for salvation.

Tsongkhapa believed that the teaching could not be comprehended by the seeker directly, without the help of the clergy. Of course, without the teachings of the Buddha - sutras - salvation is generally impossible, but only a lama can teach this teaching correctly. Summing up the most authoritative writings, Tsongkhapa showed that it was the lama who served as the source of knowledge of the path to salvation.

He is the condition for the conquest of bliss and the destruction of vice. Without it, the possibility of salvation cannot be realized. Therefore, the seeker of salvation must renounce his mind and surrender himself to the power of the "friend of virtue" - the lama. The veneration of the lama must be seen as the veneration of the Buddha himself.

In Tsongkhapa's Lamaism, it was no longer enough to proclaim one's devotion to the Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha. Necessary condition comprehension of the innermost essence of the great teaching was the direct connection between the teacher and the student, which goes back to Buddhist Tantrism, and the connection is deeply personal, trusting, with the unquestioning obedience of the leader to the leader.

However, Tsongkhapa did not stop there. He examined and reformed literally all aspects of the religious and ecclesiastical life of Tibetan Buddhism. He thought out a complex system of church hierarchy, developed an exemplary charter for lama monasteries, firmly established the celibacy of lamas and, which was especially important, allowed them to own property.

He developed many details of the rite and cult, introduced elements of theatrical performance and music into the practice of worship, and established many holidays. He greatly restricted the practice of magical rites, opposing much of what was brought by Padma Sambhava and became customary for the red hats. First of all, the prohibition concerned such extremes as emitting fire from the mouth, swallowing knives, etc., bordering on mere charlatanism. But those magical techniques that were based on the sacred Buddhist scriptures remained in full force.

Tsongkhapa died in 1419. His incorrupt relics were preserved for a long time in the Ganden monastery.

Shortly before his death, he announced his two best students as his successors, bequeathing them to constantly be reborn in the future. Since that time, the Tibetan Church has always been headed by two supreme lamas: the Dalai Lama, who had a residence in Lhasa, and the Bogdo Lama, who resided in Tashilumpo, in Lower Tibet.

It was believed that after death they (nine months later) were embodied in male infants, who were to be chosen and, after strict verification, proclaimed the next incarnation of the deceased lama. At the same time, the eldest of the two, the Dalai Lama (the greatest), began to be considered the incarnation of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and the other, the Panchen Lama, the incarnation of Amitabha Himself.

Over time, the Dalai Lama concentrated in his hands the highest spiritual and political power and became the universally recognized authority of all adherents of Lamaism and many Buddhists. At first, Lamaism was practiced only in Tibet, but already in the 16th century. this doctrine spread widely among the Mongols, and then also among the Buryats, Kalmyks and Tuvans.

For several centuries, up to the middle of the 20th century, the lamas concentrated in their hands all the fullness of spiritual and secular power over Tibet. However, this did not happen immediately. It took several centuries of painstaking "Buddhization" and "Lamaization" before the structure of Tibetan society acquired its finished form and became, as it were, a continuation of the lamaist church, headed by the great Dalai Lama.

The honor of the final arrangement of the Tibetan religious community belongs to the great medieval preacher Tsongkhapa, who can also be regarded as the last great theoretician of Buddhism, who completed the two thousand-year process of forming this dogma in his writings.

Buddhism is considered the oldest of the world's religions. Christianity and Islam arose much later - six and thirteen centuries after the appearance of the Buddha's creed.

Over the years of its formation and development, Buddhism has created and improved not only a religious worldview, but also philosophy, culture, and art. By practicing this religion, a person can learn a whole range of scientific knowledge, not limited to one point of view. What is the Buddhist creed? What are its foundations and practices?

What does the word "Buddhism" mean?

The representatives of Buddhism themselves call their religion Buddhadharma, and its founder Shakyamuni Buddha - Dharma. The concept comes from the Sanskrit phrase buddha dharma, which in translation means "Teachings of the Enlightened One" . Term "Buddhism" was coined by Europeans in the 19th century to designate a religious and philosophical movement that came to Europe from Ancient India.

Buddhism originated around the 6th century BC thanks to the spiritual teacher Siddhattha Gotama, who later became known as the Buddha. It is believed that his path to enlightenment began in previous lives, but the understanding of the harsh reality appeared only at the last birth under the name Gotama.

At the age of 16, he married Princess Yashodhara, and at the age of 29 he got out of the palace and saw 4 so-called "spectacles" that completely turned his life around. On that day, the Buddha met a hermit, a poor man, a sick man and a decomposed corpse, after which he realized that neither wealth nor fame can protect people from deprivation, illness and death.

What he saw prompted the Buddha to leave the palace and go in search of enlightenment. During his journey, he, the rules of meditation, and at the age of 35, finally achieved awakening (bodhi) and received knowledge of the "Four Noble Truths".


Since then, the Buddha began to pass on his acquired knowledge to other people, and after his death, all his dialogues, sayings and precepts were collected by his disciples into a single Buddhist canon "Tripitaka".

What is Buddhism?

Today, Buddhism is a world religion and philosophical doctrine, although some researchers and historians call it the "science of consciousness." There are two main branches of Buddhism in the world, differing in their methods of practice and philosophical views.

The Mahayana (Great Vehicle) doctrine is based on beliefs about a certain path, following which people can achieve bodhi. Hinayana (Small Vehicle) is based on ideas about the state of being and on the denial of the human soul as an independent entity.

In addition to the two main currents of Buddhism, there is an additional worldview Vajrayana (Diamond Chariot), which separated from the Mahayana in the 5th century.

Who are Buddhists?

Buddhists include adherents of the Buddhist religion, that is, people who have dedicated their lives to the path to spiritual awakening. The total number of adherents of this religion in the world is more than 460 million people, of which about 1 million are Buddhist monks.

The doctrine was most widespread in Asia - mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the continent. Maximum amount Buddhists are concentrated in India, Vietnam, China, Cambodia. In Russia, Buddhist communities can be found in Tuva, Kalmykia and Buryatia.

What are the Four Noble Truths?

At the heart of Buddhist teachings are the "Four Noble Truths", the knowledge of which allows people to come to awakening.

First, Buddhists believe that there is suffering (dukkha) in the world.

Secondly, dukkha has causes.

Thirdly, each person has the opportunity to get rid of suffering by eliminating the cause of dukkha.

And fourthly, the adherents of Buddhism believe that there is a path in the world by which one can get rid of dukkha.

How is Buddhism different from other world religions?

If we compare Buddhism with monotheistic religions that recognize the unity of God, then its main difference is the fact that Buddhists do not believe in the existence of a creator God.


They do not recognize the creation of the world by the Almighty and believe that it was not created by anyone and is not controlled by anyone. The doctrine denies the possibility, there is no heresy and unconditional faith in it. In addition, in Buddhism there are no unified textual canons and a common religious organization similar to Christian churches.

It is impossible in a short article to describe everything that I want to say about Buddhism and describe all kinds of schools and philosophical directions. But let's try, based on the most important of them, to understand what Buddhism is and how this orthodox spiritual teaching affects the spiritualization of society, how its awareness and responsibility develop.

To do this, we must talk a little not only about the religion itself, but also about how humanity has passed with it through several thousand years of its existence. We will try to be objective in assessing this doctrine.

Buddhism- this is a religious and philosophical doctrine, a world religion, which points to the personality of the Buddha as an enlightened person, mentions his revolutionary approach to the relationship between man and God, in comparison with the then existing religious orders. The founder of this ancient religious denomination, which arose in the 6th century. BC. (V North India), is Buddha Shakyamuni.

The exact number of Buddhists is very difficult to establish, there are approximately 500 million around the world, most of whom live in China.

Buddhism focuses on human aspects - the main provisions of this religion. It, especially in its most modern directions, says that we ourselves are responsible for our own destiny, not only in this life, but no less important, in the next incarnations of the immortal soul.

Four Classical Principles

The assumptions of original Buddhism are extremely simple and based on four classical principles:

1. Life is suffering;

2. This truth explains why there is suffering - we suffer because we ourselves want it;

3. This principle of Buddhism speaks of watching ourselves in order to get out of the power of suffering, while we must completely give up our desires;

4. This rule is a series of instructions on how to achieve this state (coinciding in many points with the Christian Ten Commandments).

These are the foundations of Buddhism, which over the centuries have been fully transformed into the state religion, and have also become an integral attribute of the secular and cultural life of the entire Eastern community.

Basic concepts of Buddhism

Three main concepts:

1. Dharma - there is truth and wisdom, the very core of the science of the transcendent Buddha.

It gives an understanding of what is happening to us and what should happen. As a result of understanding this truth, we must do something about ourselves. Our inner duty is to free ourselves from suffering. Everyone must come to their true self through the complete liberation of their spiritual beginning from all kinds of layers created by our ego.

2. Karma - is a causal relationship of events that determine our present and future living conditions. It is who we are and arises from who we were and what we did in previous incarnations. Each new incarnation is a chance to improve your destiny.

3. Nirvana - the last great concept of Buddhism and is the best "reward" for our good deeds in relation to ourselves and to other people, to the world around us, to being in general. It is a consequence of the interruption of rotation, alternating birth and death until the final liberation from the suffering and desires of this world.

Types of Buddhism

I do not pretend to be an exhaustive completeness of the story, I show only the main types of Buddhism and the huge cultural life that is hidden behind one of the most numerous religions in the world.

Theravada Hinayana. This type of Buddhism has survived in South Asia and includes South India, Ceylon, Indochina. This is the oldest form of Buddhist teaching. Very old texts of the Buddhist canon have been preserved, which contains a rich collection of precepts and parables. This is the most primitive form of the Buddhist religion and is not widespread.

Chinese Buddhism.Brought up in India, he rushed to China, which became the ideal "relay station" to the entire East, and then to the West. As a result of such complex metamorphoses and transformations, the Chan school was created in China, which is the basis of Zen Buddhism, which spread to Japan and Korea. The school was founded by Bodhidharma Buddha, who arrived in China in the fifth century BC. Over time, it became the most important original form of Chinese Buddhism, which gained a prominent place among other systems thinking and belief systems in China - Confucianism and Taoism.

Tibetan Buddhism. It is the most colorful, most picturesque Buddhist destination in the world. It consists of two elements. First, the structure of the religion itself is Lamaism, another name for Buddhism currently practiced in Tibet. It became the main local belief - a religion full of ghosts, magic and gods. The second characteristic of Lamaism, which is very different from other schools of Buddhism, is the unusually strong position of the priests (lamas). Tibet before the Chinese invasion was the most theocratic state in the world - a third of the population were monks.

Japanese. This type of Buddhism is divided into several sects, of which I will consider the most important in chronological order. They originate from two main traditions - Rinzai and Soto.

Shin Buddhism comes from the name of Amida Buddha, who reigns in the paradise of the "pure land". In order to enter heaven, a Buddhist must pronounce the name Amida Buddha. This concept is widely known throughout the history of the development of Buddhism in India and China, but only in Japan, the monk Honen (1133-1212) declared that the inspired pronunciation of the Buddha's name is enough. You do not need good thoughts, deeds or meditations, you just repeat the formula of Namu Amida Butsu (hence the other name of this sect - nembutsu) and by this you will be able to achieve salvation.

The monk Sinran, who lived 1173-1262 and was a student of Honen, after a while came up with his own original thesis that the very existence of each person's life is not given by the Buddha and it is no longer necessary to call his name in order to be saved and come to eternal bliss and harmony.

Nichiren is perhaps the most controversial version of the Buddha's teachings. The sect was founded by Nichiren, who lived from 1222-1282 and was a great religious reformer. This tradition was started by historical events At that time, Japan was plagued by military conflicts and natural disasters.

He took advantage of this fact to argue that in order to achieve peace and tranquility, it is necessary to create one religion in Japan - Buddhism in such a form that it contributes to the achievement of enlightenment. Thus, a fanatical, ultra-nationalist religious movement is created, a kind of "Japanese national Buddhism."

What is Zen Buddhism? It is the most developed form. Rejects any external religious attributes - hierarchies and rituals, as well as any intellectual aids that contribute to enlightenment (sermons and sacred books of Wisdom). Enlightenment comes here and now, and only through contemplation, there is liberation from egoism. This state is achieved through zazen or sitting in the lotus position, enjoying the breath - these are the conditions necessary to assume the compassionate nature of the Buddha.

Rinzai Zen Rinzai is the most important Japanese Zen movement, also founded by a monk who was not very satisfied with Japanese Buddhism and decided to go to China (from where Buddhism came to Japan) to learn the true understanding of this religion. Thanks to him, the fundamental principles of Buddhism (Chinese Chan) were extended to Japanese islands, called in the new dialect Zen. This is the beginning of one of the two main Zen traditions;

Soto Zen.Soto is a Japanese school founded by a monk named Dogen, who was a student of Reverend Rinzai and took many elements of thought from him. However, like the master, he went alone to China to the local sources to learn about the true dimension of Buddhism. Thus, another type of Japanese Zen appeared, which is still popular and is practiced by a lot of fans.

Korean Buddhism. In Korea, this type of teaching has a centuries-old tradition. However, a hundred or two hundred years ago, this teaching seemed to have lost its significance. This was before the middle of the twentieth century. But in the wake of the growing interest in Zen Buddhism in the West, Korean Buddhism is also experiencing a renaissance. The best example is the Kwame Um Zen school.

Perhaps the species presented here and their brief descriptions were useful for those who are interested in this ancient religious denomination. I am deeply convinced that the idea of ​​being a Buddhist is one of the most valuable human desires, which in some strange way is close to every person.

Buddhism (buddha dharma"The Teaching of the Enlightened One") is a religious and philosophical doctrine (dharma) about spiritual awakening (bodhi), which arose around the 6th century BC. e. in ancient India. The founder of the teaching is Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha Shakyamuni.

The followers of this Teaching themselves called it "Dharma" (Law, Teaching) or "Buddhadharma" (Teaching of the Buddha). The term "Buddhism" was created by Europeans in the 19th century.

The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Sidhartha Gautama (aka Shakyamuni, i.e. "sage from the Shaky family") - the Buddha, who lived in the Ganges valley (India). Having spent a serene childhood and youth in his father's palace, he, shocked by meetings with the sick, the old man, the corpse of the deceased and with the ascetic, went into a hermitage, to look for a way to save people from suffering. After the "great insight" he became an itinerant preacher of the doctrine of spiritual liberation, thereby starting the movement of the wheel of a new world religion.

At the heart of the teaching, Siddhartha Gautama outlined the concept of the Four Noble Truths: about suffering, about the origin and causes of suffering, about the true cessation of suffering and the elimination of its sources, about the true paths to the cessation of suffering. The middle or eightfold path to reach Nirvana is proposed. This path is directly related to the three types of cultivation of virtues: morality, concentration and wisdom - prajna. The spiritual practice of walking along these paths leads to the true cessation of suffering and finds its highest point in nirvana.

Buddha came to this world for the sake of beings wandering in the cycle of being. Of the three types of miraculous manifestations - body, speech and thought - the main one was the miraculous manifestation of speech, which means that he came for the sake of turning the wheel of the Teaching (ie, preaching).

Master Shakyamuni was born in royal family and spent the first period of his life as a prince. When he realized that all the joys of the cycle of being are of the nature of suffering, he abandoned life in the palace and began to practice asceticism. Finally, in Bodh Gaya, he pointed out the path to complete enlightenment, and then in turn performed the three famous turns of the wheel of the Teaching.

According to the views of the Mahayana schools, the Buddha turned the wheel of Dharma three times: this means that he gave three large cycles of teachings that correspond to the various abilities of students and show them the way to lasting happiness. From now on, there are methods at the disposal of all who live in the era after the advent of the Buddha, by which one can achieve the perfect state of complete Enlightenment.

According to the views of the most ancient unreformed Theravada school, the Buddha turned the Wheel of Teaching only once. During the recitation of the Dhammacakkapavatana Sutta in Varanasi. Further turns Theravada refers to later changes in the original doctrine.

During the first Turning of the Wheel of Dharma:

The Buddha taught mainly the Four Noble Truths and the Law of Karma, which explain our situation in the cycle of existence and affirm the possibility of liberation from all suffering and the causes of suffering. In the first cycle of teachings, which deals mainly with external behavior, the role of a monk or nun corresponds. If we correlate these cycles of teachings with various branches of Buddhism, then we can say that the first cycle of teachings of the Buddha is the basis for the Theravada tradition.

During the second Turning of the Wheel of Dharma:

The Buddha gave teachings on relative and absolute truth, as well as Dependent Origination (Theory of Dependent Existence) and Emptiness (Shunyate). He showed that things that appear in accordance with the law of cause and effect (karma) are inherently free from actual, independent existence. In the second cycle of teachings, which refers to the inner mood, corresponds to the role of a layman or a laywoman who takes responsibility for others: for example, for a family or for any social groups. This cycle of the Buddha's teachings is the basis for the Great Vehicle (Mahayana).

During the third Turn of the Wheel of Dharma:

Teachings were given about the Enlightened Nature (Buddha Nature) inherent in all beings, containing all the perfect qualities and primordial wisdom of the Buddha. In this cycle of teachings corresponds the role of the practicing yogi or yogini "achieved perfection", who combine a pure view of things with constant practice. The third cycle of the Buddha's teachings is the basis for the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) and the Tantra Vehicle (Vajrayana).

Buddha's teaching

The Buddha's teaching is called "dharma", which means "law". Buddhists refer this concept also to the name of their religion. There is currently controversy as to what exactly the Buddha himself said, as there are many scriptures that claim to be the word of the Buddha.

All of the 84,000 teachings of the Buddha are based on his first sermons - the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Subsequently, Buddhism split into several branches, which refined and developed various aspects of the teaching. The Buddha himself stated that it is important for each person to be aware of the limits of their faith and respect the faith of others:

The person has faith. If he says, "This is my faith," he is holding on to the truth. But by this he cannot proceed to the absolute conclusion: "Only this is the truth, and everything else is a lie."

Karma

All Far Eastern religions have a very keen sense that there is a moral law. In Hinduism and Buddhism it is called karma; This word in Sanskrit means "action". Any human action - deeds, words and even thoughts is called karma. A good action creates good karma, and an evil action creates bad karma. This karma affects the future of a person. The present not only creates the future, it is itself created by the past. Therefore, all the troubles of the present are considered by Buddhists as retribution for misdeeds committed either in this life or in the past, since Buddhists believe in reincarnation, reincarnation. Reincarnation is a doctrine shared by Hindus and Buddhists. According to this understanding, after death, a person is born again in a new body. Thus, who a person is in life is the result of karma. The first two verses of the Dhamma Pada, a beloved Buddhist text, summarize the essence of karma.

If a person speaks and acts with impure thoughts, suffering follows him like a wagon wheel follows an animal harnessed to the wagon.

What we are today is generated by what we thought yesterday, and our thoughts today generate our life tomorrow; our life is the product of our thought.

If a person speaks and acts with pure thoughts, joy follows him like his own shadow.

Geshe Kelsang Giatso, a Tibetan Buddhist spiritual teacher, described it just as well:

"Every action we take leaves an imprint on our thought, and every imprint eventually leads to consequences. Our thought is like a field, and doing actions is like sowing seeds in this field. Righteous deeds sow the seeds of future happiness, and unrighteous deeds deeds sow the seeds of future suffering. These seeds lie dormant in our thought until they are ready to ripen, and then they have their effect."

Therefore, it is pointless to blame others for your troubles, "for the person himself commits evil, and he defiles himself. He also does not commit evil himself, and he purifies himself, Purity and filth are interconnected. One cannot "cleanse" the other. The Buddha said that the problem is that "it is easy to do unrighteousness and that which will harm you, but it is very difficult to do righteousness and that which will benefit you."

When speaking to ordinary people, the Buddha emphasized karma, the fear of a bad birth and the hope of a good birth. He told people how to prepare themselves for a good birth: to live a moral and responsible life, not to seek happiness in transient material goods, to be kind and unselfish towards all people. Buddhist scriptures contain terrifying pictures of hellish suffering and life as a miserable ghost. Bad karma has a twofold effect - a person becomes unhappy in this life, loses friends or suffers from guilt and is reborn in some miserable form. Good karma leads to peace, rest, untroubled sleep, the love of friends and good health in this life and to a good rebirth after death, perhaps to a stay in one of the heavenly worlds where life is like paradise. Although the Buddha's teaching may seem very difficult to understand, one of the reasons people are drawn to it is the simplicity of its language and practicality.

Remember, there are six ways to waste time and money: drunkenness, nighttime wandering, going to fairs and festivities, gambling, bad company, and laziness.

There are six reasons why drunkenness is bad. It takes money, leads to quarrels and fights, causes illness, leads to notoriety, encourages immoral acts, which you later regret, weakens the mind.

There are six reasons why nocturnal loitering is bad. You may be beaten, your family will be left at home without your protection, you may be robbed, you may be suspected of crimes, rumors about you will be believed, and you will be in all sorts of trouble.

Going to fairs and festivities means you'll waste your time thinking about music, instruments, dancing, entertainment, and forget about the important things.

Gambling is bad because when you lose you lose money, when you win you make enemies, no one trusts you, your friends despise you, and no one will marry you.

Bad company means that your friends are hooligans, drunkards, deceivers and criminals, and can lead you to a bad path.

Laziness is bad because you spend your life achieving nothing, earning nothing. A lazy person can always find an excuse not to work: "too hot" or "too cold", "too early" or "too late", "I'm too hungry" or "I'm too full".

Although the moral teachings of Buddhism are largely similar to the ethical code of other religions, it is based on something else. Buddhists do not consider their principles as commandments of the Supreme Being, which should be obeyed. Rather, they are instructions on how to follow the path of spiritual growth and achieve perfection. Therefore, Buddhists try to understand how this or that rule should be used in a particular situation, and do not obey them blindly. So, it is usually considered that it is bad to lie, but in certain circumstances it may be justified - for example, when it comes to salvation. human life.

"Whether an action is good, bad or neutral depends entirely on the thought that drives it. Good deeds come from good thoughts, bad deeds from bad thoughts, and neutral actions from neutral thoughts." / Geshe Kelsang Giatso. "Introduction to Buddhism"

Thus, whether a person follows instructions or not, the most important thing is what motives dictate this or that action, selfish or unselfish. For spiritual growth, it is not just the actions themselves that are important, but the reasons why you do them.

Sermon in Deer Park

In the first sermon delivered after enlightenment, the Buddha revealed to his former companions what he had learned and which later formed the center of his teaching. However, it should be remembered that this sermon was read to five ascetic monks, experienced in religious practice, who were prepared to understand and accept his words. As noted above, sermons addressed to ordinary people were much simpler. In a sermon in Deer Park, the Buddha compared himself to a doctor whose work consists of four stages:

make a diagnosis of the disease;

determine the cause of the disease;

find a way to heal;

prescribe medicine.

The Buddha told the ascetics that he was convinced by experience that in life both the pursuit of pleasure and excessive asceticism bring the same harm. A moderate life, the Middle Way, led him to insight, peace and enlightenment. Following this path allowed him to see the Four Truths clearly.

Four Noble Truths

First truth

The first truth is that life, as most beings know it, is not complete in itself. Life is "dukkha", which is usually translated as suffering. “Here is the holy truth about suffering: birth is suffering, old age is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering; union with the unlovable is suffering, separation from the beloved is suffering, failure to achieve what is desired is suffering.”

Buddhists distinguish three forms of suffering:

1. Ordinary, simple suffering, like the above. The more thoughtful and sensitive a person is, the more he realizes the suffering that underlies everything, from animals that prey on each other to a person who humiliates his fellows.
2. The second type of suffering comes from the impermanence of life. Even beautiful things perish, loved ones die, and sometimes we change so much that things that once gave pleasure no longer please. Therefore, even people who at first glance have all the available benefits are actually unhappy.
3. The third form of suffering is subtler. This feeling that life always brings disappointment, dissatisfaction, disharmony and incompleteness. Life is mixed up like a dislocated joint that hurts with every movement.

When a person finally realizes that life is dukkha, the desire to be free from suffering comes to him.

Second truth

The second truth is that the cause of suffering is tanha, our craving or selfish desires. We want, we want, we want... endlessly. These desires come from ignorance. The reason for such desires is that we are blinded. We think that happiness can be found through external sources. "Here is the Noble Truth about the origin of suffering: our thirst leads to the renewal of being, accompanied by pleasure and greed, you seek pleasure here and there, in other words, it is a thirst for sensual experiences, a thirst for eternal life, a thirst for oblivion."

The Buddha identified six basic human delusions:

1. Ignorance- misunderstanding of the nature of cyclic existence and the law of cause and effect.
2. Greed- the desire to satisfy sensual needs, excessive attachment to objects and people that we find beautiful.
3. Anger- the biggest obstacle on the path to enlightenment, because it destroys the state of harmony both in the human soul and in the world.
4. Pride- a sense of superiority over others.
5. Doubt- insufficient faith in the cyclical nature of existence and karma, which becomes an obstacle on the path to enlightenment.
6. Doctrine of delusion- firm adherence to ideas that bring suffering to yourself and others

Third Truth

By identifying the cause of suffering and getting rid of it, we can end suffering ourselves. "Here is the Noble Truth of the cessation of suffering: vanishing without residue and cessation, annihilation, withdrawal and renunciation of craving."

The Buddha taught that because he was able to do this, we too can overcome suffering, get rid of craving and ignorance. In order to achieve this, we need to give up craving, give up delusions. No happiness is possible until we are freed from the bondage of desires. We are sad because we long for things we do not have. And thus we become slaves of these things. The state of absolute inner peace, which a person achieves by overcoming the power of thirst, ignorance and suffering, is called nirvana by Buddhists. It is often said that the state of nirvana cannot be described, but can only be experienced - talking about it is the same as talking to a blind man about colors. According to the character of the Buddha, one can say that a person who has reached nirvana remains alive, happy, energetic, never remains in apathy or boredom, always knows how to do the right thing, still feels the joys and sufferings of other people, but he himself is not subject to them.

The Fourth Truth or the Eightfold Path

The fourth truth is a practical method by which craving and ignorance can be fought and suffering can end. This is a whole way of life called the Middle Way, or the Noble Eightfold Path. Following this path of self-discipline, we can overcome our selfishness, become selfless people, living for the benefit of others. "Here is the Noble Truth on how to get rid of suffering: it is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of righteous knowledge, righteous intentions, righteous speech, righteous deeds, righteous living, righteous diligence, righteous thoughts, and righteous contemplation."

This lifestyle can be reduced to exercise in three areas:

• Moral discipline
• Contemplation
• Wisdom

Moral discipline is the determination to get rid of all evil deeds and calm the thirst that overwhelms the mind. Having overcome this, it will be easier for us to delve into contemplation, leading to the achievement of inner peace. And when the mind is at rest, we can overcome our ignorance.

1. Righteous knowledge

Because suffering comes from a wrong philosophy of life, salvation begins with righteous knowledge. This means that we must accept the Buddha's teachings - his understanding of human life and the Four Noble Truths. Without accepting the essence of the teaching, it makes no sense for a person to follow the Way.

2. Righteous intentions

We must acquire the right attitude towards life, seeing our goal in enlightenment and unselfish love for all things. In Buddhist ethics, actions are judged by intentions.

3. Righteous speech

Our speech is a reflection of character and a way to change it. With words, we can offend or, conversely, help someone. Unrighteous speech is lies, gossip, abuse and vainglory. In life, we much more often bring people pain with our thoughtless words than with any other actions. Righteous speech includes helpful advice, words of comfort and encouragement, and so on. The Buddha often emphasized the value of silence when there is no way to say something useful.

4. Righteous deeds

By changing our actions, we must first become selfless and merciful. This is revealed in the Five Precepts, the moral code of Buddhism.

1. The first commandment don't kill not only humans, but also other living beings. Therefore, most Buddhists are vegetarians.
2. Second - don't steal because it violates the community that everyone is a part of.
3. Third - abstain from sexual promiscuity. The Buddha considered the sex drive to be the most powerful and uncontrollable. Therefore, the Buddha's attitude towards women is: "Is she old? Treat her like a mother. Is she honorable? Consider her a sister. Is she of low rank? Treat her like a younger sister. Is she a child? Treat her with respect and courtesy." .
4. Fourth - avoid lying. A Buddhist is devoted to the truth, since a lie betrays the liar and other people and causes suffering.
5. Fifth - abstinence from alcohol and drugs. A Buddhist tries to gain control over his body's desires, mind and feelings, but alcohol and drugs prevent this.

In addition to prohibitions, Buddhism encourages virtues - the joy of a simple life, the rejection of material worries, love and compassion for all things, tolerance.

5. Righteous living

The Buddha talked about how one should live without harming others. A person's occupation should not interfere with his observance of the moral code. Therefore, the Buddha condemned the slave trade, prostitution, the manufacture of weapons and intoxicants such as drugs and alcohol. It is necessary to look for such occupations that would serve the benefit of other people.

6. Righteous Diligence

Spiritual growth begins with the fact that a person is aware of both good and bad sides of his character. To follow the path of spiritual perfection, a person must inevitably make efforts, not allowing new bad thoughts to enter his soul, expelling the already existing evil from there, cultivating good thoughts in himself and improving. This requires patience and perseverance.

7. Righteous thoughts

"What we are is generated by what we think about." Therefore, it is important to be able to subordinate your thoughts. The human mind should not obey any random thoughts and reasoning. Therefore, Buddhists make a lot of efforts to become more aware of themselves - their body, sensations, feelings and thoughts, which helps to develop self-control.

8. Righteous contemplation

Righteous contemplation can be attained through meditation. The purpose of meditation is to bring the spirit into a state in which it can perceive truth and attain wisdom.

What is meditation

We usually find it difficult to control our thinking. It seems as if our thought is similar hot air balloon in the wind - external circumstances turn it in different directions. If everything goes well, we have happy thoughts; as soon as circumstances change for the worse, thoughts become sad. For example, if we get what we want, some new thing or a new friend, we rejoice and only think about it; but since we cannot have everything we want, and since we have to lose what pleases us now, this mental attachment only hurts us. On the other hand, if we don't get what we want, or if we lose what we love, we feel frustrated and discouraged. Such mood swings are due to the fact that we are too attached to the external situation. We are like children who build a sandcastle and rejoice in it, and then become sad when the tide takes it away. By practicing meditation, we create an inner space and clarity that allows us to control our thoughts regardless of external circumstances. Gradually we achieve inner balance; our consciousness becomes calm and happy, not knowing the fluctuations between the extremes of delight and despair. By constantly practicing meditation, we will be able to eradicate from our consciousness those delusions that are the cause of all our troubles and suffering. Thus we will achieve permanent inner peace, nirvana. Then our successive lives will be filled only with peace and happiness.

Geshe Kelsang Giatso

Teachings of Buddhism. Basic concepts

1. Twelve Nidanas

According to tradition, the opening of the "Chain of Causality" (twelve Nidanas) marked the attainment of insight by Gotama. The problem that had tormented him for many years found a solution. Thinking from cause to cause, Gotama came to the source of evil:

1. Existence is suffering, for it contains old age, death, and a thousand sufferings.
2. I suffer because I am born.
3. I was born because I belong to the world of being.
4. I am born because I nourish existence within me.
5. I feed it because I have desires.
6. I have desires because I have feelings.
7. I feel because I am in contact with the outside world.
8. This contact is produced by the action of my six senses.
9. My feelings manifest because, being a person, I oppose myself to the impersonal.
10. I am a person, because I have a consciousness imbued with the consciousness of this person.
11. This consciousness was created as a result of my previous existences.
12. These existences clouded my consciousness, for I did not know.

It is customary to list this duodecimal formula in reverse order:

1. Avidya (obscurity, ignorance)
2. Samsara (karma)
3. Vishnana (consciousness)
4. Kama - rupa (form, sensual and non-sensory)
5. Shad-ayatana (six transcendental bases of feelings)
6. Sparsha (contact)
7. Vedana (feeling)
8. Trishna (thirst, lust)
9. Upadana (attraction, attachments)
10. Bhava (being)
11. Jati (birth)
12. Jara (old age, death)

So, the source and root cause of all the misfortunes of mankind lies in obscurity, in ignorance. Hence the vivid definitions and condemnations of ignorance by Gotama. He argued that ignorance is the greatest crime, for it is the cause of all human suffering, forcing us to appreciate what is unworthy of being valuable, to suffer where there should be no suffering, and, mistaking illusion for reality, to spend our lives in pursuit of insignificant things. values, neglecting what is actually the most valuable - knowledge of the secrets of human existence and destiny. The light that could dispel this darkness and relieve suffering was revealed by Gotama as the knowledge of the four noble truths:

2. The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism:

1. There is suffering
2. Suffering has a reason
3. There is an end to suffering
4. There is a way to end suffering

3. The Eightfold Path

1. Correct understanding (free from superstition and delusion)
2. Right Thought (exalted and befitting a wise man)
3. Correct speech (friendly, sincere, truthful)
4. Right actions (peaceful, honest, clean)
5. Right effort (self-cultivation, self-control)
6. Right conduct (non-infliction of suffering)
7. Right Attention (active vigilance of the mind)
8. Right Concentration (deep meditation on the essence of life)

Gotama Buddha also indicated the Ten great obstacles called fetters:

1. Illusion of personality
2. Doubt
3. Superstition
4. bodily passions
5. Hatred
6. Attachment to the Earth
7. Desire for pleasure and tranquility
8. Pride
9. Complacency
10. Ignorance

4. Five commandments for the laity

1. Dont kill
2. Don't steal
3. Don't commit adultery
4. Do not lie
5. Refrain from intoxicating drinks

Terms

Dharma- Teachings of the Buddha. The word "dharma" has many meanings and is literally translated as "what holds or supports" (from the root dhr - "keep"), and is usually translated into Russian as "law", its meaning is often given as "universal law of being" . In addition, the Buddha's Teachings are consistent with the Buddha Dharma, a term that most Buddhists prefer to "Buddhism."

Sangha- in a broad sense "community of Buddhists". Consists of practitioners who have not yet realized the true nature of their mind. In a narrower sense, such as when taking refuge, it is recommended to understand the Sangha as the Liberated Sangha, the community of practicing beings liberated from the illusion of "ego".

Three Jewels are the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, which are the common Refuge for all Buddhists throughout the world.

refuge- among the Three Jewels, the real refuge is dharma, because only by realizing it in yourself, you can be freed from the suffering of the cycle of being. So the Dharma is the real refuge, the Buddha is the teacher who shows you the way to realization, and the Sangha is the spiritual community that is made up of your fellow travelers.

Karma(Skt.) - physically - action; metaphysically - the law of cause and effect or Moral Causality. Each person constantly creates his own destiny, and all his abilities and powers are nothing but the results of his previous actions and, at the same time, the causes of his future destiny.

Nirvana- a state of absolute spiritual achievement, destroying the causal relationship of karmic existence. A state in which there is no more suffering.

Madhyamika This is the doctrine of the middle. The idea of ​​"madhyama pratipada", the Middle Way, free from two extremes (luxury and exhausting austerity) was expressed by the Buddha himself. In the philosophical aspect, middleness is freedom from both nihilism (the notion that no phenomenon has an ontological status) and eternalism (belief in the existence of an absolute god and the like). The main assertion of the Madhyamika is that all (all dharmas) are "empty", that is, devoid of "own nature" (svabhava), their existence is the result of the operation of the law of cause and effect. There is nothing outside of causes and effects, only Emptiness, shunyata. This is the "middle view".

Paramita- a literal translation from Sanskrit: "that by which the other shore is reached", or "that which transports to the other shore" - the ability, the power through which Enlightenment is achieved. Paramita is the most important category of philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism. The purpose of paramitas is to benefit all living beings, filling them with immeasurably deep knowledge, so that thoughts are not attached to dharmas of any kind; for the correct vision of the essence of samsara and nirvana, revealing the treasures of the miraculous Law; in order to be filled with the knowledge and wisdom of unlimited liberation, knowledge that correctly distinguishes between the world of the Law and the world of living beings. The main meaning of the paramit is the realization that Samsara and Nirvana are identical.

Different schools of Buddhism use lists of six and ten paramitas:

1. Generosity (dana)- an action that opens any situation. Generosity can be practiced at the level of material things, strength and joy, education, etc., but the best kind of generosity is to give others the development and knowledge of the nature of the mind, that is, the Dharma, making them independent at the highest level;
2. Ethics (sila)- means to lead a meaningful, useful life for yourself and others. It is practical to stick to the meaningful, and avoid the negative at the level of body, speech and mind;
3. Patience (ksanti)- do not lose what is accumulated positive in the fire of anger. This does not mean turning the other cheek - it means acting effectively, but without anger;
4. Zeal (virya)- industriousness, to work hard, without losing the fresh joy of effort. Only by investing in something extra power without despondency and laziness, we get access to special qualities and energies and are able to effectively move towards the goal;
5. Meditation (dhyana)- what makes life truly valuable. With the help of Shinei and Lhathong meditations (Sanskrit: Shamatha and Vipashyana), as in a laboratory, the skill of working with the mind is formed, the distance to emerging and disappearing thoughts and feelings and a deep vision of its nature are developed;
6. Wisdom (prajnaparamita)- knowledge of the true nature of the mind "openness, clarity and infinity." True spontaneous wisdom is not a lot of ideas, but an intuitive understanding of everything. Here is the key to perfection in all paramitas. It is this understanding that subject, object and action are of the same nature that makes all the other five paramitas liberating.

Sometimes, speaking of the ten Liberating Actions, four more arising from the sixth parmita are added:

1. Methods
2. Wishes
3. Primal Wisdom

Bodhichitta- the desire to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all living beings. Bodhichitta is the unity of love and compassion. Compassion is the desire to save all living beings from suffering, and love is the desire that they all be happy. Thus, bodhichitta is a state of mind in which you not only wish the happiness of all living beings, but also develop the strength and willingness to take care of them. After all, even if we love all beings and sympathize with them, but do nothing practically, then there will be no real benefit from us. Therefore, in addition to love and compassion, we must cultivate a firm determination to do everything in our power to save other beings from suffering. But even these three points are not enough for the development of bodhichitta. Wisdom is needed.

Bodhisattva- this is a person in whose consciousness Bodhichitta was born and flourished, who reached the highest degrees of spirituality and vowed not to go to nirvana as long as there is at least one living being in need of salvation. The state of a bodhisattva can and must be achieved by every person. This concept plays a central role in the Mahayana, the achievement of the state of a Bodhisattva is considered not only possible for any person, but also necessary, since any living being has the seeds of bodhichitta.

Three Qualities of Life

All composite things are impermanent anicca), unsatisfactory ( dukkha), and selfless ( anatta). These three aspects are called the Three Qualities or the Three Signs of Life, because all composite things are governed by these three.

Anicca means temporary, impermanent, changeable. Everything that arises is subject to destruction. In fact, nothing stays that way for the next two moments. Everything is subject to constant change. The three phases of arising, existence and cessation can be found in all compound things; everything tends to stop. That is why it is important to understand the words of the Buddha from the heart: "Temporality is a conditional thing. Work hard to achieve your goal."

Dukkha means suffering, discontent, dissatisfaction, something that is difficult to bear, etc. This is because everything that is composite is changeable and ultimately brings suffering to those involved. Think about illness (as opposed to our idea of ​​health), about lost loved ones or loved ones, or about facing adversity. Nothing that depends on conditions is worth clinging, because by doing so we only bring unhappiness closer.

Anatta means selflessness, non-self, non-ego, etc. By anatta is meant the fact that neither in ourselves nor in anyone else, the essence residing in the center of the heart is not an essence (sunnata) as such. At the same time, anatta means not only the absence of "I", although its comprehension leads to this. Through the illusion of the existence of "I" (soul or immutable personality) and the idea of ​​"I" that inevitably accompanies, misconceptions arise, which are expressed in such aspects as pride, arrogance, greed, aggression, violence and enmity.

Although we say that this body and mind are ours, this is not true. We cannot constantly keep the body healthy, young and attractive. We cannot constantly give our thoughts a positive direction while our mind is in an unhappy or negative state (which in itself proves that thinking cannot be completely under our control).

If there is no permanent "I" or self, then there are only physical and mental processes (nama-rupa) that, in complex relationship with conditioning and interdependence, form our existence. All these form the khandhas or (five) groups, which the unenlightened person considers as feelings (vedana), six kinds sensual sensations(sanna), volitional constructions (sankharas) and other types of consciousness (vinnana).

Due to a misunderstanding of the interaction of these groups, a person thinks that there is a "I" or soul, and he attributes the unknown to an unknown, otherworldly, unknown force, which he must also serve in order to ensure a secure existence for himself. As a result, an ignorant person is constantly in a tense state between his desires and passions, his ignorance and ideas about reality. One who understands that the idea of ​​"I" is an illusion can free himself from suffering. This can be achieved by following the Noble Eightfold Path, which promotes the moral, intellectual and spiritual development of the practitioner.

Four sublime states of mind

Four sublime states of mind - brahmavihara[in Pali (the language spoken by the Buddha and in which his teachings are recorded)] are the four qualities of the heart, which, when developed to perfection, raise a person to the highest spiritual level. They are:

metta, which can be translated as loving-kindness, all-encompassing love, benevolence, selfless universal and limitless love. Metta indicates the quality of the mind that has the goal of bringing happiness to others. Direct consequences of metta are: virtue, freedom from irritability and agitation, peace within us and in relations with the outside world. To do this, one should develop metta to all living beings, including the smallest ones. Metta should not be confused with sensual and selective love, although metta has much in common with a mother's love for her only child.

Karuna which means compassion. The property of karuna is the desire to free others from suffering. In this sense, compassion is something quite different from pity. It leads to generosity and a desire to help others in word and action. Karuna plays an important role in the Teaching of the Buddha, which is also called the Teaching of Wisdom and Compassion. It was the Buddha's deep compassion that led him to decide to explain the Dharma to all sentient beings. Love and Compassion are the two cornerstones of Dharma practice, which is why Buddhism is sometimes referred to as a religion of peace.

Mudita is the sympathetic joy we feel when we see or hear about the happiness and well-being of others, it is joy in the success of others without a hint of envy. Through sympathetic joy, we develop heart qualities such as happiness and morality.

Upekkha or equanimity indicates a calm, steady and stable state of mind. It is especially manifested when faced with misfortune and failure. Some face any situation with equanimity with the same courage, without worry or despair. If they learn about someone's failure, they feel neither regret nor joy. Calmly and impartially, they treat everyone equally, in any situation. Regular reflection on actions (karma) and their results (vipaka) destroys bias and selectivity, leading to the realization that everyone is the owner and heir of his actions. Thus, there is an understanding of what is good and what is bad, what is wholesome and what is unwholesome, and, ultimately, our actions will become controlled, leading to good and further to the highest degree liberating wisdom. Daily meditation to develop these Four Higher States of Mind will make them habitual and thus lead to inner stability and getting rid of hindrances and obstacles.

Sacred texts: Tipitaka (Tripitaka)

The canonical literature is known by the Pali name tipitaka(Sanskrit - Tripitaka), which literally means "triple basket" and is usually translated as follows: "Three baskets of the law (teaching)". Apparently, the texts, originally written on palm leaves, were once kept in wicker baskets.

The Pali version of the Tipitaka, created by the Theravadin school, which is considered by many to be the most orthodox school of Buddhism, is the most complete. According to legend, having gathered together after the death of the Buddha in the city of Rajagriha, the monks listened to the messages of the closest disciples of Shakyamuni about the main provisions of the teaching. Upali spoke about the rules of behavior for monks established by the Buddha, Ananda about the teachings of the founder new religion, expressed in the form of parables and conversations, Kashyapa - about the philosophical reflections of the teacher. This tradition explains the division of the Tipitaka into three main parts - Vinaya-pitaka ("basket of the charter"), Sutta-pitaka ("basket of teachings") and Abhidammapitaka ("basket of interpretation of the teachings", or "basket of pure knowledge"). In various areas of Buddhism, there are other principles for grouping the texts united by the Tipitaka: five nikayas (assemblies), nine angas (parts), etc.

The traditions included in the now known text of the Pali Tipitaka were formed over several centuries and were originally transmitted orally. Recording of these traditions was made for the first time only in the 1st century BC. e. in Ceylon. Naturally, only much later lists have come down to us, and various schools and trends subsequently changed many places in the texts of the Tipitaka. Therefore, in 1871, a special Buddhist council was convened in Mandalay (Burma), at which 2,400 monks, by checking various lists and translations, developed a unified text of the Tipitaka. This text was then carved on 729 marble slabs, each of which was placed in a separate miniature pointed temple. Thus, a kind of library town was created, the repository of the canon - Kutodo, a place now revered by all Buddhists in the world.

vinaya pitaka

The earliest part of the Pali Tipitaka is vinaya pitaka. Most often it is divided into three sections (Sutta-vibhanga, Khandhaka and Parivara).

The Sutta Vibhanga contains an exposition and explanation of the Patimokkha Sutta, which is the core of the Vinaya Pitaka. The Patimokkha Sutta is an enumeration of the misdeeds committed by the monks and nuns of the Buddhist community and the punishments that follow these misconducts.

In the part of the Sutta Vibhanga commenting on the Patimokkha Sutta, the rules for the behavior of monks are included in lengthy stories about what events were the reason for the Buddha to establish this or that rule. This part begins with a story about how, during his wanderings in order to spread the teachings, the Buddha came to the village of Kalandaka near Vaisali and, by his sermon, persuaded a certain Sudinna, the son of a rich usurer, to become a monk. At this time, famine broke out in the country. Sudinna decided to go to Vaisali, where he had many wealthy relatives, to receive abundant alms. His mother found out about his arrival and persuaded Sudinna's wife to meet him and ask him to give her a son. Sudinna gave in to her request. Returning to the community, he repented and told his brothers about his sin. The Buddha severely reprimanded Sudinna and established the rule that a monk who is guilty of sexual intemperance commits the sin of the first section of the Patimokkha Sutta ("parajika") and becomes unworthy of being a monk.

The establishment of the other rules of the Patimokkha Sutta is explained in the same manner. For each rule, a detailed analysis of the possible variants of a misconduct is given, including such circumstances that exempt the perpetrator from punishment. Thus, examining the case when the monk Udayn touched the body of a Brahmin woman who entered his room, the commentator raises the questions: “was the contact intentional or accidental”, “what is the contact in reality”, etc. And then he proves that contacts with the mother , sister and daughter are not sins.

So, in detail, only the most important offenses are commented on in the Sutta-vibhanga, while the rest of the mass of rules (and there are 277 or 250 of them in total in different versions) is explained either much shorter or completely omitted in the explanations. The requirements for monks and nuns are somewhat different.

The next part of the Vinaya Pitaka is called Khandhaka. It is divided into two books - Mahavagga and Kullavagga. It is impossible to grasp a clear principle in this division. Both books are devoted to the history of the development of the Buddhist monastic community, starting from the moment Gautama achieved "epiphany". Thus, in Khandhaka we meet with individual elements of the biography of the Buddha. The Khandhaka describes in detail the main ceremonies and rituals in the community, the rules for the conduct of monks during the day, the procedure for holding traditional meetings known as uposatha, the behavior of the community during the dry season and during the rainy season. Precise rules were established regarding the pattern, sewing and dyeing of monastic robes from materials donated by the laity.

The analysis of Khandhaka makes it possible to see how the Buddhist community went in its development from the strictest asceticism, characteristic of many religious systems of ancient India, to that completely comfortable and far from mortifying life, which characterizes the Buddhist monasteries of the first centuries of our era and subsequent times. Especially characteristic in this regard is the story of the evil cousin of the Buddha - Devadatta, given in the seventh chapter of Kullavagga. Devadatta joined the community after the Buddha visited his hometown. However, he was soon expelled from it because he led the monks who sowed unrest in the community. Then he decided to kill the Buddha. He made three assassination attempts: he sent a gang of hired thugs, threw a huge stone from the mountain and released a mad elephant into Rajagriha street, where the Buddha was passing. But the Buddha remained unharmed. Even the elephant, at the mere glance of the Buddha, humbly bowed his knees before him. Then Devadatta and his five friends demanded that the following obligatory rules for all monks be introduced in the community: 1) live only in the forests, 2) eat only alms, 3) dress only in rags, 4) never spend the night under a roof, 5) never eat fish and meat. The Buddha rejected these claims. The legend of Devadatta vividly illustrates the evolution of the Buddhist community from extreme asceticism to a life closer to the laity. The last part of the Vinaya Pitaka - Parivara, is composed in the form of questions and answers, briefly setting out some of the provisions of the previous parts of the Vinaya Pitaka. It is generally believed that it is included in the canon to make it easier for monks to memorize numerous rules and prohibitions.

Sutta Pitaka

The second, most important and extensive section of the Tipitaka is Sutta Pitaka. If the Vinaya Pitaka is located in Kuthodo on 111 marble slabs, then the Sutta Pitaka is allocated 410 marble slabs.

The Sutta Pitaka consists of five collections (pikayas) that present the teachings of Buddhism in the form of parables and conversations attributed to the Buddha and his closest disciples. In addition, it includes other works of the most diverse nature, collections of legends and aphorisms, poems, commentaries, etc.

The first collection, the Digha nikaya ("collection of lengthy teachings"), consists of 34 suttas (verse sayings), each of which is devoted to a briefly formulated position of the teaching, which is included in a detailed episode from the biography of the Buddha. Thus, the Brahmajala Sutta recounts the story of an ascetic's dispute with his disciple who was praising the Buddha. This dispute is used to prove the superiority of Buddhism over Brahminism and popular superstitious beliefs. Samannaphalasutta confronts the doctrines of the six heretical teachers with the basic tenets of Buddhism and shows the benefits of joining a Buddhist monastic community. In a number of suttas, the teaching of the Brahmins that their very birth in a given "varna" (the ancient name of castes) gives them some privileges in salvation is subjected to sharp criticism in a number of suttas. Much attention is given to the criticism of asceticism as a method of salvation; it is opposed by love, compassion, equanimity and the absence of envy. Along with the myths about the origin of the world, the Digha Nikaya also includes such a completely realistic story as the Mahaparinibbanasutta, which tells about last days earthly life of the Buddha, the circumstances of his death, the burning of his body and the separation of the remains after burning. It is here that the Buddha's last words, widely quoted in other texts, are given. "Everything that exists is doomed to destruction, so strive tirelessly for salvation."

The second collection of Sutta Pitaka - Majjhima Nikaya ("collection of average teachings") contains 152 suttas, largely repeating the content of the first collection, but more concise in style. There is an assumption that both of the first collections of the Sutta Pitaka were the result of recording two areas of Buddhism, each having its own traditions and characteristics in the oral transmission of legends.

The third and fourth collections, the Samyutta Nikaya ("a collection of related teachings") and the Anguttara Nikaya ("a collection of teachings one number greater") are undoubtedly of later origin than the first two collections of the Sutta Pitaka. Anguttara Nikaya, which is the largest collection of suttas in the Sutta Pitaka (there are more than 2300 of them), arranges them in a certain order based on the numerical principle: three treasures of salvation, four "noble truths", five virtues of the student, eight members of the "noble way of salvation", ten sins and ten virtues, etc.

The fifth collection of the Sutta Pitaka - Khuddaka Nikaya ("collection of short teachings") consists of 15 very diverse works, created, as a rule, later than most of the above parts of the Tipitaka.

The first book of the Khuddaka-nikaya Khud-daka-patha ("collection of brief aphorisms") contains, as it were, a set of basic provisions of the teachings of Buddhism about salvation, the "saranagamana" formula, about the Buddha, teaching and community as three conditions for salvation; 10 requirements for a monk; 10 questions for those who join the community, etc. Udana is a collection of short lyrical poems on religious topics that the Buddha probably said about certain events in his life. Very interesting are the collections of chants of monks and nuns (Thera-gatha and Theri-gatha) - the oldest texts of the canon, vividly depicting the detachment from life, which was required by early Buddhism to stop rebirth - suffering. Buddhavamsa contains legends about 24 Buddhas, during the appearances of which Gautama Buddha performed an infinite number of rebirths necessary to develop the virtues characteristic of a bodhisattva.

Jataka is a collection of stories (jataka) about 550 different events that took place during the previous incarnations of the Buddha, before his appearance on earth in the form of Gautama.

The Sutta Nipata is devoted to a number of episodes from the life of the Buddha, and mainly to moral themes in his teaching.

Finally, the Dhammapada ("path of learning") is perhaps the best-known part of the canon, not only because it sets out the main points of the early Buddhist creed in the most systematic and consistent way, but also because it does so in a concise, imaginative, impressive form. Numerous variants of this monument have been discovered, indicating that it has gone through a long history of its formation. All suttas are imbued with the thought of the doom of everything that exists, of suffering, evil as the basic qualities of any existence, of the humility of one's desires and passions, of overcoming attachment to everything earthly as the only way to salvation. The Dhammapada is a prime example of Buddhism's use of emotional means to spread its teachings.

Abhidamma Pitaka

The third and final section of the Tipitaka is Abhidamma Pitaka. Her texts are placed in Kuthodo on 208 plates. It consists of seven sections, which is why it is sometimes also called Sattapakarana (Seven Treatises). The most important of these is the first - Dhammasangani, i.e., "enumeration of dhammas." The word "dhamma" in Pali, or "dharma" in Sanskrit, has several meanings in Buddhist literature. Often it is used to express the concepts of "law", "doctrine". Often they designate the very creed of Buddhism. Finally, it is found, especially in the literature of the Abhidamma, in a very special meaning - the primary particle of spiritual being, the smallest particle of consciousness, "the carrier of the element of the psyche."

The Dhammasangani sets out the Buddhist interpretation of the entire sensory world as a product of the consciousness of man himself. The totality of ideas created by the person himself is, according to Buddhism, the world we perceive. Dhammas are the smallest elements of our consciousness, which, instantly manifesting themselves, give in their combinations that illusion, which is called the subject, along with everything that he is aware of. The treatise gives a detailed enumeration and analysis of the dhammas.

The second treatise of the Abhidamma Pitaka, the Vibhanga, deals with the same problems as the first.

The third treatise - Kattha-vatthu - reflects the disputes that took place between Buddhist scholastics during the formation of the philosophical foundations of this religion.

The treatise Puggala-pannyatti is devoted to those steps, or categories of states, which a living being must pass on the way to the cessation of the agitation of dhammas, that is, to non-existence, nirvana, salvation. The treatise Dhatukattha deals with these same questions, addressing Special attention to the field of psychology. Yamaka deals with the problems of logic. Patthana is a category of causality, of course, also from the standpoint of the Buddhist worldview.

Non-canonical literature

Non-canonical literature includes biographies of the Buddha. All of them are of relatively late origin, that is, they were compiled no earlier than the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. e. They rely on fragmentary biographical information, which is drawn from various works of canonical literature. But this information is closely intertwined with various myths and legends, the purpose of which is to show the divinity of Gautama Buddha.

The following five biographies are best known: Mahavastu, probably written in the 2nd century BC. n. e. and included by some schools in the Vinaya Pitaka; Lalitavistara, created by the Sarvastivadin school in the 11th-111th centuries. n. e.; Buddhacharita attributed to Ashvagosha - a famous Buddhist philosopher and poet, a contemporary of the Kushan king Kanishka (I-II centuries AD); Nidanakattha, which is the introductory part of the Mahayana edition of the Jataka; Abhinishkramanasutra attributed to Dharmagupta and known only from Chinese translations.

Mahavastu is an extensive work (almost one and a half thousand pages of printed text), in which individual historical facts are interspersed with numerous legends. The first volume describes in detail hell with all its torments prepared for sinners, and then sequentially reveals the four stages (karya) that a person must go through in order to achieve Buddhahood. These stages are given in connection with showing the coming Buddha Gautama ascending them during his innumerable former incarnations, with extensive borrowings from the Jatakas. The exposition is abruptly interrupted by episodes from the preaching life of Shakyamuni, a consideration of the origin of the clans of Shakyas and Koliyas, to which Gautama's parents belonged, a description of the emergence of the world and its first inhabitants, etc. bodhisattva of time, place, continent and family for his earthly manifestation before birth, childhood, marriage, achievement of "great insight" and individual episodes of preaching activity. This is where the Mahavastu ends. Mahavastu Buddha is a supernatural being who constantly performs miracles, and faith in him alone can bring salvation.

Nidanakatha divides the history of the Buddha into a "remote epoch", describing his previous incarnations up to the appearance of Tushita in the sky, from where he had already descended to earth, and "intermediate" and "next epochs", dedicated to his earthly biography, which also does not reach its final stages.

Written in pure Sanskrit in the sublime Kavya style, the Buddhacharita is completely different from other biographies. She, following mainly the Pali tradition, poetically describes milestones earthly life of the Buddha up to the first council held after his death. The Buddha is depicted here as a human being who attained perfection as a result of merit in previous incarnations.

The Abhinishkramana Sutra is closer in character to Lalitavisgara than to Mahavasta, although, like the latter, it also expounds on the Jatakas in detail, citing them mainly to emphasize the most important points in the preaching work of the Buddha.

Of the other most famous non-canonical literature, popular in Buddhist countries and important for the study of Buddhism, is Milinda-panha ("Questions of King Milinda"). The date of this work lies between the 2nd and 4th centuries. n. e. It expounds the teachings of Buddhism in the form of questions asked Greek king Menander (Milinda), who ruled North India in the 2nd century BC. n. e" and the answers to them by the famous Mahayanist sage Nagasena. Of great interest are the chronicles compiled in Ceylon in the 4th-5th centuries AD - Deepavansa and Mahavansa, in which, along with mythological plots and legends, significant historical facts are also given. .

The further development of Buddhist literature, which proceeded mainly in the form of commentary on the canon, is associated with the names of Nagarjuna, Buddhaghosa, Buddhadatta, Dhammapala, Asanga, Vasubandhu, who lived and wrote during the heyday of Buddhism in Northern India and Ceylon in the 4th-8th centuries. n. e.

Historical development

Buddhism has undergone amazing changes over the centuries. Its spread from northern India was very rapid. From the 3rd century BC e., before the campaigns of Alexander the Great, he dominated all of India, along with the Brahmanism from which he descended, and extended to the shores of the Caspian Sea, where Afghanistan and Central Asia are today.

Thanks to the support of the Buddhist king Ashoka, who ruled in India in 273-230. BC Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was converted by missionaries. Then it quickly spread to other Asian countries.

The link with China was established through the silk trade. The first Buddhist community in this country appeared during the reign of the Han dynasty in 67 AD. e., however, Buddhism was firmly established in the north of the country only a century later, and by 300 - in the south, under the auspices of the aristocracy. In 470 Buddhism was proclaimed the official religion in northern China. Then he reached Japan through Korea.

By the same time, the Buddhist monks of Ceylon converted Burma to this faith, and a little later, Indonesia.

Spreading to the east, Buddhism loses ground in the west: having reached Japan, it weakens in India.

In Thailand and Laos it replaced Hinduism. In Sri Lanka and Nepal, Buddhism coexists with Hinduism. In China, it is combined with Taoism and Confucianism, and in Japan with Shintoism. In India, where he came from, Buddhists make up no more than 1% of the population - half as much as Christians or Sikhs.

In South Korea, Buddhism begins to recede before Christian religions, but still retains its first place. In Japan, it sometimes takes special forms, which we will discuss next. One of them is Zen.

The position of Buddhism in countries of communist orientation is much more alarming. In China, by 1930, there were 500,000 Buddhist monks, and in 1954 there were no more than 2,500 of them left. In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge systematically destroyed Buddhist monks, and in Vietnam their influence was significantly weakened. It is very difficult to assess what remains of the rituals and Buddhist spirituality in these countries. It is only known that this blow to Buddhism set it back 50 years. Buddhism is still expanding in those countries where demographic growth is observed and where adherence to it remains, for example, in Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand. Recently, however, Buddhist spirituality has attracted considerable interest from many people in the West.

Directions of Buddhism

Theravada

"Teachings of the Elders"

The earliest branch of Buddhism was formed immediately after the departure of the Buddha - called Theravada. The followers tried to keep in memory every word, every gesture and every episode from the teacher's life. That is why Theravada adherents attach such importance to the periodic meetings of scholar-monks - sangiti, whose participants again and again restore the life and teachings of the Buddha. The last sangiti was held in 1954-1956 in the city of Mandalay (Burma). The Theravada branch was a monastic organization dependent on the laity, but not oriented towards them.

Achieving enlightenment was thought of as literally following the lifestyle of Gautama and his meditation practice. Theravada followers consider the Buddha to be an earthly being who achieved enlightenment due to his unique abilities through 550 rebirths; therefore, according to Theravada teachings, the Buddha appears among people every 5,000 years.

For them, he is a teacher whose knowledge is recorded in the Pali canonical text of the Tipitaka and explained in numerous commentary literature. Theravada followers from the very beginning were intolerant of the slightest deviation from the disciplinary rules of the monastic community adopted by them and from the orthodox interpretation of the way of life and actions of the Buddha, and waged a constant struggle with dissidents.

On the third Sangiti (middle 5th century BC) under King Ashoka, the followers of Theravada were divided into 3 large groups: vatsiputriya, sarvastivada and vibhajayavada - the last group was made up of the most orthodox followers, who after 100 years established themselves in Sri Lanka, which became later a Theravada stronghold. Currently, Theravada Buddhism is widespread in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, partly in India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Nepal.

In each of these countries, due to the interaction of Theravada with local cultural and religious traditions, national forms of Theravada Buddhism have developed. The specificity of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, professed by its main population - the Sinhalese, is expressed, first of all, in the fact that the information of a mythological, legendary, historical nature contained in the historical chronicles of Deepavans and Mahavans, as if projecting the ancient Indian picture of Buddhism on Lanka, including statements about the repeated stay of Prince Gautama there. As a result of this, the version that the island was the birthplace of Buddhism was firmly established here.

Key Ideas

The ideal Theravada personality is the arhat. This word means "worthy" (the Tibetan etymology of this word as "destroyer of enemies", that is, affects - flare, is erroneous and can be considered folk etymology). An arhat is a holy monk (bhikkhu; Pali: bhikkhu) who has achieved by his own efforts the goal of the Noble Eightfold Path - nirvana - and has left the world forever.

On the way to nirvana, a monk goes through a series of steps:

1. step entered the stream (srotapanna), that is, who has embarked on the path irrevocably; "entered the stream" can no longer degrade and go astray
2. step once returning (sacridagamin), that is, a person whose consciousness in another birth must return to the level of the world of desires (kamadhatu)
3. step no longer returning (anagamin), that is, a saint whose consciousness will henceforth always be in a state of meditative concentration on the level of the worlds of forms (rupadhatu) and non-forms (arupadhatu).

The practice of anagamin ends with the attainment of the fruit of arhatship and entry into nirvana "without a trace" (anupadhishesh nirvana).

According to Theravada teachings, the Buddha before his awakening was an ordinary person, only endowed with great virtues and holiness, acquired through cultivation over many hundreds of lives. After awakening (bodhi), which from the point of view of Theravada was nothing more than gaining the fruit of arhatship, Siddhartha Gautama ceased to be a person in the proper sense of the word, becoming a Buddha, that is, an enlightened and liberated from samsara "being" (this word is here after need to be quoted, since Buddhists call "beings" only "inhabitants" of the three worlds of samsara, and not Buddhas), but not a god or any other supernatural entity.

If people, being monks (Theravada emphasizes that only a monk who keeps all the vows of the Vinaya, can become an arhat and attain nirvana), follow the example of the Buddha and his teachings in everything, then they will achieve the same thing that he did. The Buddha himself has gone into nirvana, he is not in the world, and there is no world for him, and therefore it is pointless for him to pray or ask him for help. Any worship of the Buddha and the offering of gifts to his images are not needed by the Buddha, but by people who thus pay tribute to the memory of the great Liberator (or the Conqueror - Jina, one of the epithets of the Buddha) and practice the virtue of giving.

Theravada is a purely monastic form of Buddhism. Within this tradition, only monks can be considered Buddhists in the proper sense of the word. Only monks can realize the goal of Buddhism - finding the peace of nirvana, only monks are open to all the instructions of the Blessed One, and only monks can practice the methods of psychopractice prescribed by the Buddha.

The share of the laity is left only to improve their karma through the performance of good deeds and the accumulation of merit acquired through the support and maintenance of the sangha. And thanks to these merits, the laity in one of their subsequent lives will be able to become worthy of taking monastic vows, after which they will also enter the Noble Eightfold Path. Therefore, Theravadins have never aspired to particularly active missionary activities or to involve lay people in the life of the sangha and various forms of religious activity.

Among the followers of Theravada, there are listeners (shravakas) and individually awakened ones (pratyekabuddhas). Both have five paths, which together make up the ten paths of Theravada.

Although the hearers are lower and the one-awakened ones are higher, they have the same basis. Both of them follow the teachings of the Theravada path, which serves as a method only for individual liberation from the cycle of being. In short, they take as a basis a set of ethical rules, combined with a firm intention to get out of the cycle of being, and on the basis of this they develop a unity of serenity (shamatha) and special insight (vipashyana), aspiring to emptiness. In this way, they get rid of the defilements (samsara) and their seeds, so that the defilements cannot grow again. By doing so, they achieve liberation.

Both hearers and individually-awakened ones must follow the five paths in succession: the path of accumulation, application, vision, meditation, and no-learning-no more. One who follows these paths is called a Theravada follower.

The goal of the Theravada teaching is to achieve personal salvation, nirvana. The main concern of the Theravada teaching is not to harm others by controlling one's own behavior. Therefore, the first thing a person does is take the vow of refuge and observe certain rules. To achieve this goal, there are hundreds of rules. The Buddha himself said: "Having before you an example of your own feelings, do not harm others." If someone does something nasty to you, then you notice it.

Knowing what it is to be upset, do not upset others. The true meaning of Refuge is that you recognize the path to realization taught by the Buddha, and in accordance with this path, perform certain actions and thereby control your behavior. When a Theravada vow is taken, it is taken from now until death. It is not accepted from now until the full realization, because the vow is related to the present state.

It should be done through behavior that ends in death. The body is sent to the graveyard and the vow ends there. If this vow was kept in purity until the very moment of death, then a good deed was performed. The observance of such a vow knows no exceptions, and it cannot be changed in accordance with our changed views. If there is a specific and compelling reason for breaking a vow, then you can not keep it. Otherwise, this vow continues to bind a person from the moment of acceptance until the moment of death.

Later, the Theravada system evolved. In addition to the Refuge vow given to nuns and monks, there is also the Upasaka vow for the laity. Lay people can take a vow with a single rule, such as not to kill, or with two rules - with the addition of a vow not to steal - and so on. There may be various levels until the full vow of a fully ordained monk or nun is taken (Source - Chogyal Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche - An Overview of Tibetan Buddhist Traditions).

Local Features of Theravada Buddhism

Sinhala Buddhism emphasizes the magical power of Buddhist relics that protect the island from evil forces and attract good deities to Lanka. Therefore, the rites of worship of these deities are closely linked with the magical practice in Buddhism. A characteristic example is the Kandyan perahera, consisting of 5 processions dedicated to the Tooth of the Buddha, the gods Natha, Vishnu, Kataragama (Skandha) and the goddess Pattini. The Sinhalese chronicles have always quite effectively influenced the actions of the rulers of the Sri Lankan states and encouraged the sangha to interfere in politics.

In Burma and Thailand, one can speak about the ideological influence of Buddhism on the mass consciousness of believers only from the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e., when large Burmese and Thai states began to take shape on the territory of western Indochina, in need of a developed ideology. This was probably one of the reasons that prompted the rulers of Pagan, Chiengsen, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya and other young states to obtain the full Pali canon, which, according to rumor, was available in the coastal Mon city-states. Fragments of the struggle for the Pali canon are reflected in the historical chronicles of many states.

A huge array of the canonical liter in Pali, pouring into the countries South-East Asia, especially after establishing close contacts with the states of Lanka, had a profound impact on many areas of the public consciousness of the peoples of Burma, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia: oral poetry, literature, art, law, philosophy, architecture, political views and so on. However, due to historical and cultural differences and religious beliefs among the Burmese, Thai and Khmers, as well as other socio-political conditions of development, Theravada Buddhism acquired national specificity in the countries of Southeast Asia.

In Burma, traditional Burmese beliefs in naga spirits were easily incorporated into Buddhist culture, as in canonical texts nagas (in Indian mythology - nagas, nagas - snakes) are highly revered, since the king of the nagas covered the Buddha with his hood.

The confluence of folk and Buddhist beliefs was also the fact that the Burmese attached special importance to magical ritual actions, in connection with which Buddhist meditation acquired a different content in Burma than in Sri Lanka and Thailand: philosophically, through meditation, the content of the highest truth is realized ( abhidharmas) (Burmese monks are considered experts in abhitharmic literature, their authority in this area is recognized even by Sinhala monks); in practical life, many Burmese monks try to acquire supernatural abilities through meditation, which does not contradict the teachings of Buddhism.

A number of sections of the Sutta Pitaka contain descriptions of six types of "supreme power" that allow you to fly through the air, walk on water, ascend and descend to any level of existence, divide matter into primary elements, foresee the future, and so on, but the Buddha himself condemned the demonstration of such supernatural abilities, therefore, in other countries of southern Buddhism, the use of meditation for these purposes is suppressed. In turn, the practice of Burmese meditation gives rise to all sorts of superstitions and rumors, which leads to the appearance of messianic sentiments among believers and so on.

Another distinguishing feature of Burmese Buddhism is the idea of ​​direct succession of its teachings from the missionaries of Emperor Ashoka. These statements are based on the texts of the Pali canon and the edicts of Ashoka. Therefore, the Burmese, starting from the 2nd millennium AD. e. they are guided not only by Lanka as a repository of the Pali canon and Buddhist relics, but also by the southeastern states of India.

Burmese monks consider Sri Lanka and Burma equally strongholds of southern Buddhism, where the latter has the right to store and interpret the "higher truth", and Thailand - the country of primitive Buddhism. In political terms, the Burmese sangha is weakly amenable to centralization and control, because individual Buddhist communities regularly become isolated in their religious practice, thereby contributing to the disunity of Burmese villages and the emergence of local religious movements.

The rulers of the Thai states, as well as the Theravada communities that were being created, focused mainly on Lanka and recognized the priority of Sri Lankan Buddhism. The greatest historian of Thailand, Prince Damrong (1862-1943), in his studies of Thai Buddhism, noted the secondary nature of many of the most important places of worship in Thailand, most of which were copies or imitations of Sri Lankan prototypes.

The specificity of Thai Buddhism can be clearly seen in the practice of obtaining religious merit. If in Sri Lanka the accumulation of merit occurs mainly through participation in religious ceremonies and processions, as well as through pilgrimages to St. places, Thailand emphasizes the priority of everyday contacts with the sangha, a measured way of life, consistent with the rules of Buddhist behavior.

Therefore, exaltation of signals during periods of religious festivities is not characteristic of Thai. Perhaps this feature of Thai Buddhism gives rise to the relative inertia of believers in relation to the socio-political events in the country. In particular, believers in rural Thailand are familiar with Buddhist sermons on the duties of a lay person and householder, although they often have a vague idea of ​​the life of the Buddha and the teachings of Buddhism in general.

Within Theravada, two main schools subsequently developed - Vaibhashika (Sarvastivada) and Sautrantika.

Mahayana

"Great Chariot"

Mahayana Buddhism, as the 14th Dalai Lama wrote, is associated with the second turn of the wheel of the Teaching, when the Buddha expounded the doctrine of the absence of self-existent being of all phenomena. The followers of the Mahayana claimed to have fully revealed the original teachings.

Basic ideas. As already mentioned, the followers of Mahayana divide Buddhism into the Great Vehicle (Mahayana proper) and the Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana), the difference between which lies in the fact that the followers of Hinayana are limited only by the desire for individual enlightenment, and in a sense this division is not a gradation into schools.

The followers of the Mahayana, first of all, strive to achieve the state of the Buddha, not the detached nirvana, but the highest liberation - the achievement of the state of the Buddha for the benefit of all living beings - the state of the bodhisattva. In line with this aspiration for supreme enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, they practice the five paths.

These paths are complemented by special methods, the main of which are six cultivations and four ways of converting disciples. Relying on them, the followers of the Mahayana completely and forever overcome not only the obstacles of defilements (samsara), but also the obstacles on the path to omniscience. When both types of obstacles are overcome, Buddhahood is attained.

There are also five paths in the Mahayana:

• Path of accumulation
• Applications
• visions
• meditation
• No-teaching-more

Eventually, the followers of the Hinayana go over to the Mahayana. Since their liberation is not yet the final achievement, they are not satisfied with it, but gradually aspire to the final achievement, follow its paths and become Buddhas.

The idea of ​​the Bodhisattva was one of the major innovations of Mahayana Buddhism. The term Bodhisattva, or "Wise Being", "the soul destined to attain the highest Wisdom", was originally introduced to explain the nature of the past lives of the Buddha. Before his last life as Siddhartha Gautama, he worked for many lives to develop the qualities of the Buddha. In these past lives, he was a bodhisattva, or "waiting buddha", performing deeds of incredible generosity, love and compassion towards the beings around him.

The Mahayana doctrine developed from the principle of intention. It has been recognized that rules are important to stop negative causes, but this is not enough. If we have good intentions, everything will be fine good consequences. The Tibetan Buddhist Master Jigmed Lingpa, 1729-1798, said that if we have good intentions, then the Path and the Fruit will be good; if we have a bad intention, the Way and the Fruit will also be bad. Therefore, we must develop good intentions.

In modern times, in the Mahayana tradition, a vow is made called the "bodhisattva vow." The Mahayana principle is called lappa "exercise". This includes an exercise in the mind, an exercise in the discipline we need to order our lives, and an exercise in samadhi or contemplation. These are the three principles in Mahayana. Therefore, Mahayana is not only about self-control, but also about being ready to help others. The Hinayana principle is to refrain from causing harm and trouble to others, while the Mahayana principle is to act for the benefit of others. This is the main difference.

There are two concepts in the Mahayana teachings: monpa (smon.pa.) and gyugpa (gyug.pa.). Monpa is our intention to do something, and gyugpa is the action we actually perform. In The Guide to the Bodhisattva's Life Path (Bodhisattvacharyavatara), the great Master Shatideva explains that the former can be compared to the intention of making a journey, and the latter to actually packing your luggage and setting off.

The intention to do the practice for the benefit of others is monpa. But just having a good intention is not enough. Somehow you need to get started. That is why usually when people start a practice they say that they want to realize themselves for the benefit of all other beings. This means that they are trying to achieve realization not only for their own benefit. The use of these words becomes a kind of mind training. This is what we mean by Bodhichitta. Whether a person uses words or not, the most important thing is to have the right intention.

The Mahayanists invented two levels prior to the attainment of Buddhahood. While attaining Buddhahood is the highest goal, a person can achieve the state of Pratyeka Buddha (single awakened), which means that he has awakened in the truth, but keeps it a secret. Below the level of the Pratyeka Buddha is the level of the arhat or "worthy soul" - a person who has learned the truth from others and realized it himself.

Mahayana Buddhists have made achieving the state of an arhat a goal for all believers. The believer learns the truth, comes to the realization of the truth and then goes to Nirvana. Through the thesis that anyone can reach the state of an arhat, this doctrine served as the basis for the Mahayana to be called the "Great Vehicle".

The goal of Mahana is to achieve the state of a bodhisattva, to give up personal salvation in order to help other living beings and lead them to liberation. In Mahayana, the active principle is not the will of the individual, but the help of bodhisattvas. And here the two main and defining qualities of a bodhisattva are Wisdom (prajna) and Compassion (karuna).

The path of the bodhisattva is called the path of the paramitas. The word "paramita" means "perfection", but in tradition it is usually interpreted in the spirit of folk etymology as "crossing to the other shore"; thus, in Buddhism, paramitas are conceived as transcendental perfections, or "perfections that transfer to the other side of existence."

As a rule, a set of six paramitas is given in the texts: dana-paramita (perfection of giving), kshanti-paramita (perfection of patience), virya-paramita (perfection of diligence), sila-paramita (perfection of keeping vows), dhyana-paramita (perfection of contemplation ) and prajna-paramita (perfection of wisdom, or wisdom that transfers to the other side of existence; transcendental wisdom). In this list, the first five paramitas belong to the group of skillful means (upaya), and the sixth paramita itself forms a whole group - the group of prajna (wisdom). The unity of all paramitas, realized as the unity of method and wisdom, is awakening, the attainment of Buddhahood.

The Mahayanists developed the theology of the Buddha called the "Three Bodies" or Trikaya doctrine. The Buddha was not a human being, as claimed in Theravada Buddhism, but was a manifestation of a spiritual being. This creature has three bodies. When he came to earth in the form of Siddhartha Gautama, he took the form of Magical Transformation (nirmanakaya). This body was an emanation of the Body of Blessing (Sambhogakaya), which lives in heaven in the form of a god who rules the universe.

The Body of Blessing has many forms. One of them is Amitaba, who rules our world and lives in paradise, the heaven called Sukhavati, or the "Land of Pure Blessing". After all, the blessing body is an emanation of the Essence Body (Dharmakaya), which is the original source of everything in the universe. This essential Body, the root cause and law of the Universe has become synonymous with Nirvana. This is approximately the universal soul, and Nirvana has become a conjunction with this universal soul.

Currently, Mahayana Buddhism exists in two versions that are quite different from each other: this is the Tibeto-Mongolian Mahayana (sometimes still incorrectly called "Lamaism") with canonical texts in Tibetan (Tibet, Mongolia, some peoples of Russia - Buryats, Kalmyks , Tuvans, the population of various regions of the Himalayas and some other places) and the Far Eastern Mahayana (based on Chinese Buddhism and with canonical texts in Chinese) - China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam.

A special place in Mahayana Buddhism is occupied by the Buddhism of Nepal, more precisely, the Buddhism of the Newars, one of the ethno-confessional groups of Nepalese society. The Newars worship in Sanskrit and honor the "nine proclamations of the Dharma" (nava dharma paryaya) that form their canon.

The Nine Dharma Proclamations are nine texts (mostly sutras) of the Mahayana, preserved in Sanskrit: Lankavatara Sutra ("Sutra on the descent to Lanka"), Ashtasahasrika Prajna-paramita Sutra ("Sutra on Transcendental Wisdom in eight thousand slokas") , Dashabhumika Sutra ("Ten Steps Sutra"), Gandavyuha Sutra ("Flower Garland Sutra"), Saddharmapundarika Sutra ("Lotus Sutra"), Samadhiraja Sutra ("Royal Samadhi Sutra"), Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra ("Golden Ray Sutra"), Tathagataguhyaka [sutra] ("[Sutra] Mysteries of the Tathagata") and Lalitavistara (the Mahayana version of the life of the Buddha).

Within the framework of the Mahayana, two main philosophical schools subsequently developed - Madhyamaka (sunyavada) and Yogacara (vijnanavada, or vijnyaptimatra).

Tantrayana (Vajrayana)

"Tantra Chariot"

At the beginning of the second half of the first millennium A.D. e. in Mahayana Buddhism, a new direction, or Yana ("Chariot"), is gradually emerging and forming, called Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism; this direction can be considered the final stage in the development of Buddhism in its homeland - in India.

The word "tantra" in no way characterizes the specifics of this new type of Buddhism. "Tantra" (like sutra) is simply a type of text that may or may not contain anything "tantric". " (pull, stretch) and the suffix "tra", means the basis of the fabric; that is, as in the case of the sutras, we are talking about some basic texts that serve as the basis, the core. Therefore, although the followers of Tantrism themselves speak of the "path of the sutras" (Hinayana and Mahayana) and "mantra paths", however they prefer to call their teaching Vajrayana.

The word vajra, which is part of the name "Vajrayana", was originally used to refer to the thunder scepter of the Indian Zeus - the Vedic god Indra, but gradually its meaning changed. One of the meanings of the word "vajra" is "diamond", "adamant". Within the framework of Buddhism, the word "vajra" began to be associated, on the one hand, with the originally perfect nature of the awakened consciousness, like an indestructible diamond, and on the other hand, awakening itself, enlightenment, like an instant thunderclap or a flash of lightning.

The ritual Buddhist vajra, like the ancient vajra, is a kind of scepter, symbolizing the awakened consciousness, as well as karuna (compassion) and upaya (skillful means) in opposition to prajna - upaya (prajna and emptiness are symbolized by a ritual bell; the union of the vajra and the bell in The ritually crossed hands of the priest symbolizes awakening as a result of the integration (yugannadha) of wisdom and method, emptiness and compassion.Thus, the word Vajrayana can be translated as "Diamond Chariot", "Thunder Chariot", etc. The first translation is the most common.

The chariot of mantras (In the Tibetan tradition, the term "chariot of the mantra" (mantrayana) is more common than the term "tantrayana" used in the title: these are synonyms. - Note by the responsible ed.) includes four classes of tantras: the tantra of action (kriya), performance (charya), yoga, higher yoga (anuttara yoga). The higher yoga tantra class is superior to the lower tantras.

All the originality of the Diamond Chariot is associated with its methods (upaya), although the purpose of applying these methods is still the same - gaining Buddhahood for the benefit of all living beings. Vajrayana claims that the main advantage of her method is its extreme efficiency, "instantaneous", allowing a person to become a Buddha in one lifetime, and not three immeasurable (asankheya) world cycles - kalpas.

A follower of the tantric path can quickly fulfill his bodhisattva vow - to become a Buddha to deliver all beings drowning in the swamp of the cyclic existence of birth and death. At the same time, Vajrayana mentors have always emphasized that this path is also the most dangerous, similar to a direct ascent to the top of a mountain along a rope stretched over all mountain gorges and abysses.

Therefore, tantric texts were considered sacred, and the beginning of practice in the Vajrayana system involved receiving special initiations and corresponding oral instructions and explanations from a teacher who had achieved the realization of the Path. In general, the role of a teacher, guru, in tantric practice is extremely great, and sometimes young adepts spent a lot of time and made great efforts to find a worthy mentor. Because of this intimate nature of Vajrayana practice, it has also been called the Vehicle of the Secret Tantra, or simply the secret (esoteric) teaching.

Cosmology

Already the earliest Pali texts presented the universe as a constantly changing cyclical process. In each cycle (kalpa), four consecutive time stages (yuga) are distinguished: the creation of the world, its formation, decline and decay (pralaya), lasting many thousands of earth years, and then repeating in the next cycle. The universe is described as a vertical of 32 worlds, or levels of consciousness of beings living on them: from the creatures of hell (naraka) to some inaccessible nirvanic dwellings of enlightened minds in nirvana. All 32 levels of existence of consciousness are divided into three spheres (dhatu or avachara).

The lower sphere of passions (kama-dhatu) consists of 10 levels (in some schools 11): hell, animal level, pretas (hungry spirits), human level, and also 6 types of the divine. Each of them has its own sub-levels, for example, at the hell level there are at least 8 cold and 8 hot hells; The classifications of the human level of consciousness are based on the ability to study and practice the Buddha Fa.

The middle sphere is the sphere of shapes and colors (rupa-dhatu), represented by 18 heavenly worlds inhabited by gods, saints, bodhisattvas and even buddhas. These heavens are the objects of meditation (dhyana), during which adepts can spiritually visit them and receive instructions from their inhabitants.

The upper sphere beyond shapes and colors (arupa-dhatu), consists of 4 nirvanic "stays of consciousness" available to those who have gained Enlightenment and can dwell in infinite space, in infinite consciousness, in absolute nothingness and in a state of consciousness and beyond its absence . These four levels are also the four types of highest meditation that Shakyamuni Buddha mastered in the state of Enlightenment.

Cycles of cosmic cataclysms cover only 16 lower worlds (10 from the sphere of passions and 6 from rupa-dhatu). Each of them in the period of death disintegrates down to the chaos of the primary elements (earth, water, wind, fire), while the inhabitants of these worlds with their inherent level of consciousness and karma in the form of "self-shining and self-moving" smallest "fireflies" move to the sky of light Abhasvara. (the 17th world, not subject to universal decay) and remain there until the restoration of cosmic and earthly conditions suitable for returning to their level. When they return, they go through a long biological and socio-historical evolution before they become what they were before moving to Abhaswara. The driving cause of these changes (as well as of the entire cosmic cycle) is the total karma of beings.

Buddhist ideas about the earthly world (horizontal cosmology of the 6 lower levels of the sphere of passions) are very mythological. In the center of the earth rises a huge tetrahedral Mount Meru (Sumeru), surrounded by oceans, mountain ranges with four continents (to the cardinal points) and islands behind them. The southern mainland is Jambudvipa, or Hindustan, with adjacent lands known to the ancient Indians. Below the surface of the oceans, there were 7 underground-underwater worlds, the lowest of which was hell. Above the surface, deities live on Mount Meru, on its top are the heavenly palaces of the 33 Vedic gods, headed by Indra.

Buddhist holidays

Buddhist holidays are to a greater or lesser extent colored by the folklore of the countries where they take place. In particular, Lamaist Buddhism in Tibet and Great Vehicle Buddhism in China provide for numerous festivals that mix complex elements, historical or legendary, as well as preserved from animist cults. Let us dwell only on purely Buddhist holidays, which are celebrated in all countries where this religion is widespread.

These holidays are relatively few in number, since, according to tradition, the three main events in the life of the Buddha - his birth, his enlightenment and his immersion in nirvana - occurred on the same day.

Buddhist holidays fall on full moon days and usually correlate with the lunar calendar.

There are four major holidays throughout the year. We list them in chronological order:

in February - March, on the full moon of the 3rd lunar month, - the festival of Magha Puja (literally: "the holiday of the month of Magha"), dedicated to the discovery by the Buddha of the principles of his teaching to 1205 monks;

in May, on the 15th day of the 6th lunar month, the Buddha Jayanti holiday (literally: "the anniversary of the Buddha"), dedicated to his birth, insight and immersion in nirvana;

in July - September there is a holiday marking the beginning of the Buddhist fast. This three-month period, which usually coincides with the rainy season, is devoted to meditation, and the monks leave their monasteries only on exceptional occasions. On the days of this holiday, the relatives of the monks bring them numerous gifts. It is during this fast that teenagers undergo a traditional "internship" in a monastery;

in October or November they celebrate the end of the fast (the holiday is called Kathina). This is a fun holiday, famous for its fireworks. In Bangkok, magnificently garnished "royal boats" float out onto the river. In all monasteries, monks are given new clothes or cloth. The ceremonies include a common meal of believers on the territory of the temple, a procession around the pagoda and the reading of sacred texts - sutras.

Buddhism in Russia

Earlier than others, Buddhism was adopted by the Kalmyks, whose clans (related to the Western Mongolian, Oirat, union of tribes) migrated in the 17th century. in the Lower Volga region and the steppes of the Caspian Sea, which were part of the Moscow kingdom. In 1661, the Kalmyk Khan Puntsuk took for himself and all the people an oath of allegiance to the Moscow Tsar and at the same time kissed the image of the Buddha (Mong. Burkhan) and the book of Buddhist prayers. Even before the official recognition of Buddhism by the Mongols, the Kalmyks were well acquainted with it, since for about four centuries they were in close contact with the Buddhist peoples of the Khitans, Tanguts, Uighurs and Tibetans. Zaya-pandit (1599-1662), the creator of the Oirat literature and writing "todo bichig" ("clear writing"), based on the old Mongolian, was also a Kalmyk, a translator of sutras and other texts. New Russian subjects arrived with their nomadic Buddhist temples on khurul tents; elements of ancient shamanism were preserved both in everyday rituals and in Buddhist ritual holidays of Tsagan Sar, Zul, Uryus, etc. In the 18th century. there were 14 khuruls, in 1836 there were 30 large and 46 small ones, in 1917 - 92, in 1936 - 3. Some of the khuruls turned into monastic complexes inhabited by lama monasticism of three degrees: manji (novice students), getsul and gelung. The Kalmyk clergy studied in Tibetan monasteries, in the 19th century. in Kalmykia, local higher theological schools of tsannit choore were created. The largest khurul and Buddhist university was Tyumenevsky. Followers of the Tibetan Gelug school, the Kalmyks considered the Dalai Lama to be their spiritual head. In December 1943, the entire Kalmyk people was forcibly evicted to Kazakhstan, and all the churches were destroyed. In 1956, he was allowed to return, but Buddhist communities were not registered until 1988. In the 1990s, Buddhism was actively revived, Buddhist schools for the laity were opened, books and translations into the Novokalmyk language were published, temples and monasteries were built.

The Buryats (northern Mongolian clans), who roamed the valleys of the rivers of Transbaikalia, already professed Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism, when in the first half of the 17th century. Russian Cossacks and peasants arrived here. The formation of Buddhism in Transbaikalia was facilitated by 150 Mongol-Tibetan lamas who fled in 1712 from Khalkha-Mongolia, captured by the Manchu Qing dynasty. In 1741, by decree of Elizabeth Petrovna, Lama Navak-Puntsuk was declared the chief lama, lamas were exempted from taxes and taxes and received permission to preach Buddhism. In the 50s. 18th century the oldest Buryat monastery, the Tsongolsky datsan, is being built, consisting of seven temples; this title is preserved to this day, although the high priesthood passed in 1809 to the rector of the largest Russian datsan, the Gusinoozersky datsan (founded in 1758). By 1917, 46 datsans had been built in Transbaikalia (their abbots, shiretui, were approved by the governor); Aginsky datsan became the center of Buddhist education, scholarship, and culture. In 1893, there were 15 thousand lamas of various degrees (10% of the Buryat population).

Buddhism in Buryatia is practiced in the Mongolian version of the Tibetan Gelug school. For promoting monastic Buddhism, Catherine II was included in the host of rebirths of the White Tara ("Savior"), thus becoming the northernmost "living deity" of the Buddhist religion. Agvan Dorzhiev (1853-1938), one of the most educated figures of Tibetan Buddhism, was a Buryat. XX century; he was subsequently repressed. In the late 1930s datsans were closed, llamas were sent to the Gulag. In 1946, only Ivolginsky and Aginsky datsans were allowed to open in Transbaikalia. In the 1990s the revival of Buddhism began: about 20 datsans were restored, 6 great khurals of Buddhist holidays are solemnly celebrated: Saagalgan ( New Year according to the Tibetan calendar), Duinhor (the first sermon of the Buddha of the teachings of Kalachakra, the Wheel of Time, and the Vajrayana), Gandan-Shunserme (the birth, Enlightenment and nirvana of the Buddha), Maidari (the day of joy for the future Buddha Maitreya), Lhabab-Duisen (the conception of the Buddha, who descended from heaven Tushita in the womb of mother Maya), Zula (commemoration day of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug).

Tuvans were familiar with Buddhism long before it was adopted from the Dzhungars in the 18th century. (Mongol-Tibetan version of the Gelug school, but without the institute of rebirth). In 1770, the first monastery Samagaltai Khure was erected, which consisted of 8 temples. By the twentieth century. 22 monasteries were built, in which more than 3 thousand lamas of various degrees lived; along with this, there were about 2 thousand "Buddhist" worldly shamans (the functions of shamans and lamas were often combined in one person). The head of the clergy was the Chamza Khambo Lama, who was subordinate to the Bogdo Gegen of Mongolia. By the end of the 1940s. all Khure (monasteries) were closed, but the shamans continued to operate (sometimes secretly). In 1992, the 14th Dalai Lama visited Tuva, attended the Buddhist renaissance festival and ordained several young people as monks.

At present, several centers for the study of various forms of world Buddhism have been opened in Russia. Japanese schools are popular, especially the secular version of Zen Buddhism; Terasawa in 1992-93. and related to the Nichiren school. In St. Petersburg, the society of Chinese Buddhism Fo Guang (Light of Buddha) is actively engaged in educational and publishing activities, since 1991 a Tibetan temple dedicated to the deity Kalachakra has been operating (it was opened in 1913-15, closed in 1933). The activities of the Central Spiritual Administration of Buddhists are coordinated.

Buddhism in modern Asian countries

In Bhutan, about a millennium ago, the Vajrayana in the Tibetan version was established: the Dalai Lama is recognized as the spiritual head, but in cult terms, the features of the more ancient schools of Tibet, the Nyingma and Kagyu, are clear.

Buddhist preachers appeared in Vietnam in the 3rd century BC. in the northern part of the country, which was part of the Han Empire. They translated Mahayana sutras into local languages. In 580, the Indian Vinitaruchi founded the first school of Thien (Skt. Dhyana, Chinese Chan), which existed in Vietnam until 1213. In the 9th and 11th centuries. the Chinese created here 2 more sub-schools of southern Chan Buddhism, which became main religion independent state of the Viet since the 10th century. In 1299, by decree of the emperor of the Chan dynasty, a unified school of thien was approved, which, however, was losing by the end of the 14th century. after the fall of Chan their supremacy, which gradually passes to Amidism and Tantrism of the Vajrayana. These directions spread in the countryside, the thien monasteries remained the centers of culture and education, which were patronized by wealthy families and which restored their positions by the 17th-18th centuries. throughout the country. Since 1981, there has been a Vietnamese Buddhist church, unity in which is achieved by a skillful combination of elite Thien monasticism and folk syncretism of Amidism, Tantrism and local beliefs (for example, in the god of the earth and in the god of animals). According to statistics, approximately 75% of the population of Vietnam are Buddhists, in addition to the Mahayana, there are also Theravada supporters (3-4%), especially among the Khmers.

In India (including Pakistan, Bangladesh, and eastern Afghanistan), Buddhism has existed since about the 3rd century BC. BC e. according to the 8th century n. e. in the Indus Valley and from the 5th c. BC e. by the 13th century n. e. in the valley of the Ganges; in the Himalayas did not cease to exist. In India, the main trends and schools were formed, all the texts that were included in the canons of Buddhists in other countries were created. Buddhism spread especially widely with the support of the central government in the empires of Ashoka (268-231 BC), Kushans in the north and Satavakhans in the south of Hindustan in the II-III centuries, Guptas (V century), Harsha (VII century .) and Palov (VIII-XI centuries). The last Buddhist monastery in the plains of India was destroyed by Muslims in 1203. The ideological legacy of Buddhism was partly absorbed by Hinduism, in which Buddha was declared one of the avatars (earthly incarnations) of the god Vishnu.

Buddhists in India make up over 0.5% (more than 4 million). These are the Himalayan peoples of Ladakh and Sikkim, Tibetan refugees, hundreds of thousands of whom have moved to India since the early 1960s. led by the 14th Dalai Lama. Particular merit in the revival of Indian Buddhism belongs to the Maha Bodhi Society, founded by the Sri Lankan monk Dharmapala (1864-1933) and restoring the ancient shrines of Buddhism (primarily associated with the activities of Buddha Shakyamuni). In the year of the celebration of the 2500th anniversary of Buddhism (1956), the former Minister of Justice of the central government B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) issued an appeal to the Indians of the untouchable caste to convert to Buddhism as a non-caste religion; in just one day he managed to convert more than 500 thousand people. After his death, Ambedkar was declared a bodhisattva. The conversion process continued for several more years, the new Buddhists are classified as the Theravada school, although there are almost no monasticism among them. The Government of India subsidizes the work of numerous institutes of Buddhology and faculties at universities.

Indonesia. In 671, the Chinese Buddhist traveler I Ching (635-713), on his way to India by sea, stopped on the island of Sumatra in the kingdom of Srivijaya, where he discovered an already developed form of Hinayana monastic Buddhism and counted 1,000 monks. Archaeological inscriptions show that both Mahayana and Vajrayana existed there. It was these directions, with the strong influence of Shaivism, that received a powerful development in Java during the Shailendra dynasty in the 8th-9th centuries. One of the most majestic stupas Borobudur was erected here. In the XI century. students from other countries came to the monasteries of Indonesia, for example, the famous Atisha studied the Sarvastivada books of the Hinayana school in Sumatra. At the end of the XIV century. Muslims gradually replaced Buddhists and Hindus; now there are approximately 2% of Buddhists in the country (about 4 million).

Buddhism entered Cambodia along with the formation of the first Khmer state in the II-VI centuries. It was dominated by the Mahayana with significant elements of Hinduism; in the era of the Anggor Empire (IX-XIV centuries), this was especially manifested in the cult of the god-king and the bodhisattva in one person of the emperor. From the 13th century Theravada is becoming increasingly important, eventually supplanting both Hinduism and the Mahayana. In the 50-60s. 20th century in Cambodia, there were about 3 thousand monasteries, temples and 55 thousand Theravada monks, most of whom were killed or expelled from the country during the reign of the Khmer Rouge in 1975-79. In 1989 Buddhism was declared the state religion of Cambodia, 93% of the population are Buddhists. The monasteries are divided into two sub-schools: the Mahanikaya and the Dhammayutika Nikaya. The Vietnamese ethnic group of Cambodia (9% of the Buddhist population) mainly follows the Mahayana.

In China from the 2nd to the 9th centuries. Buddhist missionaries translated sutras and treatises into Chinese. Already in the IV century. the first schools of Buddhism, hundreds of monasteries and temples appeared. In the ninth century the authorities imposed the first property and economic restrictions on the monasteries, which turned into the richest feudal owners of the country. Since then, Buddhism has not played a leading role in China, except for periods of mass peasant uprisings. In China, a single ideological and cult complex of three faiths (Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism) has developed, each of which had its own purpose both in ritual (for example, Buddhists were engaged in funeral rites) and in religious philosophy(preference was given to the Mahayana). Scholars divide Chinese Buddhist schools into 3 types:

1. schools of Indian treatises that studied texts related to Indian Madhyamika, Yogacara and others (for example, the Sanlunzong School of Three Treatises is a Chinese version of the Madhyamika, founded by Kumarajiva in the early 5th century to study the works of Nagarjuna and Aryadeva;
2. sutra schools a sinicized version of the worship of the Word of the Buddha, while Tiantai-zong relies on the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika), the Pure Land school on the sutras of the Sukhavati-vyuha cycle;
3. schools of meditation taught the practices of contemplation (dhyana), yoga, tantra and other ways of developing the latent abilities of the individual (Chan Buddhism). Chinese Buddhism is characterized by the strong influence of Taoism, the emphasis on the idea of ​​emptiness as the true nature of things, the teaching that the absolute Buddha (emptiness) can be worshiped in the forms of the conventional world, the idea of ​​instant Enlightenment in addition to the Indian teachings of gradual Enlightenment.

In the 30s. 20th century in China, there were over 700 thousand Buddhist monks and thousands of monasteries and temples. In the 1950s The Chinese Buddhist Association was created, uniting more than 100 million lay believers and 500 thousand monks. In 1966, during the "cultural revolution", all places of worship were closed, and the monks were sent for "re-education" by physical labor. The activity of the association resumed in 1980.

In Korea, from 372 to 527, Chinese Buddhism spread, officially recognized on the Korean Peninsula in all three then-existing states; after their unification in the second half of the 7th century. Buddhism received strong support, Buddhist schools were formed (most of them are Mahayana analogues of Chinese ones, with the exception of the Nalban school, which relied on the Nirvana Sutra). At the center of Korean Buddhism is the cult of bodhisattvas, especially Maitreya and Avalokiteshvara, as well as the buddhas Shakyamuni and Amitabha. Buddhism in Korea flourished in the 10th-14th centuries, when monks were included in single system officials, and the monasteries became institutions of the state, actively participating in the political life of the country.

In the XV century. the new Confucian dynasty curtailed monastic property, limited the number of monks, and then banned the building of monasteries altogether. In the XX century. Buddhism began to revive under the colonial rule of Japan. In 1908, Korean monks were allowed to marry. in South Korea in the 1960s and 1990s. Buddhism is experiencing a new upsurge: half of the population considers themselves Buddhists, there are 19 Buddhist schools and their branches, thousands of monasteries, publishing houses, universities; administrative leadership is carried out by the Central Council, consisting of 50 monks and nuns. The most authoritative is the monastery school of Chogye, formed in 1935 by combining two schools of meditation and teaching monks at Dongguk University (Seoul).

In Laos, during its independence in the 16th-17th centuries, the king banned the local religion and officially introduced Buddhism, which represented two peacefully coexisting communities: the Mahayana (from Vietnam, China) and the Hinayana (from Cambodia, Thailand). The influence of Buddhism (especially Theravada) intensified during the colonial period of the 18th-20th centuries. In 1928, with the participation of the French authorities, it was declared the state religion, which remains to this day: about 80% of the 4 million Laotians are Buddhists, 2.5 thousand monasteries, temples and over 10 thousand monks.

Mongolia. During the formation in the XIII century. The Mongol Empire included states whose peoples professed Buddhism - the Chinese, Khitans, Tanguts, Uighurs and Tibetans. In the courts of the Mongol khans, Buddhist teachers who competed with shamans, Muslims, Christians and Confucians won the victory. The founder of the Yuan dynasty (ruled China until 1368) Khubilai in the 70s. 13th century tried to declare Buddhism the religion of the Mongols, and Lodoy-gyaltsen (1235-80), the abbot of the monastery of the Tibetan Sakya school, was the head of the Buddhists of Tibet, Mongolia and China. However, the massive and widespread adoption of Buddhism by the Mongols occurred in the 16th century, primarily due to the Tibetan teachers of the Gelug school: in 1576, the powerful Mongol ruler Altan Khan met with the Dalai Lama III (1543-88) and presented him with a golden seal, a sign of recognition and support. In 1589, the grandson of Altan Khan was declared the Dalai Lama IV (1589-1616), the spiritual head of the Buddhists of Mongolia and Tibet.

The first monastery was erected in the Mongolian steppes in 1586. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Mongolian Buddhism (the former name "Lamaism") was formed, which included most of the autochthonous shamanic beliefs and cults. Zaya Pandit Namkhai Jamtso (1599-1662) and others translated sutras from Tibetan into Mongolian, Jebtsun-Damba-Khutukhta (1635-1723, in 1691 proclaimed the spiritual head of the Bogdo Gegen of the Eastern Mongols) created new forms of ritual with his followers. The Dalai Lama was recognized as the spiritual head of the Dzungar Khanate, formed by the Oirats and existing in 1635-1758.

At the beginning of the XX century. in sparsely populated Mongolia there were 747 monasteries and temples and about 100 thousand monks. In independent Mongolia, under the communists, almost all churches were closed, the monks were dispersed. In the 1990s the revival of Buddhism began, the Higher School of Lamas (monk-priests) was opened, monasteries are being restored.

The first Theravadin Buddhist missionaries from India arrived in Myanmar (Burma) at the beginning of our era. In the 5th century Sarvastivada and Mahayana monasteries are being built in the Irrawaddy valley. By the 9th century Burmese Buddhism was formed, combining the features of local beliefs, Hinduism, the Mahayana cults of the bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Maitreya, Buddhist Tantrism, as well as the monastic Theravada, which received generous support in the Pagan Empire (IX-XIV centuries), built huge temple and monastery complexes. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. monasteries became part of the administrative structure new empire. Under the English colonial rule (XIX-XX centuries), the Buddhist sangha broke up into separate communities, with independence in 1948, a centralized Buddhist hierarchy and a rigid Theravada monastic discipline were revived. In the 1990s in Myanmar there are 9 sub-schools of Theravada (the largest Thudhamma and Sweden), 25 thousand monasteries and temples, more than 250 thousand monks. The practice of temporary monasticism has been developed, when lay people join the sangha for several months, performing all the rites and spiritual practices; by doing this, they "earn" merit (luna, lunya), which should outweigh their sins and create "bright karma" that ensures a favorable reincarnation. Approximately 82% of the population are Buddhists.

Nepal. The south of modern Nepal is the birthplace of the Buddha and his Shakya people. The proximity of the Indian centers of the Mahayana and Vajrayana, as well as Tibet, determined the nature of Nepalese Buddhism, which has prevailed since the 7th century. The sacred texts were Sanskrit sutras, the cults of the Buddhas were popular (the Nepalese believe that they were all born in their country), bodhisattvas, especially Avalokiteshvara and Manjushri. The strong influence of Hinduism affected the development of the cult of the single Buddha Adi-Buddha. By the twentieth century. Buddhism ceded spiritual leadership to Hinduism, partly due to the migration of peoples, and partly due to the fact that since the XIV century. Buddhist monks were declared the highest Hindu caste (banra), they began to marry, but continued to live and serve in monasteries, as if included in Hinduism.

In the 1960s 20th century in Nepal, monk refugees from Tibet appeared, contributing to the revival of interest in Buddhism, the construction of new monasteries and temples. Newars, one of the indigenous peoples of Nepal, profess the so-called. "Newar Buddhism", in which the Mahayana and Vajrayana are closely intertwined with the cults and ideas of Hinduism. Newars hold worship in one of the largest stupas in the world, Bodhnath.

In Thailand, the earliest Buddhist stupas are dated by archaeologists to the 2nd-3rd centuries. (erected during Indian colonization). Up to the XIII century. the country was part of the various empires of Indo-China, which were Buddhist (since the 7th century, the Mahayana prevailed). In the middle of the XV century. in the kingdom of Ayutthaya (Siam), the Hinduized cult of the "god-king" (deva-raja), borrowed from the Khmers, was established, included in the Buddhist concept of a single Law (Dharma) of the universe. In 1782, the Chakri dynasty came to power, under which Theravada Buddhism became the state religion. The monasteries turned into centers of education and culture, the monks performed the functions of priests, teachers, and often officials. In the 19th century many schools are reduced to two: Maha-nikaya (folk, numerous) and Dhammayutika-nikaya (elitist, but influential).

Currently, the monastery is the smallest administrative unit in the country, which includes from 2 to 5 villages. In the 1980s there were 32,000 monasteries and 400,000 "permanent" monks (approximately 3% of the male population of the country; sometimes from 40 to 60% of men are temporarily tonsured monks), there are a number of Buddhist universities that train the highest cadres of the clergy. The World Fellowship of Buddhists is headquartered in Bangkok.

Buddhism arrived in Taiwan with Chinese settlers in the 17th century. A local variety of folk Buddhism, chai hao, was established here, in which Confucianism and Taoism were assimilated. In the 1990s of the country's 11 million believers, 44% (approximately 5 million) are Buddhists of the Chinese Mahayana schools. There are 4020 temples, dominated by the Tiantai, Huayan, Chan and Pure Land schools, which have ties with the Buddhist Association of Mainland China.

In Tibet, the adoption of Indian Buddhism was a conscious policy of the Tibetan kings of the 7th-8th centuries: prominent missionaries were invited (Shantarakshita, Padmasambhava, Kamalashila, etc.), sutras and Buddhist treatises were translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan (the Tibetan script was created on the basis of the Indian script in Ser. VII century), temples were built. In 791, the first monastery of Samye opened, and King Trisong Detsen declared Buddhism the state religion. In the first centuries, the Vajrayana Nyingma school, created by Padmasambhava, dominated. After the successful missionary work of Atisha in 1042-54. the monks began to follow the charter more strictly. Three new schools arose: Kagyutpa, Kadampa and Sakyapa (called schools of "new translations"), which alternately dominated the spiritual life of Tibet. In the rivalry of schools, the Gelugpa, who grew up in kadampa, won; its founder Tsongkhapa (1357-1419, Mong. Tsongkhava) strengthened monastic discipline according to the Hinayana charter, introduced strict celibacy, and established the cult of the Buddha of the future Maitreya. The school developed in detail the institution of reincarnations of the living gods of the Tibetan religion, who were the incarnations of Buddhas, heavenly bodhisattvas, great teachers and saints of past times: after the death of each of them, candidates (children 4-6 years old) were found and the next one chosen (with the participation of the oracle) representative of this line of spiritual succession. From the 16th century so they began to appoint the highest hierarchs of the Gelugpa Dalai Lamas as reincarnations of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara; with the support of the Mongol khans, then the Chinese-Manchu authorities, they became the de facto rulers of autonomous Tibet. Until the 50s. 20th century every family in Tibet sent at least one son as a monk, the ratio of monks and laity was approximately 1: 7. Since 1959, the Dalai Lama XIV, the government and parliament of Tibet are in exile, in India, with part of the people and the majority of monks. In China, the second spiritual hierarch of the Gelugpa Panchen Lama school (the incarnation of Buddha Amitabha) remained and several monasteries of the unique Tibetan Buddhism synthesis of Mahayana, Vajrayana and Bon (local shamanism) operate.

The first missionaries of the Indian king Ashoka, among whom were his son and daughter, arrived in Sri Lanka in the second half of the 3rd century. BC e. For the offshoot of the Bodhi tree and other relics they brought, several temples and stupas were erected. At a council held under King Vatagamani (29-17 BC), the first Buddhist canon of the Tipitaka of the Theravada school that dominated here was written down in Pali. In the III-XII centuries. the influence of the Mahayana, which the monastery of Abhayagiri-vihara adhered to, was noticeable, although from the 5th century. Sinhalese kings supported only Theravada. At the end of the 5th century Buddhaghosa worked on the island, completing editing and commenting on the Tipitaka (the day of his arrival in Lanka is a public holiday). At present, Buddhism is predominantly practiced by the Sinhalese (60% of the population), there are 7,000 monasteries and temples, 20,000 Theravada monks, and, unlike the Theravada of the countries of Indochina, there is no practice of temporary monasticism and an emphasis on the idea of ​​accumulating "merits". There are Buddhist universities, publishing houses, the headquarters of the world Mahabodhi society (founded by Anagarika Dharmapala), youth associations of Buddhists, etc.

The first Buddhist preachers from Korea arrived in Japan in the middle of the 6th century. They received the support of the imperial court, built temples. Under Emperor Semu (724-749), Buddhism was proclaimed the state religion, a monastery was founded in every administrative region of the country, a majestic Todaiji temple with a giant gilded Buddha statue was erected in the capital, young men went to study Buddhist sciences in China.

Most of the schools of Japanese Buddhism are descended from the Chinese. They are divided into three categories:

1. Indian - this is the name of those Chinese schools that have analogues in India, for example, the earliest Japanese school Sanron-shu (625) is largely identical to the Chinese Sanlun-zong, which, in turn, can be considered a sub-school of Indian Madhyamika;
2. analogues of the Chinese schools of sutras and meditation, for example, Tendai-shu (from Tiantai-zong), Zen (from Chan), etc.;
3. specifically Japanese, which have no direct predecessors in China, for example, Shingon-shu or Nichiren-shu; in these schools, Buddhist ideas and practices were combined with the mythology and rituals of the local Shinto religion (spirit cult). Relations between it and Buddhism sometimes escalated, but for the most part they coexisted peacefully, even after 1868, when Shinto was declared the state religion. Today, Shinto temples coexist with Buddhist ones, and lay believers participate in the rituals of both religions; according to statistics, the majority of Japanese consider themselves, however, Buddhists.

All schools and organizations are members of the All Japan Buddhist Association, the largest Zen school is Soto-shu (14.7 thousand temples and 17 thousand monks) and the Amida Jodo-shinshu (10.4 thousand temples and 27 thousand priests). In general, Japanese Buddhism is characterized by an emphasis on the ritual and cult side of religion. Created in the twentieth century. In Japan, scientific Buddhology made a great contribution to the textology of ancient Buddhism. From the 60s. neo-Buddhist organizations (the Nichiren school) actively participate in political life.