II. METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING INDEPENDENT WORK

III. EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL MATERIALS FOR THE COURSE “HISTORY OF FOREIGN LITERATURE K. XIX – BEGINNING. XX century.

Method Implementation Tasks

The development of students (in particular, the development of logical thinking) through the organization of intensive communication, reflective activity, and meaning creation.

Framework conditions for the implementation of the method

1. The optimal number of participants is up to 30 people.

2. Required equipment: link cards (components)
logical chain; pre-designed content (links and
the logic of their location) 2-3 logical chains that will
proposed for construction to a group of participants.

3. The implementation time of the method is 10-15 minutes.
Method implementation algorithm

1. The teacher introduces students to the conditions for implementing the method:
each is offered a choice of one of the cards, on which
either a word or a phrase is written. This card and its
the giver is one of the links in the logical chain, which
must be built by organizing interaction with others
participants. Cards (links) must be built in a certain way.
lazy logic, substantiating this logic. On the first card (link),
which starts logical chain, should be summarizing
a general word or phrase that gives the name of the entire logical
chain; it is necessary to build 2-3 logical chains.

2. Participants are invited to choose one card each.
All cards - links of 2-3 logical chains are mixed and
returned so that participants cannot see what is written on them, and
are located on a folder that the teacher carries around the audience.

3. After the cards were distributed to the participants, the teacher
lags them to organize communication among themselves, as a result
which you need to build 2-3 logical chains - one next

iu, another on the right in the auditorium; reminds that it is necessary to explain the logic of building a "chain", the location of its links.

4. Participants interact with each other, high
right logical chains (determine who is in what chain
zhsn be and in what sequence, explaining its logic).

5. When the logical chains are built, the participants (begin
Those who first built a logical chain) alternately declaring
name the chain, list it in a logical successor
all links in the chain and then explain), it can do
l for one or several participants) the logic of the location of the stars
new chains.

6. After the presentation by the participants of the constructed logical
chains, the teacher either agrees with the proposed options,
l because it rebuilds logical chains according to its own scenario, explaining
nyaya logic of their construction.

7. A reflection of the interaction that took place is organized.
A comment

In the course of the interaction of participants in building logical chains, the teacher corrects and stimulates this interaction, striving for less time and constructive interaction.

Examples of logical chains

Option 1. Logical chain "Closet".

Components (links) of the logical chain (composition and logic of location): wardrobe, shelf, hat, tie, hanger, trousers, shirt, suit, raincoat, coat, mole, wormwood.

the logical chain is called "Closet": there is a shelf in the closet on which a hat and tie can lie; on a hanger we will first hang trousers, then a shirt, a jacket, a raincoat and a coat; moths sometimes start up in the closet, wormwood is a remedy against moths.

Option 2. Logical chain "Forest".

Components (links) of the logical chain (composition and logic of location): forest, pine, spruce, birch, oak, hazel, hawthorn, juniper, blueberry, buttercup, chamomile, milk mushroom.

Chaining explanation: the logical chain is called "Forest". Its construction is based on the principle of forest layering:

52 _______________________________________________

logical circuit- - [L.G. Sumenko. English Russian Dictionary of Information Technologies. M.: GP TsNIIS, 2003.] Topics information Technology in general EN hold on logic … Technical Translator's Handbook

LOGIC CIRCUIT, electrical circuit conductors, consisting of modules (for example, amplifiers) and other components (transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors), used to distribute and process electronic signals (for example, ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

App., use. comp. often Morphology: ad. logically 1. Anything related to logic as a science is called logical. logical categories. | logical laws. 2. Something is called logical that is consistent with the laws of logic, based on ... Dictionary Dmitrieva

BLC Dictionary of abbreviations of the Russian language

BLC- high-speed logic circuit ... Dictionary of abbreviations and abbreviations

position- 59 position: Logical unit of content normative document, which takes the form of a message, instruction, recommendation or requirement Source ...

GOST 23066-78: Beam control devices for phased antenna arrays. Terms and Definitions- Terminology GOST 23066 78: Beam control devices for phased antenna arrays. Terms and definitions original document: 37. Subscriber communication channel SUL Communication channel SUL serving only one control channel Definitions of the term from ... ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

- (Greek logike̅́) the science of acceptable ways of reasoning. The word "L." in its modern use is ambiguous, although not as rich in semantic shades as ancient Greek. logos from which it comes. In the spirit of tradition with the concept of L ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Relay protection is a complex of automatic devices designed to quickly (in case of damage) identify and separate damaged elements of this electric power system from the electric power system in emergency situations with ... ... Wikipedia

- 'LOGICAL PHILOSOPHICAL TRACTATIS' ('Tgstatus Logico philosophicus') main work early period Wittgenstein's work and the only book he published during his lifetime. Written in 1916 1918, published in 1921 in Germany and in 1922 in ... ...

- (Trastatus Logico philosophicus) the main work of the early period of Wittgenstein's work and the only book that he published during his lifetime. Written in 1916 1918, published in 1921 in Germany and in 1922 in Great Britain. Analysis… … History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia

Books

• 1000 chess problems. Entry level, Sukhin Igor Georgievich. The publication includes 1000 clearly structured tasks for all major topics primary education, which will become a solid base for further improvement in the ancient and wise game. Guiding…

We have already agreed that we will call abstract those concepts that cannot be perceived directly by the senses: law, economics, energy, education, and so on. A text rich in abstract concepts is much more difficult to remember than concrete texts. The only real way to make things easier is on a logical level. However, the level of figurative memorization can significantly save time and effort.

First of all, we note that abstract concepts can be concretized by imagining concrete objects that can serve as a reminder of abstraction. For example, the law is a book of the criminal code; economics - an economic newspaper (or better, a more complex, but also more accurate image: a plant and a collective farm are nearby, a road between them, a telephone line, etc.); energy - transformer; education is school...

Secondly, we recall that when working with an abstract text, we remember not words, but mainly thoughts. Therefore, a hint of a thought is often enough to bring to mind everything connected with it. Therefore, when forming the UI, there is no need to insert every word into it.

For example, you need to remember next text:

Yesterday, at a press conference, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus P.K. Kravchenko told journalists about the results of the meeting of the regional association Central European Initiative (CEI), held in the Italian city of Trieste.

The status of an associate member of the CEI, which Belarus has received, makes it possible not only to participate in the activities of working groups and meetings of national coordinators, foreign ministers and prime ministers as an observer, but also to make their proposals on the substance of the issues under discussion and influence the decisions made.

According to Kravchenko, participation in the CEI is a breakthrough to the west in the region economic cooperation and subsequently integration into the European Union. Although for this Belarus will have to create its own market model in order to become equal among equals.

Let us trace the process of formation of the UI of this message. The first EI: a map of Europe, Italy, a large table at which delegations sit, the Belarusian delegation sits on the sidelines, but its leader takes the floor, and they listen to him attentively. The second EI: the same map, Belarus, Minsk, press conference, in the hands of the speaker - a model (a picture of the bazaar), arrows stretch from Belarus to Europe - an economic breakthrough!

Thus, the overall picture: a map of Europe, a meeting in Italy, a press conference in Minsk, arrows ... Try to remember this message in a day, and you will see that the hints-symbols placed in IT are quite enough for a detailed retelling.

Try to work through the following text on your own.

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL REVOLUTION

The scientific and technological revolution is a leap in the development of the productive forces of society, their transition to a qualitatively new state.

At the first stage of the development of scientific and technological revolution (60–70s), its most important feature was the automation of production processes - that is, another link appeared in the machine that controlled its work. Robots, machine tools with program control characterize qualitative shifts in technology, in the tools of production.

Since the late 1970s, qualitatively new features associated with the advances in microelectronics have appeared in the development of scientific and technological revolution. This new stage was called the computer (microprocessor) revolution. The control and monitoring device in the system of machines that has now appeared (along with the engine, transmission mechanism and working machine) frees a person not only from contact with working tools (tools), but also with the working machine itself. Currently, there are already more than 200 thousand applications of microprocessors. There was a possibility of transition from separate "islands of automation" to complex automation of the whole technological processes based on a group of interconnected machines, equipment, devices.

Along with technology, revolutionary changes are taking place in technology, that is, in the methods of influencing raw materials, materials, and the subject of labor. Handicraft production included two components: the cost of raw materials and manual labor (that is, the technology was characterized by material and labor intensity). The Industrial Revolution introduced two new components: capital intensity and energy intensity. Scientific and technological revolution supplemented them with science intensity.

One of promising directions is biotechnology - that is, the use of biological processes in production purposes.

Along with technique and technology, the subject of labor, that is, the materials that are processed, is qualitatively changing. These changes are associated primarily with the achievements of physics and chemistry: the creation of plastics, synthetic fibers, and so on.

Profound changes are taking place in energy sources: in France, for example,

69% of electricity is produced at nuclear power plants.

When a person invades a field of knowledge that is not well known to him, the difficulties in mastering the material increase sharply because insufficiently understood phenomena, concepts with great difficulty form the connections necessary for memorization. Such concepts represent an abstraction for the reader. high degree. In the process of reading, the reader is forced to think about each word in order to comprehend the meaning of the statement. As a result, almost every word turns into a separate UI. Their total number is rapidly increasing, the RAM register is overflowing - memorization becomes difficult or even impossible.

A vicious circle is formed: in order to get used to a new field of knowledge, it is necessary to quickly gain information in it; on the other hand, the ability to type information is severely limited by a poor understanding of the material. How to get out of this circle?

The method, of course, is known to everyone: work with textbooks, dictionaries, comprehend the meaning of terms, first study the basics of a new subject.

But there is often not enough time for painstaking work, and the task may be completely different: just to get acquainted with the basic provisions, the laws of a new subject. On the other hand, in the case of deep learning, we would like to speed up this process. How to do it?

The method of crutches can partially help, the essence of which is as follows.

The material is read twice. The first reading proceeds according to the following rules:

the material is read quickly;

the material is simplified as much as possible (on the first reading, one should not be afraid of the vulgarization of the material, which usually occurs with excessive simplification);

in place of incomprehensible objects, phenomena, concepts, a crutch is put: any signs, drawings, symbols that can temporarily replace the meaning of what is not understood.

Let's show the crutch method with an example. You need to understand and memorize the following text. (Of course, it is impossible to choose a text that would be equally incomprehensible to everyone. But it is important to see the principle of work, which can then be easily transferred to any text).

Electromagnetic waves emitted by the antenna of a radio transmitter cause forced oscillations of free electrons in any conductor. The voltage between the ends of a conductor in which an electromagnetic wave excites forced oscillations electric current proportional to the length of the conductor. Therefore, to receive electromagnetic waves in the simplest detector receiver, a long wire is used - a receiving antenna. Forced oscillations in the antenna are excited electromagnetic waves from all radio stations. In order to listen to only one radio station, voltage fluctuations are not sent directly to the output of the amplifier, but are first fed to an oscillatory circuit with a changing natural frequency of oscillation. A change in the natural frequency of oscillations in the receiver circuit is usually carried out by changing the electric capacitance of a variable capacitor. When the frequency of forced oscillations in the antenna coincides with the natural frequency of the circuit oscillations, a resonance occurs, at which the amplitude of the forced oscillations of the voltage on the circuit capacitor plates reaches its maximum value. Thus, from a large number of electromagnetic oscillations excited in the antenna by different stations, oscillations of the desired frequency are distinguished.

So, usually a reader who is far from this area of ​​knowledge, faced with long sentences saturated with noun-terms, begins to think about each word, trying to catch the meaning. In this case, the result is exactly the opposite of what he wants to achieve, since a large number of EI does not fit in the RAM register. We will do the opposite: we will sharply increase the speed of reading, simplify the material without thinking about unfamiliar terminology, and depict the sequence of material on paper in the form of a chain of crutches.

The waves of the transmitter cause vibrations in the conductor ... and the longer the conductor, the stronger the vibrations ... therefore it is the long wire that serves as the antenna ...

But there are fluctuations in the wire from different stations. How to listen to one? Oscillations are first supplied to the oscillatory circuit with its own oscillation frequency ... (In place of the oscillatory circuit - and it is assumed that we do not know

what is it - we draw any squiggle and say to ourselves: this is an oscillatory circuit!)

The change in the frequency in the circuit is made by changing the electrical capacitance of the variable capacitor (in place of the capacitor - a crutch!). When the frequencies in the antenna and in the circuit coincide, resonance sets in - that is, a sharp increase in oscillations ...

Now the oscillations of one station are fed to the amplifier!

What have we gained as a result of this preliminary work? Firstly, a chain of crutches, according to which we can easily retell the text - however, without terminology (at the level of devils, nonsense, squiggles, etc.).

Secondly, despite incomplete knowledge, we understood the essence of the occurring phenomena: that is, we understood how the necessary oscillations are distinguished from the oscillations excited by different stations. Thirdly, we can now proceed to the second reading - and it will turn out that the numerous terms that caused our difficulties are not so numerous and not at all as complicated as it seemed. And finally, fourthly, when we begin to study in full depth unfamiliar concepts (oscillatory circuit, variable capacitor, etc.), it will turn out that we have greatly facilitated our work, since now these concepts are not as abstract as before - after all we already know some of their functions.

Of course, secondary reading should take place without simplifications, but with all terminology, with clarification of concepts, with an understanding of all depth. However, doing this work will become much easier, as the degree of abstraction has sharply decreased.

LOGICAL CHAIN

Despite its name, this method of working with abstract texts is designed for figurative memorization, and not for logical memorization. And the name "logical chain" was given because it allows you to see the logical sequence of the main thoughts of the text and liberates thinking.

In essence, this method is similar to the crutch method, but there is some difference between them. If the crutch method is aimed at working with technical literature, then the logical chain will help you out when working with humanitarian material of a high degree of abstraction.

The complexity of working with such texts often lies in the fact that the need to achieve the necessary depth of penetration into a complex abstract thought forces the author to be verbose. He involuntarily details, turning the thought from one side to the other, often moving quite far from the main object of thought.

Overflow of the RAM register leads to a weakening of the ability to see the whole thought, especially the chain of reasoning. Truly, you can't see the forest for the trees.

Let's formulate the rules of work according to the logical chain method:

- the chain is built on the largest possible

the amount of information (depending on the nature of the text - 1.5–3 pages, or even more); reading speed increases sharply in order to get rid of the phenomenon of hyperbolization; the material is simplified and denoted by images-symbols;

at the end of the first reading, it is necessary to be able to see the entire chain as a whole.

As an example, consider the work with the article by Joseph Weiss "The Subconscious Work of the Mind". At the school for the development of intellect "MOLTO" we offer cadets to memorize this article with two settings. In the first case, it was required to read and retell. The results with this setting, as a rule, left much to be desired: the cadets often lost the thread of reasoning and several times started reading the article from the beginning. This happened because the setting for retelling made me read into small details - which led to the overflow of the RAM register. In another case, it was required to read quickly, in large chunks, to form EI with the help of symbolic images. The result was strikingly different from the first - most of the cadets were perplexed: what is so difficult here?

JOSEPH WEISS "SUBCONSCIOUS WORK OF THE MIND"

How does a psychotherapist treat? He tries to influence the subconscious of his patient. Hence another, no less important question: how does the subconscious mind function?

According to the generally accepted view, people are not able to subconsciously carry out those types of intellectual activities that are performed consciously, for example, to make plans. However, our research on therapeutic methods shows that a person is able to subconsciously think, anticipate consequences, make decisions, make and implement plans. But that's not all: you can make sure that these abilities contribute to the recovery of patients, helping to manage irrational attitudes, emotions, behavior.

The purpose of our research was to compare two different psychoanalytic (Freudian) hypotheses about the nature of the subconscious workings of the mind, which are valuable for understanding the mechanisms of the therapeutic process.

According to the theory of psychoanalysis, a person from the very early childhood powerful mental formations, "forbidden" for consciousness, can be forced out into the subconscious by a kind of "censorship", which is a force that prevents the repressed mental material from penetrating into consciousness again. However, these psychic formations repressed into the subconscious (to which Freud at first attributed mainly sexual and aggressive impulses, and then included beliefs, judgments, and such experiences as shame and guilt) continue to influence a person’s mood and behavior. Therefore, they can exacerbate the symptoms that cause a person to see a psychotherapist - unexplained depression, unreasonable anxiety and inappropriate behavior, which seem to be difficult to control by consciousness.

Since "censorship" limits a person's awareness of the causes of his own actions and experiences, thereby limiting his control over various structures of his own personality, the main attention in psychoanalytic therapy is paid to help the patient weaken the forces of repression and become aware of previously suppressed psychological material. The therapist invites the patient to resort to free association, that is, to put into words all the thoughts, images, memories or experiences that come to mind. Such associations provide the key to understanding the unconscious drives and interests of the patient. The psychotherapist interprets the patient's statements in an appropriate way, explaining to him what desires, fears, beliefs, feelings of guilt or other mental formations underlie them. It is believed that the explanation of the psychotherapist helps the patient to understand how the subconscious affects his conscious thoughts, experiences, behavior.

Both hypotheses, on which we will focus our attention, are consistent with the main provisions of the theory of psychoanalysis, but they differ significantly in the position of the extent to which a person is able to control the work of his subconscious. The first hypothesis, which we call dynamic, assumes that a person cannot control his subconscious mental life at all or only to a small extent. According to this hypothesis, the activity of the subconscious consists mainly of forces of two types. On the one hand, sexual and aggressive impulses that demand satisfaction tend to penetrate the consciousness; on the other hand, they are opposed by the forces of repression. Subconscious impulses and forces of repression interact in the same way that physical forces. Thus, two opposing forces will mutually annihilate if they are equal in magnitude; otherwise, a greater force will overcome the resistance of a lesser one. The interaction of these forces determines human behavior.

The second hypothesis, which we call the control hypothesis, assumes that a person is able to some extent control the work of his subconscious: impulses and other mental formations are kept in a suppressed state, not because the forces of repression inevitably prevail over unconscious impulses, but because that a person can, based on his past experience and assessing the present, unconsciously decide that the experience or expression of certain previously repressed mental formations would be dangerous for him. So, perhaps, a decision is made subconsciously that the manifestation of love for a certain person threatens to be humiliated.

The control hypothesis also suggests that patients who decide to resort to psychotherapy have a strong subconscious desire to be cured, and therefore, subconsciously (as well as consciously) want to become aware of the repressed mental material and understand its meaning, which means they can decide to extract it earlier. repressed psychic material and awareness of it, if it no longer seems dangerous to him.

EI can look like this:

Moreover, the idea of ​​whether planning can take place on a subconscious level is not essential at the stage of the first reading: for now it is important to understand the two hypotheses and the theory of “censorship” on which they are built. With secondary, careful reading, a complete logical chain will be built, in which the first thought will find its place. However, in practice it is almost impossible to immediately determine which thought is the main one and which is its consequence, therefore, usually all more or less large thoughts are included in the EI.

Nevertheless, the overall picture of the EI turns out to be small - it is easy to keep it in memory. It becomes a symbol of the general idea of ​​the article and serves as a foundation for understanding further information.

Logical chain consists of metal signs "⇒" soldered together, symbolizing the cyclical nature of any philosophical reflections and reminding the hero that happiness is not in thoughts, but in actions. The amulet was produced in a limited edition by chance by the demiurges at the dawn of civilization and has since been repeatedly sold, pawned and forged. The original is distinguished by the heaviness, inflexibility and iron character of the material. But even handmade chains made of light metals and with serviceable joints are also in great demand. After all, the main thing is not the execution of a sign of attention, but the noble impulse itself, and therefore even a cheap imitation ancient artifact will bring good luck to the hero, as it will please his god.

Historical background

… And in order to understand the root cause of this consequence, it is necessary to turn to the origins. There was a time when intelligence was not yet valuable, and heroes did not understand the meaning of cause and effect. Therefore, absolutely everything that happened was attributed to the will of the great Random. Nowadays, every child knows that everything random is far from accidental, and it is quite natural that gods were wound up in Godville. But since fortune can always be seen in any regularity, regular rainbows, lightning and strange phrases from nowhere continued to be perceived by the heroes as a manifestation of chance. However, the gods reciprocated stupidly, which inevitably led to the formation of a vicious circle. Demiurges' attachment to polygons has been known since ancient times, and it was not a surprise that they decided to break this circle by subjecting Godville to carpet lightning. These emergency measures led to quite predictable consequences: the metal neck talismans of all the heroes were baked into inextricable logical chains, and the heroes themselves, having recovered from the blow, thought. When stupid thinks, do not expect anything good. This time, an idea was born in empty minds that it would be nice to have a reason to be damned from above. At least it's a hundred times better than being beaten for nothing, for nothing. And iron logic transformed the cause into an effect, and it led the heroes to the gods, and the first agreed to annoy the second, and the second to protect and punish the first, and, as another consequence, it was good. And in order to understand the root cause of this consequence, it is necessary

September 24, 2011 at 00:06

The simplest logical circuits. Part 1: general information about logic circuits and simple logic modules

• Electronics for beginners

Greetings to all.
I decided to write a few articles about the simplest logical circuits.
This topic will be of interest to people who have little understanding of the algebra of logic and logical constructions, rather than to professionals and experts on this topic.

So, let's begin.

What is a combinational logic circuit?

This is a circuit capable of processing binary electrical signals. At each moment in time, the outgoing signals of the combinational logic circuit (CLC) depend solely on the incoming signals. Therefore, the same combination of input values ​​corresponds to the same combination of output values.

The characteristic of CLC is the lack of memory. That is, the signals that previously entered the circuit do not matter. (“The current moment is important,” one of the characters in the film “21” said.)

Mathematical model of the KLC

For a better understanding, analysis and representation of complex circuits, their somewhat simplified mathematical models are used.
Most models do not take into account the interaction time of chain elements during the development of the CLC. Therefore, we will assume that the output signals of the circuit instantly respond to changes in the input signals. Also, instead of a time signal function x(t), which can change its essence depending on the technology used (for example, 0 and 5 volts in TTL; 0 and 3.1 volts in CMOS), we will use a logical function x, which can take values ​​0 and 1.

Description of the work of the KLC

The so-called truth table is used to describe the operation of the CLC. This table indicates the values ​​of the output signals for certain values ​​of the input signals. It might look like this:

In the truth table, the values ​​of each of the signals are arranged in columns, and the rows indicate the correspondences between the signals.

I will give an example of a logical problem that is solved using such a table.

Let's say we have a water tower. To create the necessary pressure in the pipeline system, in the tower all day long there must be some amount of water. But you can’t draw water into the tower all the time - it is not dimensionless, and electricity is not cheap. We need to create a controller that will turn on and off the water supply to the tower, depending on several indicators.

The picture shows several sensors:
X is the time of day, where 1 is day and 0 is night (electricity is cheaper at night);
Y and Z are humidity sensors, for them 1 is water, and 0 is dry.

W will control the valve, turning it on (1) and off (0) as needed.

The truth tables for this case will look like this:

A) we simply list all possible combinations of X, Y, and Z readings;
b) look at the most simple options: if both Y and Z are 0, then it means that there is no water at all, so W must be turned on, and it does not matter if it is night or day. If both Y and Z have a value of 1, then this means that the tank is full, respectively, W must be turned off;
c) now about economy: if Z=1 and Y=0, then the water level in the tank is between the two sensors. At the same time, if this happens at night (X=0), then it is worth taking water to the maximum (W=1), and during the day (X=1(- leave everything as it is (W=0);
d) no improbable anywhere: there is a chance that Y will have a value of 1 when Z=0. Then, logically, it would be necessary to send a message about a malfunction in the system, but we will simply show that this simply cannot be.

Simple logic modules

Consider the simplest CLCs: Not-1, And-2, and Or-2 modules.

Not-1

This is the simplest KLC, with one input and one output. The function of this module is to output the inverse of the input. Since there is only one entrance, there are only two exit options:

And-2

This module is already a bit more complicated. It has two entrances and one exit. The function of the And-2 module is as follows: the output will be 1 only if both inputs are also 1:

Or-2

Now another module with two inputs and one output. Only now the output will be 1 if at least one of the inputs is 1:

To be continued.

One of these days I will write a few more articles - next in line are multiplexers, half- and full-adders, as well as all kinds of combinations of modules.
Thank you for your attention.