The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke marked. Tatar-Mongol yoke

MONGOLO-TATAR INVASION

Formation of the Mongolian state. At the beginning of the XIII century. V Central Asia on the territory from Lake Baikal and the upper reaches of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the north to the southern regions of the Gobi Desert and the Great Wall of China, the Mongolian state was formed. By the name of one of the tribes that roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all the nomadic peoples with whom Rus' fought began to be called Mongolo-Tatars.

The main occupation of the Mongols was extensive nomadic cattle breeding, and in the north and in the taiga regions - hunting. In the XII century. among the Mongols there was a disintegration of primitive communal relations. From the environment of ordinary community members-cattle breeders, who were called karachu - black people, noyons (princes) stood out - to know; having squads of nukers (warriors), she seized pastures for livestock and part of the young. The noyons also had slaves. The rights of the noyons were determined by "Yasa" - a collection of teachings and instructions.

In 1206, a congress of the Mongol nobility - kurultai (Khural) took place on the Onon River, at which one of the noyons was elected the leader of the Mongol tribes: Temuchin, who received the name Genghis Khan - "great khan", "sent by God" (1206-1227). Having defeated his opponents, he began to rule the country through his relatives and the local nobility.

Mongolian army. The Mongols had a well-organized army that maintained tribal ties. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called "darkness" ("tumen").

Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units.

The main striking force of the Mongols was the cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, several quivers with arrows, an ax, a rope lasso, and was proficient with a saber. The warrior's horse was covered with skins, which protected it from the arrows and weapons of the enemy. The head, neck and chest of the Mongol warrior from enemy arrows and spears were covered with an iron or copper helmet, leather armor. The Mongolian cavalry had high mobility. On their undersized, shaggy-maned, hardy horses, they could travel up to 80 km per day, and up to 10 km with carts, wall-beating and flamethrower guns. Like other peoples, passing through the stage of state formation, the Mongols were distinguished by their strength and solidity. Hence the interest in expanding pastures and in organizing predatory campaigns against neighboring agricultural peoples, who were at a much higher level of development, although they experienced a period of fragmentation. This greatly facilitated the implementation of the conquest plans of the Mongol-Tatars.

rout Central Asia. The Mongols began their campaigns with the conquest of the lands of their neighbors - Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz (by 1211). Then they invaded China and in 1215 took Beijing. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongols significantly increased their military potential. Flamethrowers, wall-beaters, stone-throwing tools, vehicles were taken into service.

In the summer of 1219, almost 200,000 Mongol troops led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. The ruler of Khorezm (a country at the mouth of the Amu Darya), Shah Mohammed, did not accept a general battle, dispersing his forces over the cities. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders stormed Otrar, Khojent, Merv, Bukhara, Urgench and other cities. The ruler of Samarkand, despite the demand of the people to defend himself, surrendered the city. Mohammed himself fled to Iran, where he soon died.

The rich, flourishing agricultural regions of Semirechye (Central Asia) turned into pastures. Irrigation systems built up over centuries were destroyed. The Mongols introduced a regime of cruel requisitions, artisans were taken into captivity. As a result of the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongols, nomadic tribes began to inhabit its territory. Sedentary agriculture was supplanted by extensive nomadic pastoralism, which slowed down the further development of Central Asia.

Invasion of Iran and Transcaucasia. The main force of the Mongols with the loot returned from Central Asia to Mongolia. The 30,000-strong army under the command of the best Mongol commanders Jebe and Subedei set off on a long-range reconnaissance campaign through Iran and Transcaucasia, to the West. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops and inflicted huge damage the economy of Transcaucasia, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, as they met with strong resistance from the population. Past Derbent, where there was a passage along the coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mongolian troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Polovtsy, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea. The Polovtsy, led by Khan Kotyan, the father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav Udaly, turned to the Russian princes for help.

Battle on the Kalka River. On May 31, 1223, the Mongols defeated the allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes in the Azov steppes on the Kalka River. This was the last major joint military action of the Russian princes on the eve of the invasion of Batu. However, the powerful Russian prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir-Suzdal, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, did not participate in the campaign.

Princely strife also affected during the battle on the Kalka. The Kiev prince Mstislav Romanovich, having fortified himself with his army on a hill, did not take part in the battle. Regiments of Russian soldiers and Polovtsians, having crossed the Kalka, struck at the advanced detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who retreated. The Russian and Polovtsian regiments were carried away by the persecution. The main Mongol forces that approached, took the pursuing Russian and Polovtsian warriors in pincers and destroyed them.

The Mongols laid siege to the hill, where the prince of Kiev fortified. On the third day of the siege, Mstislav Romanovich believed the promise of the enemy to honorably release the Russians in the event of a voluntary surrender and laid down his arms. He and his warriors were brutally killed by the Mongols. The Mongols reached the Dnieper, but did not dare to enter the borders of Rus'. Rus' has not yet known a defeat equal to the battle on the Kalka River. Only a tenth of the troops returned from the Azov steppes to Rus'. In honor of their victory, the Mongols held a "feast on the bones". The captured princes were crushed with boards on which the victors sat and feasted.

Preparation of a campaign to Rus'. Returning to the steppes, the Mongols undertook failed attempt capture Volga Bulgaria. Reconnaissance in force showed that wars of conquest against Russia and its neighbors could be waged only by organizing a general Mongol campaign. At the head of this campaign was the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu (1227-1255), who inherited from his grandfather all the territories in the west, "where the foot of the Mongol horse sets foot." His main military adviser was Subedei, who knew the theater of future military operations well.

In 1235, at the Khural in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a general Mongol campaign to the West. In 1236 the Mongols captured the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237 they subjugated the nomadic peoples of the Steppe. In the autumn of 1237, the main forces of the Mongols, having crossed the Volga, concentrated on the Voronezh River, aiming at the Russian lands. In Rus', they knew about the impending formidable danger, but the princely feuds prevented the sips from uniting to repel a strong and treacherous enemy. There was no unified command. Fortifications of cities were erected for defense against neighboring Russian principalities, and not from steppe nomads. The princely cavalry squads were not inferior to the Mongol noyons and nukers in terms of armament and fighting qualities. But the bulk of the Russian army was made up of the militia - urban and rural warriors, inferior to the Mongols in weapons and combat skills. Hence the defensive tactics, designed to deplete the enemy's forces.

Defense of Ryazan. In 1237, Ryazan was the first of the Russian lands to be attacked by invaders. The Princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan. The Mongols laid siege to Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded obedience and one-tenth "in everything." The courageous answer of the people of Ryazan followed: "If we are all gone, then everything will be yours." On the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken, the princely family and the surviving inhabitants were killed. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is new town, located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).

conquest Northeast Rus'. In January 1238, the Mongols moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle with the Vladimir-Suzdal army took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. In this battle, the Vladimir army died, which actually predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Rus'.

Strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by the governor Philip Nyanka. After the capture by the Mongols, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants were killed.

February 4, 1238 Batu besieged Vladimir. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) was covered by his troops in a month. On the fourth day of the siege, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall near the Golden Gate. The princely family and the remnants of the troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongols surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire.

After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongols broke into separate detachments and crushed the cities of North-Eastern Rus'. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the approach of the invaders to Vladimir, went to the north of his land to gather military forces. Hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the Sit River (the right tributary of the Mologa River), and Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich himself died in the battle.

The Mongol hordes moved to the north-west of Rus'. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, a distant suburb of Novgorod, Torzhok, defended itself. North-Western Rus' was saved from defeat, although it paid tribute.

Having reached the stone Ignach Cross - an ancient sign on the Valdai watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), the Mongols retreated south, to the steppe, in order to restore losses and give rest to tired troops. The retreat was in the nature of a "raid". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. Kozelsk, which held out for seven weeks, put up the greatest resistance to the Mongols during the "raid". The Mongols called Kozelsk an "evil city".

Capture of Kyiv. In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated South Rus' (Pereyaslavl South), in the fall - the Chernigov principality. In the autumn of the next 1240, the Mongol troops crossed the Dnieper and laid siege to Kyiv. After a long defense, led by the governor Dmitr, the Tatars defeated Kyiv. In the next 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was attacked.

Batu's campaign against Europe. After the defeat of Rus', the Mongol hordes moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and the Balkan countries were devastated. The Mongols reached the borders of the German Empire, reached the Adriatic Sea. However, at the end of 1242 they suffered a series of setbacks in Bohemia and Hungary. From distant Karakorum came the news of the death of the great Khan Ogedei - the son of Genghis Khan. It was a convenient excuse to stop the difficult campaign. Batu turned his troops back to the east.

A decisive world-historical role in the salvation of European civilization from the Mongol hordes was played by the heroic struggle against them by the Russian and other peoples of our country, who took the first blow from the invaders. In fierce battles in Rus', the best part of the Mongol army perished. The Mongols lost their offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle unfolding in the rear of their troops. A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "A great destiny was determined for Russia: its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe ... the emerging enlightenment was saved by torn to pieces by Russia."

Fight against the aggression of the crusaders. The coast from the Vistula to the eastern bank Baltic Sea It was inhabited by Slavic, Baltic (Lithuanian and Latvian) and Finno-Ugric (Ests, Karelians, etc.) tribes. At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. the peoples of the Baltic states are completing the process of disintegration of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society and statehood. These processes were most intense among the Lithuanian tribes. The Russian lands (Novgorod and Polotsk) exerted a significant influence on their western neighbors, who did not yet have a developed state of their own and church institutions (the peoples of the Baltic were pagans).

The attack on Russian lands was part of the predatory doctrine of the German chivalry "Drang nach Osten" (onslaught to the East). In the XII century. it began the seizure of lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an offensive was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The invasion of the crusaders into the lands of the Baltic states and North-Western Rus' was sanctioned by the pope and the German emperor Frederick II. German, Danish, Norwegian knights and an army from other northern countries Europe.

Knightly orders. In order to conquer the lands of the Estonians and Latvians, the knightly Order of the Sword-bearers was created in 1202 from the Crusaders defeated in Asia Minor. The knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and a cross. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization: "Whoever does not want to be baptized must die." Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of the Latvian settlement as a stronghold for subjugating the Baltic lands. In 1219, the Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of an Estonian settlement.

In 1224 the crusaders took Yuriev (Tartu). To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and the southern Russian lands in 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order arrived, founded in 1198 in Syria during crusades. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later, by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Liv tribe, which was captured by the Crusaders.

Neva battle. The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Rus', which bled in the fight against the Mongol conquerors.

In July 1240, the Swedish feudal lords tried to take advantage of the plight of Rus'. The Swedish fleet with an army on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having risen along the Neva to the confluence of the Izhora River, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The Swedes wanted to capture the city of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at that time, with his retinue quickly rushed to the landing site. "We are few," he turned to his soldiers, "but God is not in power, but in truth." Covertly approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors hit them, and a small militia led by Misha from Novgorod cut off the Swedes' path along which they could flee to their ships.

Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed Nevsky by the Russian people for the victory on the Neva. The significance of this victory is that it stopped the Swedish aggression to the east for a long time, retained Russia's access to the Baltic coast. (Peter I, emphasizing the right of Russia to the Baltic coast, founded the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the new capital on the site of the battle.)

Battle on the Ice. In the summer of the same 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights, attacked Rus' and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the posadnik Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Strife and strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, individual detachments of the crusaders found themselves 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city.

Together with his retinue, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received the news that the main forces of the Order were coming at him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the way for the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The Russian prince showed himself as an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: "Winning everywhere, but we won't win at all." Alexander deployed troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Taking into account the construction of the knights by a "pig" (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with a tip resting on the shore. Before the battle, part of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull the knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which was called the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russian position and hit the shore. The flank strikes of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly "pig". The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them for seven versts across the ice, which by the spring had become weak in many places and collapsed under heavily armed soldiers. The Russians pursued the enemy, "flashed, rushing after him, as if through air," the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod chronicle, "400 Germans died in the battle, and 50 were taken prisoner" (German chronicles estimate the death toll at 25 knights). The captured knights were led in disgrace through the streets of the Lord Veliky Novgorod.

The significance of this victory lies in the fact that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. The response to the Battle of the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the XIII century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Russian lands under the rule of the Golden Horde. In the middle of the XIII century. one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, Khubulai moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol state was nominally subordinate to the great khan in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khan - Chagatai (Jagatai) received the lands of most of Central Asia, and the grandson of Genghis Khan Zulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of Western and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This ulus, singled out in 1265, is called the Hulaguid state after the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi - Batu founded the state of the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde. The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, the North Caucasus, part of the lands of Rus' located in the steppe, the former lands of Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (a shed in Russian means a palace). It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by the Batu brothers and the local aristocracy.

The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the "Divan", where military and financial issues were resolved. Being surrounded by the Turkic-speaking population, the Mongols adopted the Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnic group assimilated the newcomers-Mongols. A new people was formed - the Tatars. In the first decades of the existence of the Golden Horde, its religion was paganism.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. At the beginning of the XIV century, she could put up a 300,000th army. The heyday of the Golden Horde falls on the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). In this era (1312), Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then, just like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the XIV century. the Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century. the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (end of the 15th century) khanates stood out.

Russian lands and the Golden Horde. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The unceasing struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Rus' were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, to Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea region.

In 1243, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246), the brother of the Grand Duke of Vladimir, who was killed on the Sit River, was called to the Khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden plaque ("paydzu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes reached out to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskak governors was created - the leaders of the military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summoning of the prince to Sarai (often he lost his label, and even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the unruly land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, in an effort to quickly get rid of vassal dependence on the Horde, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He set a course for the restoration and recovery of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian Church, which saw a great danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census of the population - "recording the number." Besermens (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, and the collection of tribute was paid off. The size of the tribute ("exit") was very large, only the "royal tribute", i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time extortions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for "feeding" the khan's officials, etc. went to the khan's treasury. In total there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars. Census of the population in the 50-60s of the XIII century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, scribes. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the XIII century. was handed over to the Russian princes.

The consequences of the Mongol conquest and the Golden Horde yoke for Rus'. The Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons for the Russian lands lagging behind developed countries Western Europe. Huge damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Rus'. Tens of thousands of people died in battle or were driven into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute went to the Horde.

The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils were called the "Wild Field". Russian cities were subjected to mass ruin and destruction. Many handicrafts were simplified and sometimes disappeared, which hampered the creation of small-scale production and ultimately delayed economic development.

The Mongol conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between the various parts of the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted. The vector of Russian foreign policy, which ran along the "south - north" line (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe), radically changed its direction to the "west - east". The pace has slowed down cultural development Russian lands.

What you need to know about these topics:

Archaeological, linguistic and written evidence about the Slavs.

Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-IX centuries. Territory. Classes. "The Way from the Varangians to the Greeks". social order. Paganism. Prince and squad. Campaigns to Byzantium.

Domestic and external factors who prepared the emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs.

Socio-economic development. Formation of feudal relations.

Early feudal monarchy of the Rurikids. "Norman theory" political sense. Management organization. Domestic and foreign policy of the first Kyiv princes(Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav).

The heyday of the Kievan state under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise. Completion of the unification of the Eastern Slavs around Kyiv. Border defense.

Legends about the spread of Christianity in Rus'. Adoption of Christianity as the state religion. The Russian Church and its role in the life of the Kyiv state. Christianity and paganism.

"Russian Truth". The establishment of feudal relations. organization of the ruling class. Princely and boyar estates. Feudal-dependent population, its categories. Serfdom. Peasant communities. City.

The struggle between the sons and descendants of Yaroslav the Wise for the grand ducal power. fragmentation tendencies. Lyubech Congress of Princes.

Kievan Rus in the system of international relations in the 11th - early 12th centuries. Polovtsian danger. Princely feuds. Vladimir Monomakh. The final collapse of the Kievan state at the beginning of the XII century.

culture Kievan Rus. Cultural heritage Eastern Slavs. Folklore. Epics. The origin of Slavic writing. Cyril and Methodius. Beginning of chronicle. "The Tale of Bygone Years". Literature. Education in Kievan Rus. Birch letters. Architecture. Painting (frescoes, mosaics, iconography).

Economic and political reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Rus'.

feudal landownership. Urban development. Princely power and boyars. The political system in various Russian lands and principalities.

The largest political formations on the territory of Rus'. Rostov-(Vladimir)-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod boyar republic. Socio-economic and internal political development of the principalities and lands on the eve Mongol invasion.

International Position Russian lands. Political and cultural ties between Russian lands. Feudal strife. Fighting external danger.

The rise of culture in the Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries. The idea of the unity of the Russian land in the works of culture. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

Formation of the early feudal Mongolian state. Genghis Khan and the unification of the Mongol tribes. The conquest by the Mongols of the lands of neighboring peoples, northeastern China, Korea, Central Asia. Invasion of Transcaucasia and South Russian steppes. Battle on the Kalka River.

Campaigns of Batu.

Invasion of North-Eastern Rus'. The defeat of southern and southwestern Rus'. Campaigns of Batu in Central Europe. Rus''s struggle for independence and its historical significance.

Aggression of the German feudal lords in the Baltic. Livonian order. The defeat of the Swedish troops on the Neva and the German knights in Battle on the Ice. Alexander Nevskiy.

Formation of the Golden Horde. Socio-economic and political system. Control system for conquered lands. The struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde. The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke for the further development of our country.

The inhibitory effect of the Mongol-Tatar conquest on the development of Russian culture. Destruction and destruction of cultural property. Weakening of traditional ties with Byzantium and other Christian countries. Decline of crafts and arts. Oral folk art as a reflection of the struggle against the invaders.

Sakharov A.N., Buganov V.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century.

o (Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongolian, Horde) - the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomadic conquerors who came from the East from 1237 to 1480.

This system was aimed at the implementation of mass terror and robbery of the Russian people by levying cruel requisitions. It acted primarily in the interests of the Mongol nomadic military-feudal nobility (noyons), in whose favor the lion's share of the collected tribute came.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established as a result of the invasion of Batu Khan in the 13th century. Until the early 1260s, Rus' was ruled by the great Mongol khans, and then by the khans of the Golden Horde.

The Russian principalities were not directly part of the Mongol state and retained the local princely administration, the activities of which were controlled by the Baskaks - representatives of the khan in the conquered lands. The Russian princes were tributaries of the Mongol khans and received from them labels for the possession of their principalities. Formally, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in 1243, when Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich received a label from the Mongols for the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. Rus', according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to regularly pay tribute to the khans twice a year (in spring and autumn).

On the territory of Rus' there was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army. The yoke was supported by punitive campaigns and repressions against recalcitrant princes. The regular flow of tribute from the Russian lands began after the census of 1257-1259, conducted by the Mongolian "numerals". The units of taxation were: in the cities - the yard, in rural areas- "village", "plough", "plow". Only the clergy were exempt from tribute. The main "Horde hardships" were: "exit", or "Tsar's tribute" - a tax directly for the Mongol Khan; trading fees ("myt", "tamka"); transport duties ("pits", "carts"); the content of the khan's ambassadors ("fodder"); various "gifts" and "honors" to the khan, his relatives and associates. Every year, a huge amount of silver left the Russian lands in the form of tribute. Large "requests" for military and other needs were periodically collected. In addition, the Russian princes were obliged, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in battue hunts (“catchers”). In the late 1250s and early 1260s, tribute from the Russian principalities was collected by Muslim merchants (“besermens”), who bought this right from the great Mongol khan. Most of the tribute went to the great khan in Mongolia. During the uprisings of 1262, the "besermen" from Russian cities were expelled, and the duty of collecting tribute passed to the local princes.

The struggle of Rus' against the yoke was gaining more and more breadth. In 1285, Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich (son of Alexander Nevsky) defeated and expelled the army of the “Horde prince”. At the end of the 13th - the first quarter of the 14th century, performances in Russian cities led to the elimination of the Basques. With the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the Tatar yoke is gradually weakening. Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) won the right to collect "exit" from all Russian principalities. From the middle of the XIV century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by a real military threat, were no longer carried out by the Russian princes. Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389) did not recognize the khan's labels issued to his rivals and seized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir by force. In 1378 he defeated the Tatar army on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, and in 1380 he defeated the Golden Horde ruler Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo.

However, after the campaign of Tokhtamysh and the capture of Moscow in 1382, Rus' was again forced to recognize the power of the Golden Horde and pay tribute, but already Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) received the great reign of Vladimir without a khan's label, as "his fiefdom." Under him, the yoke was nominal. Tribute was paid irregularly, the Russian princes pursued an independent policy. The attempt of the Golden Horde ruler Edigey (1408) to restore full power over Russia ended in failure: he failed to take Moscow. The strife that began in the Golden Horde opened before Russia the possibility of overthrowing the Tatar yoke.

However, in the middle of the 15th century, Muscovite Rus' itself experienced a period of internecine war, which weakened its military potential. During these years, the Tatar rulers organized a series of devastating invasions, but they were no longer able to bring the Russians to complete obedience. The unification of the Russian lands around Moscow led to the concentration in the hands of the Moscow princes of such political power, which the weakening Tatar khans could not cope with. Great Moscow Prince Ivan III Vasilyevich(1462-1505) in 1476 refused to pay tribute. In 1480, after the unsuccessful campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and “standing on the Ugra”, the yoke was finally overthrown.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke had negative, regressive consequences for the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Rus', which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to the productive forces of the Mongol state. It artificially preserved for a long time the purely feudal natural character of the economy. Politically, the consequences of the yoke were manifested in the disruption of the natural process state development Rus', in the artificial maintenance of its fragmentation. The Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted two and a half centuries, was one of the reasons for the economic, political and cultural backwardness of Rus' from Western European countries.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources.

It has long been no secret that Tatar-Mongol yoke”was not, and no Tatars with the Mongols conquered Rus'. But who falsified history and why? What was hidden behind the Tatar-Mongol yoke? Bloody Christianization of Rus'...

Exists a large number of facts that not only unequivocally refute the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, but also indicate that history was deliberately distorted, and that this was done with a very specific purpose ... But who deliberately distorted history and why? What real events did they want to hide and why?

If we analyze the historical facts, it becomes obvious that the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" was invented in order to hide the consequences of the "baptism" of Kievan Rus. After all, this religion was imposed in a far from peaceful way ... In the process of "baptism" most of the population of the Kyiv principality was destroyed! It definitely becomes clear that those forces that were behind the imposition of this religion, in the future, fabricated history, juggling historical facts for themselves and their goals ...

These facts are known to historians and are not secret, they are publicly available, and anyone can easily find them on the Internet. Omitting scientific research and justifications, which have already been described quite widely, let's summarize the main facts that refute the big lie about the "Tatar-Mongol yoke".

French engraving by Pierre Duflos (1742-1816)

1. Genghis Khan

Previously, in Rus', 2 people were responsible for governing the state: the Prince and the Khan. The prince was responsible for governing the state in peacetime. Khan or "war prince" took over the reins of government during the war, in peacetime he was responsible for the formation of the horde (army) and maintaining it in combat readiness.

Genghis Khan is not a name, but the title of "war prince", which, in modern world, close to the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Army. And there were several people who bore such a title. The most prominent of them was Timur, it is about him that they usually talk about when they talk about Genghis Khan.

In the surviving historical documents, this man is described as a tall warrior with blue eyes, very white skin, powerful reddish hair and a thick beard. Which clearly does not correspond to the signs of a representative of the Mongoloid race, but fully fits the description of the Slavic appearance (L.N. Gumilyov - “Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe”.).

In the modern “Mongolia” there is not a single folk tale that would say that this country once conquered almost all of Eurasia in ancient times, just like there is nothing about the great conqueror Genghis Khan ... (N.V. Levashov “Visible and invisible genocide).

Reconstruction of the throne of Genghis Khan with a family tamga with a swastika

2. Mongolia

The state of Mongolia appeared only in the 1930s, when the Bolsheviks came to the nomads living in the Gobi desert and informed them that they were the descendants of the great Mongols, and their “compatriot” had created in due time Great Empire to which they were very surprised and delighted. The word "Mogul" is of Greek origin and means "Great". This word the Greeks called our ancestors - the Slavs. It has nothing to do with the name of any people (N.V. Levashov "Visible and invisible genocide").

3. The composition of the army "Tatar-Mongols"

70-80% of the army of the "Tatar-Mongols" were Russians, the remaining 20-30% were other small peoples of Rus', in fact, as now. This fact is clearly confirmed by a fragment of the icon of Sergius of Radonezh "The Battle of Kulikovo". It clearly shows that the same warriors are fighting on both sides. And this battle is more like a civil war than a war with a foreign conqueror.

The museum description of the icon reads: “... In the 1680s. an attachment with a picturesque legend about the “Mamaev Battle” was added. On the left side of the composition, cities and villages are depicted that sent their soldiers to help Dmitry Donskoy - Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Rostov, Novgorod, Ryazan, the village of Kurba near Yaroslavl and others. On the right is Mamaia's camp. In the center of the composition is the scene of the Battle of Kulikovo with the duel between Peresvet and Chelubey. On the lower field - a meeting of the victorious Russian troops, the burial of dead heroes and the death of Mamai.

All these pictures, taken from both Russian and European sources, depict the battles of the Russians with the Mongol-Tatars, but nowhere is it possible to determine who is Russian and who is Tatar. Moreover, in the latter case, both the Russians and the "Mongol-Tatars" are dressed in almost the same gilded armor and helmets, and fight under the same banners with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands. Another thing is that "Spas" in two opposing sides most likely was different.

4. What did the "Tatar-Mongols" look like?

Pay attention to the drawing of the tomb of Henry II the Pious, who was killed on the Legnica field.

The inscription is as follows: “The figure of a Tatar under the feet of Henry II, Duke of Silesia, Krakow and Poland, placed on the grave in Breslau of this prince, who was killed in the battle with the Tatars at Liegnitz on April 9, 1241.” As we can see, this "Tatar" has a completely Russian appearance, clothes and weapons.

In the next image - "the Khan's palace in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Khanbalik" (it is believed that Khanbalik is allegedly Beijing).

What is "Mongolian" and what is "Chinese" here? Again, as in the case of the tomb of Henry II, before us are people of a clearly Slavic appearance. Russian caftans, archer caps, the same broad beards, the same characteristic blades of sabers called "elman". The roof on the left is almost an exact copy of the roofs of the old Russian towers ... (A. Bushkov, "Russia, which was not").

5. Genetic expertise

According to the latest data obtained as a result of genetic research, it turned out that Tatars and Russians have very similar genetics. Whereas the differences between the genetics of Russians and Tatars from the genetics of the Mongols are colossal: “The differences between the Russian gene pool (almost completely European) and the Mongolian (almost completely Central Asian) are really great - it’s like two different worlds ...”

6. Documents during the Tatar-Mongol yoke

During the existence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian language has been preserved. But there are many documents of this time in Russian.

7. Lack of objective evidence supporting the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

At the moment, there are no originals of any historical documents that would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But on the other hand, there are many fakes designed to convince us of the existence of a fiction called the "Tatar-Mongol yoke." Here is one of those fakes. This text is called “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land” and in each publication it is declared “an excerpt from a poetic work that has not come down to us in its entirety ... About Tatar-Mongolian invasion»:

“Oh, bright and beautifully decorated Russian land! You are glorified by many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, locally revered rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clear fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious villages, monastery gardens, temples of God and formidable princes, honest boyars and many nobles. You are full of everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith! .. "

There is not even a hint of the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" in this text. But on the other hand, in this “ancient” document there is such a line: “You are full of everything, the Russian land, about the Orthodox Christian faith!”

Before church reform Nikon, which was held in the middle of the 17th century, Christianity in Rus' was called "orthodox". It began to be called Orthodox only after this reform... Therefore, this document could have been written no earlier than the middle of the 17th century and has nothing to do with the era of the "Tatar-Mongol yoke"...

On all maps that were published before 1772 and were not corrected in the future, you can see the following picture.

The western part of Rus' is called Muscovy, or Moscow Tartaria ... In this small part of Rus', the Romanov dynasty ruled. Until the end of the 18th century, the Moscow Tsar was called the ruler of Moscow Tartaria or the Duke (Prince) of Moscow. The rest of Rus', which occupied almost the entire continent of Eurasia in the east and south of Muscovy at that time, is called Tartaria or the Russian Empire (see map).

In the 1st edition of the British Encyclopedia of 1771, the following is written about this part of Rus':

“Tartaria, a huge country in the northern part of Asia, bordering Siberia in the north and west: which is called Great Tartaria. Those Tartars living south of Muscovy and Siberia are called Astrakhan, Cherkasy and Dagestan, living in the north-west of the Caspian Sea are called Kalmyk Tartars and which occupy the territory between Siberia and the Caspian Sea; Uzbek Tartars and Mongols, who live north of Persia and India, and, finally, Tibetan, living northwest of China ... "

Where did the name Tartaria come from

Our ancestors knew the laws of nature and the real structure of the world, life, and man. But, as now, the level of development of each person was not the same in those days. People who in their development went much further than others, and who could control space and matter (control the weather, heal diseases, see the future, etc.), were called Magi. Those of the Magi who knew how to control space at the planetary level and above were called Gods.

That is, the meaning of the word God, among our ancestors, was not at all the same as it is now. The gods were people who had gone much further in their development than the vast majority of people. For ordinary person their abilities seemed incredible, however, the gods were also people, and the possibilities of each god had their own limit.

Our ancestors had patrons - God Tarkh, he was also called Dazhdbog (giving God) and his sister - Goddess Tara. These Gods helped people in solving such problems that our ancestors could not solve on their own. So, the gods Tarkh and Tara taught our ancestors how to build houses, cultivate the land, write and much more, which was necessary in order to survive after the catastrophe and eventually restore civilization.

Therefore, more recently, our ancestors told strangers "We are the children of Tarkh and Tara ...". They said this because in their development, they really were children in relation to Tarkh and Tara, who had significantly departed in development. And the inhabitants of other countries called our ancestors "Tarkhtars", and later, because of the difficulty in pronunciation - "Tartars". Hence the name of the country - Tartaria ...

Baptism of Rus'

Let us recall from the school curriculum on history, at least, the same "Birch bark letters" - letters that peasants wrote to each other on birch bark from one village to another.

Our ancestors had a Vedic world view as described above, it was not a religion. Since the essence of any religion comes down to the blind acceptance of any dogmas and rules, without a deep understanding of why it is necessary to do it this way and not otherwise. The Vedic worldview, on the other hand, gave people precisely the understanding real laws nature, understanding how the world works, what is good and what is bad.

People saw what happened after the "baptism" in neighboring countries, when, under the influence of religion, a successful, highly developed country with an educated population, in a matter of years, plunged into ignorance and chaos, where only representatives of the aristocracy could read and write, and then not all of them. ..

Everyone perfectly understood what the “Greek religion” carried in itself, into which Prince Vladimir the Bloody and those who stood behind him were going to baptize Kievan Rus. Therefore, none of the inhabitants of the then Kyiv principality (a province that broke away from Great Tartary) accepted this religion. But there were large forces behind Vladimir, and they were not going to retreat.

In the process of "baptism" for 12 years of forced Christianization, with rare exceptions, almost the entire adult population of Kievan Rus was destroyed. Because such a “teaching” could only be imposed on unreasonable children, who, due to their youth, could not yet understand that such a religion turned them into slaves both in the physical and spiritual sense of the word. All those who refused to accept the new "faith" were killed. This is confirmed by the facts that have come down to us. If before the "baptism" on the territory of Kievan Rus there were 300 cities and 12 million inhabitants, then after the "baptism" there were only 30 cities and 3 million people! 270 cities were destroyed! 9 million people were killed! (Diy Vladimir, "Orthodox Rus' before the adoption of Christianity and after").

But despite the fact that almost the entire adult population of Kievan Rus was destroyed by the "holy" baptists, the Vedic tradition did not disappear. On the lands of Kievan Rus, the so-called dual faith was established. Most of the population purely formally recognized the imposed religion of slaves, while she herself continued to live according to the Vedic tradition, though without showing it off. And this phenomenon was observed not only among the masses, but also among part of the ruling elite. And this state of affairs continued until the reform of Patriarch Nikon, who figured out how to deceive everyone.

But the Vedic Slavic-Aryan Empire (Great Tartary) could not calmly look at the intrigues of its enemies, which destroyed three-quarters of the population of the Kyiv Principality. Only her response could not be instantaneous, due to the fact that the army of the Great Tartary was busy with conflicts on its Far Eastern borders. But these retaliatory actions of the Vedic empire were carried out and entered into modern history in a distorted form, under the name of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the hordes of Batu Khan to Kievan Rus.

Only by the summer of 1223 did the troops of the Vedic Empire appear on the Kalka River. And the united army of the Polovtsians and Russian princes was completely defeated. So they beat us into history lessons, and no one could really explain why the Russian princes fought with the "enemies" so sluggishly, and many of them even went over to the side of the "Mongols"?

The reason for such absurdity was that the Russian princes, who had adopted an alien religion, knew perfectly well who came and why ...

So, there was no Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke, but there was a return of the rebellious provinces under the wing of the metropolis, the restoration of the integrity of the state. Batu Khan had the task of returning the Western European province-states under the wing of the Vedic Empire, and stopping the invasion of Christians in Rus'. But the strong resistance of some princes, who felt the taste of the still limited, but very large power of the principalities of Kievan Rus, and new unrest on the Far Eastern border did not allow these plans to be completed (N.V. Levashov "Russia in Crooked Mirrors", Volume 2.).

conclusions

In fact, after baptism in the principality of Kiev, only children and a very small part of the adult population who adopted the Greek religion survived - 3 million people out of a population of 12 million before baptism. The principality was completely devastated, most of the cities, villages and villages were looted and burned. But exactly the same picture is drawn to us by the authors of the version of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”, the only difference is that the same cruel actions were allegedly carried out there by the “Tatar-Mongols”!

As always, the winner writes history. And it becomes obvious that in order to hide all the cruelty with which the Kiev principality was baptized, and in order to stop all possible questions, the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” was subsequently invented. Children were brought up in the traditions of the Greek religion (the cult of Dionysius, and later Christianity) and history was rewritten, where all the cruelty was blamed on “wild nomads”…

The famous statement of President V.V. Putin about the Battle of Kulikovo, in which the Russians allegedly fought against the Tatars with the Mongols ...

Tatar-Mongol yoke - the biggest myth of history

There are a large number of facts that not only unequivocally refute the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, but also indicate that history was deliberately distorted, and that this was done with a very specific purpose ... But who deliberately distorted history and why? What real events did they want to hide and why?

These facts are known to historians and are not secret, they are publicly available, and anyone can easily find them on the Internet. Omitting scientific research and justification, which have already been described quite extensively, let's summarize the main facts that refute the big lie about the "Tatar-Mongol yoke".

1. Genghis Khan

Previously, in Rus', 2 people were responsible for governing the state: prince And Khan. The prince was responsible for governing the state in peacetime. Khan or "war prince" took over the reins of government during the war, in peacetime he was responsible for the formation of the horde (army) and maintaining it in combat readiness.

Genghis Khan is not a name, but the title of a "military prince", which, in the modern world, is close to the position of the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. And there were several people who bore such a title. The most prominent of them was Timur, it is about him that they usually talk about when they talk about Genghis Khan.

French engraving by Pierre Duflos (1742-1816)

Reconstruction of the throne of Genghis Khan with a family tamga with a swastika.

2. Mongolia

The state of Mongolia appeared only in the 1930s, when the Bolsheviks came to the nomads living in the Gobi desert and informed them that they were the descendants of the great Mongols, and their “compatriot” created the Great Empire at one time, which they were very surprised and delighted with . The word "Mogul" is of Greek origin and means "Great". This word the Greeks called our ancestors - the Slavs. It has nothing to do with the name of any people (N.V. Levashov "Visible and invisible genocide").

3. The composition of the army "Tatar-Mongols"

4. What did the "Tatar-Mongols" look like?

Pay attention to the drawing of the tomb of Henry II the Pious, who was killed on the Legnica field.

5. Genetic expertise

6. Documents during the Tatar-Mongol yoke

During the existence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian language has been preserved. But there are many documents of this time in Russian.

7. Lack of objective evidence supporting the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

At the moment, there are no originals of any historical documents that would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But on the other hand, there are many fakes designed to convince us of the existence of a fiction called the "Tatar-Mongol yoke." Here is one of those fakes. This text is called "The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land" and in each publication it is announced as "an excerpt from a poetic work that has not come down to us in its entirety ... About the Tatar-Mongol invasion":

There is not even a hint of the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" in this text. But in this "ancient" document there is such a line: “You are full of everything, Russian land, O Orthodox Christian faith!”

Before Nikon's church reform, which was carried out in the middle of the 17th century, Christianity in Rus' was called "orthodox". It began to be called Orthodox only after this reform... Therefore, this document could have been written no earlier than the middle of the 17th century and has nothing to do with the era of the "Tatar-Mongol yoke"...

On all maps that were published before 1772 and were not corrected in the future, you can see the following picture.

In the 1st edition of the British Encyclopedia of 1771, the following is written about this part of Rus':

Where did the name Tartaria come from

That is, the meaning of the word God, among our ancestors, was not at all the same as it is now. The gods were people who had gone much further in their development than the vast majority of people. For an ordinary person, their abilities seemed incredible, however, the gods were also people, and the capabilities of each god had their own limit.

Baptism of Rus'

And here the baptism of Rus'? some may ask. As it turned out, very much so. After all, baptism did not take place in a peaceful way ... Before baptism, people in Rus' were educated, almost everyone knew how to read, write, count (see the article “Russian culture is older than European”). Let us recall from the school curriculum on history, at least, the same “Birch Bark Letters” - letters that peasants wrote to each other on birch bark from one village to another.

Our ancestors had a Vedic worldview, as I wrote above, it was not a religion. Since the essence of any religion comes down to the blind acceptance of any dogmas and rules, without a deep understanding of why it is necessary to do it this way and not otherwise. The Vedic worldview gave people precisely an understanding of the real laws of nature, an understanding of how the world works, what is good and what is bad.

But the Vedic Slavic-Aryan Empire (Great Tartary) could not calmly look at the intrigues of its enemies, which destroyed three-quarters of the population of the Kyiv Principality. Only her response could not be instantaneous, due to the fact that the army of the Great Tartary was busy with conflicts on its Far Eastern borders. But these retaliatory actions of the Vedic Empire were carried out and entered modern history in a distorted form, under the name of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the hordes of Khan Batu into Kievan Rus.

The reason for such absurdity was that the Russian princes, who had adopted an alien religion, knew perfectly well who came and why ...

conclusions

In fact, after baptism in the principality of Kiev, only children and a very small part of the adult population survived, who adopted the Greek religion - 3 million people out of a population of 12 million before baptism. The principality was completely devastated, most of the cities, villages and villages were looted and burned. But exactly the same picture is drawn to us by the authors of the version of the “Tatar-Mongol yoke”, the only difference is that the same cruel actions were allegedly carried out there by the “Tatar-Mongols”!

The famous statement of President V.V. Putin about the Battle of Kulikovo, in which the Russians allegedly fought against the Tatars with the Mongols ...

The Tatar-Mongol yoke is the biggest myth of history.

In Russian sources, the phrase "Tatar yoke" first appears in the 1660s in an insert (interpolation) in one of the copies of the Tale of the Battle of Mamaev. The form “Mongol-Tatar yoke”, as a more correct one, was first used in 1817 by Christian Kruse, whose book was translated into Russian in the middle of the 19th century and published in St. Petersburg.

The tribe of "Tatars" according to the Secret Legend was one of the most powerful enemies of Genghis Khan. After the victory over the Tatars, Genghis Khan ordered the destruction of the entire Tatar tribe. An exception was made only for young children. Nevertheless, the name of the tribe, being widely known outside of Mongolia, also passed to the Mongols themselves.

Geography and content The Mongol-Tatar yoke, the Horde yoke is a system of political and tributary dependence of Russian principalities on the Mongol-Tatar khans (until the beginning of the 60s of the XIII century, the Mongol khans, after the khans of the Golden Horde) in the XIII-XV centuries. The establishment of the yoke became possible as a result of Mongol invasion to Rus' in 1237-1242; the yoke was established within two decades after the invasion, including in unravaged lands. In North-Eastern Rus' it lasted until 1480. In other Russian lands, it was eliminated in the XIV century as they were annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland.

Standing on the river Ugra

Etymology

The term "yoke", meaning the power of the Golden Horde over Russia, is not found in Russian chronicles. It appeared at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries in Polish historical literature. The first to use it was the chronicler Jan Długosz (“iugum barbarum”, “iugum servitutis”) in 1479 and the professor of the University of Cracow Matvey Miechowski in 1517. In 1575, the term “jugo Tartarico” was used in Daniel Prince’s record of his diplomatic mission to Moscow.

Russian lands retained local princely rule. In 1243, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was summoned to the Horde to Batu, recognized as "getting old by all the prince in the Russian language" and approved in the Vladimir and, apparently, Kiev principalities (at the end of 1245, the governor of Yaroslav Dmitry Yeikovich was mentioned in Kiev), although the visits to Batu of the other two of the three most influential Russian princes - Mikhail Vsevolodovich, who owned Kiev at that time, and his patron (after the devastation of the Chernigov principality by the Mongols in 1239) Daniil Galitsky - belong to a later time. This act was a recognition of political dependence on the Golden Horde. The establishment of tributary dependence occurred later.

Yaroslav's son Konstantin went to Karakorum to confirm the authority of his father as a great khan, after his return Yaroslav himself went there. This example of a khan's sanction to expand the possessions of a loyal prince was not the only one. Moreover, this expansion could occur not only at the expense of the possessions of another prince, but also at the expense of territories that were not devastated during the invasion (in the second half of the 50s of the XIII century, Alexander Nevsky asserted his influence in Novgorod, threatening him with the Horde ruin). On the other hand, in order to persuade the princes to loyalty, unacceptable territorial demands could be made to them, as Daniil Galitsky was “the Mighty Khan” of Russian chronicles (Plano Carpini names “Mautsi” among the four key figures in the Horde, localizing his nomad camps on the left bank of the Dnieper): “Give Galich. And in order to fully preserve his patrimony, Daniel went to Batu and "called himself a serf."

The territorial demarcation of the influence of the Galician and Vladimir grand dukes, as well as the Sarai khans and Nogai's temnik during the existence of a separate ulus can be judged from the following data. Kiev, unlike the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality, was not liberated by Daniel of Galicia from the Horde Baskaks in the first half of the 1250s, and continued to be controlled by them and, possibly, by the Vladimir governors (the Horde administration retained its positions in Kiev even after the Kiev nobility brought oath to Gediminas in 1324). The Ipatiev Chronicle under 1276 reports that the princes of Smolensk and Bryansk were sent to help Lev Danilovich Galitsky by the Sarai Khan, and the Turov-Pinsk princes went with the Galicians as allies. Also, the Bryansk prince participated in the defense of Kyiv from the troops of Gediminas. Bordering on the steppe, the Family (see the presence of Baskak Nogai in Kursk in the early 80s of the XIII century), located south of the Bryansk principality, apparently, shared the fate of the Pereyaslav principality, which immediately after the invasion came under the direct control of the Horde (in this case, the “Danubian Ulus" Nogay, whose eastern borders reached the Don), and in the XIV century Putivl and Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny became Kiev "suburbs".

The khans issued labels to the princes, which were signs of support by the khan for the prince to occupy one or another table. Labels were issued and were of decisive importance in the distribution of princely tables in North-Eastern Rus' (but even there, during the second third of the 14th century, it almost completely disappeared, as did the regular trips of north-eastern Russian princes to the Horde and their murders there). The rulers of the Horde in Rus' were called "tsars" - the highest title, which was previously applied only to the emperors of Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. Another important element of the yoke was the tributary dependence of the Russian principalities. There is information about the census in the Kyiv and Chernihiv lands no later than 1246. “They want tribute” was also heard during the visit of Daniil Galitsky to Batu. In the early 50s of the XIII century, the presence of the Baskaks in the cities of Ponysia, Volhynia and Kiev region and their expulsion by the Galician troops was noted. Tatishchev, Vasily Nikitich in his "History of the Russian" mentions as the reason for the Horde campaign against Andrei Yaroslavich in 1252 that he did not pay the exit and tamga in full. As a result of the successful campaign of Nevryuy, Alexander Nevsky took the reign of Vladimir, with the assistance of which in 1257 (in the Novgorod land - in 1259) the Mongol "numerals" under the leadership of Kitat, a relative of the great khan, conducted a census, after which the regular exploitation of the lands of Vladimir the Great began. reign by collecting tribute. In the late 50s and early 60s of the 13th century, tribute from the northeastern Russian principalities was collected by Muslim merchants - "besermen", who bought this right from the great Mongol khan. Most of the tribute went to Mongolia, to the great khan. As a result of the popular uprisings of 1262 in the northeastern Russian cities, the "Besermen" were expelled, which coincided in time with the final separation of the Golden Horde from the Mongol Empire. In 1266, the head of the Golden Horde was named Khan for the first time. And if most researchers consider Rus' conquered by the Mongols during the invasion, then Russian principalities, as a rule, are no longer considered as components of the Golden Horde. Such a detail of Daniil Galitsky’s visit to Batu as “kneeling” (see homage), as well as the obligation of Russian princes, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in battue hunting (“catching”), underlies the classification of Russian dependence principalities from the Golden Horde as a vassal. There was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army on the territory of the Russian principalities.

The units of taxation were: in the cities - the yard, in rural areas - the farm ("village", "plow", "plow"). In the 13th century, the yield amounted to half a hryvnia per plow. Only the clergy were exempt from tribute, which the conquerors tried to use to strengthen their power. There are 14 types of "Horde hardships" known, of which the main ones were: "exit", or "tsar's tribute", a tax directly for the Mongol khan; trading fees ("myt", "tamga"); transport duties ("pits", "carts"); the content of the khan's ambassadors ("fodder"); various "gifts" and "honours" to the khan, his relatives and close associates, etc. Large "requests" for military and other needs were periodically collected.

After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke throughout Rus', payments from Russia and the Commonwealth to the Crimean Khanate were preserved until 1685, in the Russian documentation "Commemoration" (tesh, tysh). They were canceled only by Peter I under the Constantinople Peace Treaty (1700) with the wording:

... And then there is the State of Moscow, an autocratic and free State, a dacha, which until now was given to the Crimean Khans and Crimean Tatars, or the past or now, henceforth, let it not be given from His Holy Royal Majesty of Moscow, nor from his heirs: but the Crimean Khans and Crimeans and other Tatar peoples will no longer give by petition for any other reason, or by covering the opposite of what the world will do but keep peace.

Unlike Russia, the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords in the Western Russian lands did not have to change their faith and could own land with peasants. In 1840, Emperor Nicholas I, by his decree, confirmed the right of Muslims to own Christian serfs in that part of their empire, which was annexed as a result of the divisions of the Commonwealth.

Yoke in Southern Rus'

Since 1258 (according to the Ipatiev Chronicle - 1260), the practice of joint Galician-Horde campaigns against Lithuania, Poland and Hungary began, including those initiated by the Golden Horde and Temnik Nogay (during the existence of a separate ulus). In 1259 (according to the Ipatiev Chronicle - 1261), the Mongol commander Burundai forced the Romanoviches to tear down the fortifications of several Volyn cities.

By the winter of 1274/1275, the campaign of the Galician-Volyn princes, the troops of Mengu-Timur, as well as the Smolensk and Bryansk princes dependent on him to Lithuania (at the request of Lev Danilovich Galitsky) belongs. Novgorodok was taken by Leo and the Horde even before the approach of the allies, so the plan of the campaign deep into Lithuania was upset. In 1277, the Galician-Volyn princes, together with the troops of Nogai, invaded Lithuania (at the suggestion of Nogai). The Horde ravaged the vicinity of Novgorod, and the Russian troops failed to take Volkovysk. In the winter of 1280/1281, the Galician troops, together with the troops of Nogai (at the request of Leo), besieged Sandomierz, but suffered a private defeat. Almost immediately followed by a reciprocal Polish campaign and the capture of the Galician city of Perevoresk. In 1282, Nogai and Tula-Buga ordered the Galician-Volyn princes to go with them to the Hungarians. The troops of the Volga horde got lost in the Carpathians and suffered serious losses from starvation. Taking advantage of Leo's absence, the Poles again invaded Galicia. In 1283, Tula-Buga ordered the Galician-Volyn princes to go with him to Poland, while the environs of the capital of the Volyn land were seriously affected by the Horde army. Tula-Buga went to Sandomierz, he wanted to go to Krakow, but Nogai had already passed there through Przemysl. The Tula-Buga troops settled in the vicinity of Lviv, which were seriously affected as a result of this. In 1287, Tula-Buga, together with Alguy and the Galician-Volyn princes, invaded Poland.

The principality paid an annual tribute to the Horde, but there is no information on the population census available for other regions of Rus' for the Galicia-Volyn principality. There was no Basque institution in it. The princes were obliged to periodically send their troops to participate in joint campaigns with the Mongols. The Galicia-Volyn principality led an independent foreign policy, and none of the princes (kings) after Daniel of Galicia went to the Golden Horde.

The Galicia-Volyn principality did not control Ponysia in the second half of the 13th century, but then, taking advantage of the fall of the Nogai ulus, restored its control over these lands, gaining access to the Black Sea. After the death of the last two princes from the Romanovich male line, which one of the versions associates with the defeat of the Golden Horde in 1323, they again lost them.

Polissya was annexed by Lithuania at the beginning of the XIV century, Volyn (finally) - as a result of the War for the Galician-Volyn inheritance. Galicia was annexed by Poland in 1349.

The history of the Kyiv land in the first century after the invasion is very poorly known. As in North-Eastern Rus', there was an institution of Baskaks and raids took place, the most destructive of which was noted at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. Fleeing from the Mongol violence, the Kiev Metropolitan moved to Vladimir. In the 1320s, the Kiev land became dependent on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but the Khan's Baskaks continued to reside in it. As a result of Olgerd's victory over the Horde in the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362, the power of the Horde in the region was ended. Chernihiv land was subjected to severe crushing. For a short time, the Principality of Bryansk became its center, but at the end of the 13th century, presumably with the intervention of the Horde, it lost its independence, becoming the possession of the Smolensk princes. The final assertion of Lithuanian sovereignty over the Smolensk and Bryansk lands took place in the second half of the 14th century, however, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 70s of the 14th century resumed paying tribute from the southern Russian lands as part of an alliance with the Western Volga Horde.

Yoke in North-Eastern Rus'

Boris Chorikov "Strife of Russian princes in the Golden Horde for a label for a great reign"

After the overthrow of the Horde army in 1252 from the throne of Vladimir, Andrei Yaroslavich, who refused to serve Batu, Andrei Yaroslavich, Prince Oleg Ingvarevich Krasny was released from 14-year captivity in Ryazan, obviously, under the condition of complete obedience to the Mongol authorities and assistance to their policy. Under him, in the Ryazan principality in 1257, the Horde census took place.

In 1274, the Khan of the Golden Horde, Mengu-Timur, sent troops to help Leo of Galicia against Lithuania. The Horde army passed to the west through the principality of Smolensk, with which historians attribute the spread of the power of the Horde to it. In 1275, simultaneously with the second census in North-Eastern Rus', the first census was carried out in the Smolensk principality.

After the death of Alexander Nevsky and the division of the core of the principality between his sons in Rus', there was a fierce struggle for the great reign of Vladimir, including that kindled by the Sarai khans and Nogai. Only in the 70-90s of the XIII century they organized 14 campaigns. Some of them were in the nature of the devastation of the southeastern outskirts (Mordva, Murom, Ryazan), some were carried out in support of the Vladimir princes against the Novgorod "suburbs", but the most destructive were the campaigns, the purpose of which was the forceful replacement of the princes on the grand prince's throne. Dmitry Alexandrovich was first overthrown as a result of two campaigns of the troops of the Volga Horde, then he returned Vladimir with the help of Nogai and even managed to inflict the Horde's first defeat in the northeast in 1285, but in 1293, first he, and in 1300 Nogai himself was overthrown Tokhta (the principality of Kiev was devastated, Nogai fell at the hands of a Russian warrior), who had previously taken the throne of the shed with the help of Nogai. In 1277, the Russian princes participated in the campaign of the Horde against the Alans in the North Caucasus.

Immediately after the unification of the western and eastern uluses, the Horde returned to the all-Russian scale of its policy. In the very first years of the XIV century, the Moscow principality expanded its territory many times over at the expense of neighboring principalities, claimed Novgorod and was supported by Metropolitan Peter and the Horde. Despite this, the princes of Tver mainly owned the label (in the period from 1304 to 1327, a total of 20 years). During this period, they managed to establish their governors in Novgorod by force, defeat the Tatars in the Battle of Bortenevskaya, and kill the Moscow prince at the Khan's headquarters. But the policy of the Tver princes failed when Tver was defeated by the Horde in alliance with Muscovites and Suzdal in 1328. At the same time, this was the last power shift of the Grand Duke by the Horde. Ivan I Kalita, who received the label in 1332, the prince of Moscow, which grew stronger against the backdrop of Tver and the Horde, achieved the right to collect a “way out” from all the northeastern Russian principalities and Novgorod (in the 14th century, the size of the way out was equal to a ruble from two sokh. “Moscow way out "was 5-7 thousand rubles. silver, "Novgorod exit" - 1.5 thousand rubles). At the same time, the era of Basqueism ended, which is usually explained by repeated "veche" performances in Russian cities (in Rostov - 1289 and 1320, in Tver - 1293 and 1327).

The testimony of the chronicler "and there was a great silence for 40 years" (from the defeat of Tver in 1328 to the first campaign of Olgerd against Moscow in 1368) became widely known. Indeed, the Horde troops did not act during this period against the holders of the label, but repeatedly invaded the territory of other Russian principalities: in 1333, together with Muscovites, into the Novgorod land, which refused to pay tribute in an increased amount, in 1334, together with Dmitry Bryansk, against Ivan Alexandrovich Smolensky, in 1340 led by Tovlubiy - again against Ivan Smolensky, who entered into an alliance with Gediminas and refused to pay tribute to the Horde, in 1342 with Yaroslav-Dmitry Alexandrovich Pronsky against Ivan Ivanovich Korotopol.

From the middle of the XIV century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by real military force, the Russian princes were no longer carried out, since the “great zamyatnya” began in the Horde - a frequent change of khans who fought each other for power and ruled simultaneously in different parts Hordes. Its western part was under the control of Temnik Mamai, who ruled on behalf of the puppet khans. It was he who claimed supremacy over Russia. Under these conditions, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-1389) did not obey the khan's labels issued to his rivals, and seized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir by force. In 1378 he defeated the punitive Horde army on the river. Vozhe (in the Ryazan land), and in 1380 he won the Battle of Kulikovo over the army of Mamai. Although after the accession of Mamai’s rival and legitimate khan Tokhtamysh to the Horde, Moscow was ravaged by the Horde in 1382, Dmitry Donskoy was forced to agree to an increased tribute (1384) and leave his eldest son Vasily in the Horde as a hostage, he retained the great reign and for the first time was able to transfer to his son without the khan's label, as "his fatherland" (1389). After the defeat of Tokhtamysh by Timur in 1391-1396, the payment of tribute ceased until the invasion of Edigei (1408), but he failed to take Moscow (in particular, Prince Ivan Mikhailovich of Tver did not comply with Edigei’s order “to be on Moscow” with artillery).

In the middle of the 15th century, the Mongolian detachments carried out several devastating military campaigns (1439, 1445, 1448, 1450, 1451, 1455, 1459), achieved private successes (after the defeat in 1445, Vasily the Dark was captured by the Mongols, paid a large ransom and gave some Russian cities to feed them, which became one of the points of accusation of him by other princes who captured and blinded Vasily), but they were no longer able to restore their power over Russian lands. The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III in 1476 refused to pay tribute to the khan. After the unsuccessful campaign of Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the so-called "Standing on the Ugra" in 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was completely eliminated. The acquisition of political independence from the Horde, along with the spread of Moscow's influence on the Kazan Khanate (1487), played a role in the subsequent transition under the rule of Moscow of part of the lands that were under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In 1502, Ivan III, for diplomatic reasons, recognized himself as a serf of the Khan of the Great Horde, but in the same year the troops of the Great Horde were defeated by the Crimean Khanate. Only under the treaty of 1518, the positions of the darug of the Moscow prince of the Great Horde were finally abolished, which at that time actually ceased to exist.

And there are no other duties for daragas and daraga duties....

Military victories over the Mongol-Tatars

During the Mongol invasion of Rus' in 1238, the Mongols did not reach 200 km to Novgorod and passed 30 km east of Smolensk. Of the cities that were on the way of the Mongols, only Kremenets and Kholm were not taken in the winter of 1240/1241.

The first field victory of Rus' over the Mongols took place during Kuremsa's first campaign against Volhynia (1254, according to the GVL date 1255), when he unsuccessfully besieged Kremenets. The Mongolian avant-garde approached Vladimir Volynsky, but after the battle near the walls of the city, they retreated. During the siege of Kremenets, the Mongols refused to help Prince Izyaslav take possession of Galich, he did it on his own, but was soon defeated by an army led by Roman Danilovich, when sending which Daniel said "if there are Tatars themselves, let horror not come from your heart." During Kuremsa's second campaign against Volyn, which ended in an unsuccessful siege of Lutsk (1255, according to the date of the GVL, 1259), Vasilok Volynsky's squad was sent against the Tatar-Mongol with the order "to beat the Tatars and take them prisoner." For the actually lost military campaign against Prince Danila Romanovich, Kurems was removed from command of the army and replaced by the temnik Burundai, who forced Danil to destroy the border fortresses. Nevertheless, Burundai failed to restore the power of the Horde over Galician and Volyn Rus, and after that, none of the Galician-Volyn princes went to the Horde for labels to reign.

In 1285, the Horde, led by Tsarevich Eltorai, ravaged the Mordovian lands, Murom, Ryazan, and headed for the Vladimir Principality, together with the army of Andrei Alexandrovich, who claimed the throne of the Grand Duke. Dmitry Alexandrovich gathered an army and opposed them. Further, the chronicle reports that Dmitry captured part of the boyars of Andrei, “he drove the prince away.”

“In the historical literature, the opinion has been established that the Russians won the first victory in a field battle over the Horde only in 1378 on the Vozha River. In reality, the victory "in the field" was snatched out by the regiments of the senior "Alexandrovich" - Grand Duke Dmitry - almost a hundred years earlier. Traditional assessments sometimes turn out to be surprisingly tenacious for us. ”

In 1301, the first Moscow prince Daniil Alexandrovich defeated the Horde near Pereyaslavl-Ryazan. The result of this campaign was the capture by Daniil of the Ryazan prince Konstantin Romanovich, who was later killed in a Moscow prison by Daniil's son Yuri, and the annexation of Kolomna to the Moscow principality, which marked the beginning of its territorial growth.

In 1317, Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, together with the army of Kavgady, came from the Horde, but was defeated by Mikhail of Tver, the wife of Yuri Konchak (the sister of the Khan of the Golden Horde Uzbek) was captured and subsequently died, and Mikhail was killed in the Horde.

In 1362, a battle took place between the Russian-Lithuanian army of Olgerd and the united army of the khans of the Perekop, Crimean and Yambalutsk hordes. It ended with the victory of the Russian-Lithuanian forces. As a result, Podolia was liberated, and later the Kiev region.

In 1365 and 1367, respectively, took place near the Shishevsky forest, won by the Ryazans, and the battle on Pyan, won by the Suzdal.

The battle on the Vozha took place on August 11, 1378. The army of Mamai under the command of Murza Begich was heading for Moscow, was met by Dmitry Ivanovich on Ryazan land and defeated.

The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 took place, like the previous ones, during the period of the “great memorial” in the Horde. Russian troops led by the prince of Vladimir and Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy defeated the troops of the temnik of beklarbek Mamai, which led to a new consolidation of the Horde under the rule of Tokhtamysh and the restoration of dependence on the Horde of the lands of the great reign of Vladimir. In 1848, a monument was erected on Red Hill, where Mamai's headquarters was.

And only 100 years later, after the unsuccessful raid of the last khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the so-called "Standing on the Ugra" in 1480, the Moscow prince managed to get out of the subordination of the Great Horde, remaining only a tributary of the Crimean Khanate.

The meaning of the yoke in the history of Rus'

Currently, scientists do not have a common opinion about the role of the yoke in the history of Rus'. Most researchers believe that its results for the Russian lands were destruction and decline. Apologists for this point of view emphasize that the yoke threw the Russian principalities back in their development and became the main reason for Russia's lagging behind the countries of the West. Soviet historians noted that the yoke was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Rus', which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to the productive forces of the Mongol-Tatars, and preserved the natural character of the economy for a long time.

These researchers (for example, the Soviet academician B. A. Rybakov) note in Rus' during the yoke the decline of stone construction and the disappearance of complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, granulation, and polychrome glazed ceramics. “Rus' was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries when the guild industry of the West was passing to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to pass part of that historical path, which was done before Batu "(Rybakov B. A. "Craft Ancient Rus'", 1948, p.525-533; 780-781).

Dr. ist. Sciences B. V. Sapunov noted: “The Tatars destroyed about a third of the entire population of Ancient Rus'. Considering that at that time about 6-8 million people lived in Rus', at least two - two and a half were killed. Foreigners passing through the southern regions of the country wrote that Rus' had practically been turned into a dead desert, and there was no such state on the map of Europe anymore.

Other researchers, in particular, the outstanding Russian historian academician N. M. Karamzin, believe that the Tatar-Mongol yoke played essential role in the evolution of Russian statehood. In addition, he also pointed to the Horde as the obvious reason for the rise of the Moscow principality. Following him, another prominent Russian historian, academician, professor of Moscow State University V. O. Klyuchevsky also believed that the Horde prevented exhausting, fratricidal internecine wars in Rus'. “The Mongol yoke, in extreme distress for the Russian people, was a harsh school in which Moscow statehood and Russian autocracy were forged: a school in which the Russian nation realized itself as such and acquired character traits that facilitated its subsequent struggle for existence.” Supporters of the ideology of Eurasianism (G. V. Vernadsky, P. N. Savitsky and others), without denying the extreme cruelty of the Mongol domination, rethought its consequences in a positive way. They highly valued the religious tolerance of the Mongols, contrasting it with the Catholic aggression of the West. They considered the Mongol Empire as the geopolitical predecessor of the Russian Empire.

Later, similar views, only in a more radical version, were developed by L. N. Gumilyov. In his opinion, the decline of Rus' began earlier and was associated with internal causes, and the interaction between the Horde and Rus' was a profitable military-political alliance, primarily for Rus'. He believed that the relationship between Rus' and the Horde should be called "symbiosis". What a yoke when "Great Russia ... voluntarily united with the Horde thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky, who became the adopted son of Batu." What kind of yoke can there be if, according to L.N. -Finns, Alans and Turks merged into the Great Russian nationality"? The unreliability that reigned in the Soviet national history, about the existence of the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" L. N. Gumilyov called " black legend". Before the arrival of the Mongols, numerous Russian principalities of Varangian origin, located in the basins of rivers flowing into the Baltic and Black Seas, and only in theory recognizing the authority of the Kiev Grand Duke, did not actually constitute one state, and the name of a single Russian is inapplicable to the tribes of Slavic origin that inhabited them. people. Under the influence of Mongol domination, these principalities and tribes were merged into one, forming first the Muscovite kingdom, and later the Russian Empire. The organization of Russia, which was the result of the Mongol yoke, was undertaken by the Asian conquerors, of course, not for the benefit of the Russian people and not for the sake of exalting the Grand Duchy of Moscow, but in view of their own interests, namely, for the convenience of managing the conquered vast country. They could not allow in it an abundance of petty rulers living at the expense of the people and the chaos of their endless strife, undermining the economic well-being of subjects and depriving the country of the security of communications, and therefore, naturally, they encouraged the formation of a strong power of the Grand Duke of Moscow, which could keep in obedience and gradually absorb specific principalities. This principle of creating autocracy, in fairness, seemed to them more expedient for this case than the well-known and tested Chinese rule: "divide and rule." Thus, the Mongols began to collect, to organize Rus', like their own state, for the sake of establishing order, law and prosperity in the country.

In 2013, it became known that the yoke would be included in a single textbook on the history of Russia in Russia under the name "Horde yoke".

List of campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars against the Russian principalities after the invasion

1242: invasion of the Galicia-Volyn principality.

1252: "Nevryu's army", Kuremsa's campaign in Ponys'e.

1254: unsuccessful campaign of Kuremsa near Kremenets.

1258-1260: two invasions of Burundai into the Galicia-Volyn principality, forcing local princes to participate, respectively, in campaigns against Lithuania and Poland and smash several fortresses.

1273: two Mongol attacks on Novgorod lands. The ruin of Vologda and Bezhitsa.

1274: the first ruin of the Smolensk principality on the way to Lithuania.

1275: the defeat of the southeastern outskirts of Rus' on the way from Lithuania, the ruin of Kursk.

1281-1282: two ruins of North-Eastern Rus' by the troops of the Volga Horde during the struggle for power between the sons of Alexander Nevsky.

1283: the ruin of the Vorgol, Ryl and Lipovech principalities, the Mongols took Kursk and Vorgol.

1285: the army of Eltorai, Temirev's son, ravaged the Mordovian, Ryazan and Murom lands.

1287: raid on Vladimir.

1288: raid on Ryazan.

1293: Dudenev's army.

1307: campaign against the Ryazan principality.

1310: campaign against the Principality of Bryansk and the Principality of Karachev in support of Vasily Alexandrovich.

1315: the ruin of Torzhok (Novgorod land) and Rostov.

1317: sack of Kostroma, Battle of Bortenevskaya.

1319: campaign against Kostroma and Rostov.

1320: raid on Rostov and Vladimir.

1321: raid on Kashin.

1322: the ruin of Yaroslavl.

1328: Fedorchuk's army.

1333: the campaign of the Mongol-Tatars with the Muscovites to the Novgorod land.

1334, 1340: campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars with Muscovites against the Smolensk principality.

1342: Mongol-Tatar intervention in the Ryazan principality.

1347: raid on Aleksin.

1358, 1365, 1370, 1373: campaigns against the Ryazan principality. Battle near the Shishevsky forest.

1367: raid on the Principality of Nizhny Novgorod, the Battle of Pyan (1367).

1375: raid on the southeastern outskirts of the Nizhny Novgorod principality.

1375: raid on Kashin.

1377 and 1378: raids on the Nizhny Novgorod principality, the Battle of the Pyan (1377), a campaign in the Ryazan principality.

1378: Begich's campaign against Moscow. Battle on the Vozha River.

1379: Mamai's campaign against Ryazan.

1380: Mamai's campaign against Moscow. Kulikovo battle.

1382: Invasion of Tokhtamysh, Moscow burned.

1391: campaign against Vyatka.

1395: Devastation of Yelets by Tamerlane's detachments.

1399: raid on the Nizhny Novgorod principality.

1408: Edigey's invasion.

1410: the ruin of Vladimir.

1429: Mongol-Tatars ravage the environs of Galich Kostroma, Kostroma, Lukh, Pleso.

1439: Mongol-Tatars ravage the environs of Moscow and Kolomna.

1443: Tatars ravage the outskirts of Ryazan, but are repelled from the city.

1445: Ulu-Mohammed troops raid on Nizhny Novgorod and Suzdal.

1449: the ruin of the southern outskirts of the Moscow principality.

1451: the ruin of the environs of Moscow by Khan Mazovsha.

1455 and 1459: the ruin of the southern outskirts of the Moscow principality.

1468: the ruin of the environs of Galich.

1472: Aleksin sacked by Akhmat's army.

List of Russian princes who visited the Horde

Chronological and nominal list of Russian princes who visited the Horde from 1242 to 1430.

1243 - Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir, Konstantin Yaroslavich (to Karakorum).

1244-1245 - Vladimir Konstantinovich Uglitsky, Boris Vasilkovich Rostovsky, Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky, Vasily Vsevolodovich, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Suzdalsky, Ivan Vsevolodovich Starodubsky.

1245-1246 - Daniel of Galicia.

1246 - Mikhail Chernigov (killed in the Horde).

1246 - Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (to Karakorum for the enthronement of Guyuk) (poisoned).

1247-1249 - Andrei Yaroslavich, Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky to the Golden Horde, from there to Karakorum (inheritance).

1252 - Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky.

1256 - Boris Vasilkovich of Rostov, Alexander Nevsky.

1257 - Alexander Nevsky, Boris Vasilkovich Rostovsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky (Berke's enthronement).

1258 - Andrei Yaroslavich of Suzdal.

1263 - Alexander Nevsky (died upon his return from the Horde) and his brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, Vladimir Ryazansky, Ivan Starodubsky.

1268 - Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky.

1270 - Roman Olgovich Ryazansky (killed in the Horde).

1271 - Yaroslav Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, Vasily Yaroslavich of Kostroma, Dmitry Alexandrovich Pereyaslavsky.

1274 - Vasily Yaroslavich of Kostroma.

1277-1278 - Boris Vasilkovich Rostovsky with his son Konstantin, Gleb Vasilkovich Belozersky with his sons, Mikhail and Fyodor Rostislavovich Yaroslavsky, Andrey Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.

1281 - Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.

1282 - Dmitry Alexandrovich Pereyaslavsky, Andrey Alexandrovich Gorodetsky.

1288 - Dmitry Borisovich Rostovsky, Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky.

1292 - Alexander Dmitrievich, son of the Grand Duke of Vladimir.

1293 - Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky, Dmitry Borisovich Rostovsky, Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky, Mikhail Glebovich Belozersky, Fedor Rostislavovich Yaroslavsky, Ivan Dmitrievich Rostovsky, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy.

1295 - Andrei Alexandrovich with his wife, Ivan Dmitrievich Pereyaslavsky.

1302 - Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, Yuri Danilovich of Moscow and his younger brother.

1305 - Mikhail Andreevich Nizhny Novgorod.

1307 - Vasily Konstantinovich Ryazansky (killed in the Horde).

1309 - Vasily of Bryansk.

1310 - son of Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky.

1314 - Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver, Yuri Danilovich of Moscow.

1317 - Yuri Danilovich of Moscow, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver and his son Konstantin.

1318 - Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver (killed in the Horde).

1320 - Ivan I Kalita, Yuri Alexandrovich, Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes of Tver.

1322 - Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes, Yuri Danilovich.

1324 - Yuri Danilovich, Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes, Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Ivan I Kalita, Konstantin Mikhailovich.

1326 - Dmitry Mikhailovich Terrible Eyes, Alexander Novosilsky (both killed in the Horde).

1327 - Ivan Yaroslavich of Ryazan (killed in the Horde).

1328 - Ivan I Kalita, Konstantin Mikhailovich of Tver.

1330 - Fedor Ivanovich Starodubsky (killed in the Horde).

1331 - Ivan I Kalita, Konstantin Mikhailovich of Tver.

1333 - Boris Dmitrievich.

1334 - Fedor Alexandrovich Tverskoy.

1335 - Ivan I Kalita, Alexander Mikhailovich.

1337 - The son of Alexander Mikhailovich of Tver, Fedor, was sent as a hostage, Ivan I Kalita, Simeon Ivanovich the Proud.

1338 - Vasily Dmitrievich Yaroslavsky, Roman Belozersky.

1339 - Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, his son Fyodor (killed in the Horde), Ivan Ivanovich Ryazansky (Korotopol) and his brothers Semyon Ivanovich, Andrei Ivanovich.

1342 - Simeon Ivanovich Proud, Yaroslav Aleksandrovich Pronsky, Konstantin Vasilyevich Suzdalsky, Konstantin Tverskoy, Konstantin Rostovsky.

1344 - Ivan II the Red, Simeon Ivanovich the Proud, Andrei Ivanovich.

1345 - Konstantin Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Vsevolod Alexandrovich Kholmsky, Vasily Mikhailovich Kashinsky.

1347 - Simeon Ivanovich the Proud and Ivan II the Red.

1348 - Vsevolod Alexandrovich Kholmsky, Vasily Mikhailovich Kashinsky.

1350 - Simeon Ivanovich the Proud, his brother Andrei Ivanovich of Moscow, Ivan and Konstantin of Suzdal.

1353 - Ivan II the Red, Konstantin Vasilyevich of Suzdal.

1355 - Andrei Konstantinovich Suzdalsky, Ivan Fedorovich Starodubsky, Fedor Glebovich and Yuri Yaroslavich (dispute about Murom), Vasily Aleksandrovich Pronsky.

1357 - Vasily Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Vsevolod Alexandrovich Kholmsky.

1359 - Vasily Mikhailovich of Tverskoy with his nephew, princes of Ryazan, princes of Rostov, Andrei Konstantinovich Nizhny Novgorod.

1360 - Andrei Konstantinovich Nizhny Novgorod, Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdalsky, Dmitry Borisovich Galitsky.

1361 - Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy), Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdalsky and Andrei Konstantinovich Nizhny Novgorod, Konstantin Rostovsky, Mikhail Yaroslavsky.

1362 - Ivan Belozersky (principality taken away).

1364 - Vasily Kirdyapa, son of Dmitry Suzdal.

1366 - Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy.

1371 - Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (redeemed the son of Mikhail Tverskoy).

1372 - Mikhail Vasilyevich Kashinsky.

1382 - Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy with his son Alexander, Dmitry Konstantinovich Suzdalsky sent two sons - Vasily and Simeon - hostages, Oleg Ivanovich Ryazansky (searching for an alliance with Tokhtamysh).

1385 - Vasily I Dmitrievich (hostage), Vasily Dmitrievich Kirdyapa, Rodoslav Olegovich Ryazansky were released home, Boris Konstantinovich Suzdalsky.

1390 - Simeon Dmitrievich and Vasily Dmitrievich of Suzdal, who had previously been held hostage in the Horde for seven years, were summoned again.

1393 - Simeon and Vasily Dmitrievich of Suzdal are again summoned to the Horde.

1402 - Simeon Dmitrievich Suzdalsky, Fedor Olegovich Ryazansky.

1406 - Ivan Vladimirovich Pronsky, Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy.

1407 - Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Yuri Vsevolodovich.

1410 - Ivan Mikhailovich of Tverskoy.

1412 - Vasily I Dmitrievich, Vasily Mikhailovich Kashinsky, Ivan Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Ivan Vasilyevich Yaroslavsky.

1430 - Vasily II Dark, Yuri Dmitrievich.