The reforms and transformations of Peter 1. The impact of reform on church life in Russia. Church reform of Peter I

Church reform of Peter I - Activities made by Peter I at the beginning of the XVIII century, which drastically changed the Office of the Orthodox Russian Church, introducing a system that some researchers believe CaesaParapain.

The position of the Russian Church to the reforms of Peter I

By the end of the XVII century, a significant amount of both internal problems and problems related to its position in society and the state have accumulated in the Russian Church, as well as practically full absence Systems of religious and church education and education. In half a century, due to not quite successful reforms of Patriarch Nikon, an old-supplied split occurred: a significant part of the church - first of all the simple people - did not accept the decisions of the Moscow Cathedrals 1654, 1655, 1656, 1666 and 1667 and rejected the transformations prescribed by them in the church, following The standards and traditions formed in Moscow in the XVI century, when the Moscow Church was in a split with the Ecumenical Orthodoxy - until the normalization of his status in 1589-1593. All this imposed a significant imprint on society of that time. Also, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon was held a policy that was clearly threatened by the Russian absolutism. Being an ambitious person, Nikon tried to preserve the same status in the Moscow state, who had Patriarch Philaret before him. These attempts ended personally for him with full collapse. Russian kings, obviously seeing the danger of the privileged position of the Russian Church, which owned huge lands and possessed benefits, felt the need for reforming the Church Management. But in the XVII century, the government did not decline for radical measures. The privileges of the Church, who joined the conflict with the emerging absolutism, were to the right of land tenure and court over the spiritual persons for all sorts of cases. Posmal possessions of the church were huge, the population of these lands, in most cases freed from payment of filters, was useless for the state. Monastic and bishops trade and industrial enterprises also did not pay anything in the treasury, thanks to which they could cheaper to sell their products, thereby undermining merchants. The non-ceased growth of the monastic and generally church land ownership threatened the state with huge losses.

More king Alexey Mikhailovich, despite his devotion to the church, came to the conclusion about the need to put the limit of the clergy claims. With it, the further transition of the Earth in the ownership of the clergy was discontinued, and recognized by the heads that were found in the hands of the clergy were returned back to the way. By Cathedral deposition 1649, the court of clergy for all civil cases was transferred to the new institution - the monastery order. The monastery order was the main significant subject of the consecrated conflict between the king and Nikon, which in this case expressed the interests of the entire Higher clergy corporation. The protest was so strong that the king was supposed to give up and agree with the fathers of the Cathedral of 1667, so that the court of spiritual persons on civil and even criminal matters was returned to the clergy. After the cathedral of 1675, the monastery order was abolished.

An important factor in church life at the end of the XVII was held in 1687 the accession of the Kiev Metropolis for the Moscow Patriarchate. The Russian bishopat was included in Western educated Little Russian bishops, some of which will play a key role in the church transformations of Peter I.

General Character and Prerequisites

Peter I, becoming the focus of state rule, saw a deaf, and sometimes explicitly, discontent with the clergy by the transformations that were started for the modernization of Russia, for they destroyed the old Moscow system and customs that were so committed to their ignorance. As a carrier of the state idea, Peter did not allow the independence of the church in the state, but as a reformer who gave life to the renewal of the Fatherland, he did not like the clergy, in the mass of which found the greatest number of opponents that he was most likely to be closer. But he was not unbelieving man, rather, he belonged to the number of those who are called indifferent to the affairs of faith.

Lastly during the life of the Patriarch, Adrian Peter, a very young man who behaved quite distant from church interests, expressed his wishes to the head of the Russian clergy regarding the defendant of spiritual rank. However, the Patriarch was alien to innovations that penetrated the system of state and public life of Russia. Over time, Peter's discontent with Russian clergy intensified, so he even got used to most of his failures and difficulties in domestic affairs to attribute to the secret, but persistent counteraction of the clergy. When, in the representation of Peter, everything opposing and hostile reforms and ideas were embodied in the person of the clergy, he decided to neutralize this opposition, and all its reforms belonging to the device of the Russian Church were sent to this. They all had in mind:

Elimination of the opportunity to grow Russian dad - "The second sovereign, autocrat is equivalent or greater"What could be, and in the face of Patriarchs Filaret and Nikon, the Moscow Patriarch was becoming a certain extent;
Submission to the Church of the monarch. On the clergy Peter looked so that it "There is no other state" and should "Along with other estates", obeying general state laws.

Peter's travels along Protestant European countries even more strengthened his views on the attitude of the state and church. With a pretty attention, Peter listened to the advice of Wilhelm Orange in 1698, during his informal meetings, to arrange the church in Russia to the manner of Anglican, declaring her governing her.

In 1707, he was deprived of the department and was exiled to Cyril-Belozersky Monastery Metropolitan Nizhny Novgorod Isaiah, who drastically protested against the actions of the monastery order in his diocese.

Extremely painful for some of the highest clergy was the case of Cesarevich Alexy, with whom many spiritual persons associated hopes for the restoration of the former customs. Beszav in 1716 abroad, Tsarevich maintained a relationship with Metropolitan Krutitsky Ignatius (resin), Metropolitan Kyiv Ioasaf (Krakowsky), Bishop of Rostov Dosifence, and others. During Petro-Fit Rosisk, the main cause of betrayal Peter himself called "conversations with Popes and Chernitsy." According to the results of the investigation on the spiritual persons, the biscuits of Tsarevich collapsed: the bishop Distile was deprived of San and executed, as well as the confessor of Tsarevich Protopop Jacob Ignatiev and close to the first spouse Peter, Queen Evdokia, the Kucharger of the Cathedral in Suzdal Theodore deserted; Metropolitan Joasaf was deprived of the department, and the Metropolitan Ioasaf caused to interrogated on the way from Kiev.

It is noteworthy that all the time of the preparation of the reform of the church department of Petr was in intensive intercourse with the eastern patriarchs - primarily by the Jerusalem Patriarch Dosifence - on various issues of both spiritual and political nature. And to the Universal Patriarch Cosme, including with private spiritual requests, somehow permission to "meat" during all posts; His grarity of Patriarch dated July 4, 1715 justifies the request from the fact that, as the document says, "FEBRO and Sigorutin's Guard, who has become more from harsh meals, and there is no particularly forced to be increasingly for the defense of the Church and State and Caesa Military difficult and remote campaigns<...>" Another literacy of the same day as the day as the Patriarch of Cosma has permission to meat in all posts in all Russian troops during military campaigns, "" Further Orthodox our troops<...> There are harmful and distant tricks and remote and uncomfortable and deserted Mѣstakh, there is no idea, and sometimes any fish is not burned, lower than any permanent nursing, but according to Casta and Samago Hłba. " There is no doubt that Peter was more convenient to solve spiritual issues with the eastern patriarchs, which were largely on the content of the Moscow government (and the Patriarch Distile de facto was a political agent and an informant of the Russian government about everything that happened in Constantinople), rather than with her, sometimes plump, clergy.

The first undertakings of Peter in this area

During the lifetime of Patriarch, Adrian Peter, he independently revealed to build new monasteries in Siberia.

In October, 1700 Patriarch Adrian died. Peter was at this time with troops near Narva. Here, in the camp, he received two letters regarding the situation created by the death of the Patriarch. Boyarin Tikhon Streshnev, who remained during the absence of a sovereign, according to the old custom, to lead Moscow, gave a report on the death and burial of the Patriarch, about the measures taken to protect the property of the patriarchal home, and asked who to appoint a new patriarch. The Kurbatov Avenue, obliged by his position to represent the sovereign about everything, which will tear to the profit and the benefits of the state, wrote a sovereign that he, the king, the Lord judged his "his own and people their own in the life of the Threight of the Cady." He further pointed out that due to the death of the Patriarch, his subordinates took all the cases in their hands and in their own interests are managed by all patriarchal incomes. Kurbatov offered to elect, as it was before, for temporary control of the Patriarch throne of the bishop. All monasteries and bishops of Kurbatov advised to rewrite and send them to anyone.

A week after returning from under Narva, Peter did the way he offered Kurbatov. The Metropolitan Ryazan and Murom Stefan Yavorsky was appointed by the victorian and ruler. The location was assigned to the headquarters only the case of faith: "On the split, about the contractions of the church, about Yerezi," yet other cases that were under the jurisdiction of the patriarch were distributed to the orders to which they treated. A special order made on these affairs - the patriarchy rank was destroyed.

On January 24, 1701 the monastery order was restored, which was carried out by the patriarn yard, bishops and monastic lands and farms. At the head of the order was delivered by the boyar Ivan Alekseevich Musin-Pushkin, yes, with him, Dyack Efim Zotov.

Soon there was a number of decrees that strongly reduced the independence of the clergy in the state and the independence of spiritual rank from secular power. Monasteries were subjected to special cleaning. The monks were ordered to remain constantly in those monasteries, where they will be forced by special correspondence sent by the monastic order. From the monasteries evicted all unprinted. Women's monasteries allowed to peel into the nun only women after a fortunate age. The economy of the monasteries was given under the supervision and control of the monastery order. In the lodgers, it was ordered to leave only really sick and weak. Finally, by a decree on December 30, 1701, it was determined to be given to monastic monasters from the revenues of the monastery, and the nasty and landmarks did not own monks.

A number of further measures facilitated the cruelty of the Pursuit of Raskolniki and allowed the free confession of his faith to foreigners, both Catholics and Protestants of all sense. The basis of these measures was the principle expressed by Peter, as usual and bright: "The Lord gave the power of the power over the peoples, but one Christ is dominated over the conscience of people.". According to this, Peter prescribed bishops to refer to the opponents of the Church with "Meekness and mind".

To raise in an environment of the Orthodox flops of the general level of morality, decrees were published, "In order for in the cities and the counties of any man's and female sex, people from their spiritual fathers confessed annually"And for evasion from confession, a fine was charged. This measure, besides the goals of moral nature, meant, mainly, to establish the belonging of these persons to an ancient piety, for which they have double tax. The special decrees published in 1718 were prescribed by the Orthodox man in the hundred people to attempt to visit the churches and in the temples to stand with awe and in silence, listening to the Holy Service, otherwise the fine was threatened, charged immediately in the church as special attached to "Good man". Peter himself loved to marry all the solemn days of his life with solemn church ministries. Reading by the cities of Izvestia about the Poltava victory, for example, was accompanied by a prayer and five-day church ringing.

To raise the moral level of the very clergy, there was an obligation to the bishops, which recommended me the meekness in circulation with subordinates, caution in the adoption of the "Nepomo-owl" for the holy power and in the phenomenon of the miraculous icons. It was forbidden to fiction wonders. It was prescribed to prevent the oborudy; the bishops were indicated that they could not enter into worldly affairs "Explicit not true will be"- then I was allowed to write the king. For the painting of 1710, the bishops were prescribed a salary from one to two and a half thousand rubles a year. Back in 1705, the master cleaning of the clergy was made, from the composition of which soldiers and salary were turned off and marked: deafness, monastic servants, Popovichi, Pnomari, their children and delicacies.

Fighting a benchmark

At the same time, Peter began for the necessary institute of ancient Russian piety - a poorness. All those who ask for alms were ordered to intercept and to dismiss and punish the monastery order, and all of the ranks were forbidden to serve the alms with stray. Who caught the thirst for alms alms, this was suggested to serve in the alm. Who did not obey the Decree and filed alms with stray beggar, Tech had enough and took a fine with them. The streets of Moscow and other cities walked fuckers with soldiers and took the poor and benefactors. However, in 1718, Peter had to confess that, despite all his measures, the number of beggars multiplied. He answered this by the draconic decrees: the beggars grasped on the streets, was ordered to beat mercilessly, and if they find the owners of the peasants, then send them to the owners with the permanence so that they put this poor to work in order for he did not eat The fact that the landowner made his person before the beggar, he had to pay five rubles a fine. The second and third time that fell into the poor and the third time was ordered to beat on the square of the whip and send men to the catguard, women - in Spingause (spinning), children - beat with baotogs and send to the cloth yard and other manufactories. Several earlier, in 1715, it was ordered to grab the beggars and allocate to the orders for the search. By 1718, more than 90 were arranged in Moscow, and they lived to 4500 beggars, weak treated from treasury. Organization charitable care Really suffering was quite well carried out in Novgorod thanks to the dedicated activities of IOVA. Job, in their own aspire, at the very beginning of the Northern War, 1700-1721 arranged hospitals in Novgorod, educational houses. The royal decree immediately approved all the undertakings of the Novgorod Lord and recommended to do the same in all cities.

Patriarchal throne

The patriarchy location was fully in the authorities of the sovereign and had no authority. In all important cases, he had to consult with other bishops, which he was proposed to alternately to call Moscow. The results of all meetings of the Patriarcharchy Throne (the first was Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky) was supposed to submit to the statement of the sovereign. This meeting of the next bishops from the dioceses was called, as before, by the consecrated cathedral. This consecrated cathedral in spiritual affairs, and Boyar Musin-Pushkin with his monastery order - in others, significantly limited the power of the Patriarcharchy Patriarchal in the Church's management. Musin-Pushkin as the head of the monastery order everywhere promoted by Peter, like some assistant, comrade, sometimes almost the head of the Patriarcharchy Throne's location. If in a mandatory consecrated cathedral of the bishops annually convened in turns in turns, with the location of the Biscuit of the Holy Synod, then the head of the monastery order acts as the ancestor of the Sodid Ober-prosecutor.

The position of the head of the Russian clergy was even harder when from 1711, instead of the old boyars, the Government Senate began to operate. By decree of the establishment of the Senate, all controls, both spiritual and worldly, were to obey the decions of the Senate as the royal statements. The Senate immediately mastered the supremacy in the spiritual administration. Since 1711, the Patriarchal Patriarchal I cannot put a bishop without a senate. The Senate independently builds the churches in the conquered lands and orders the Pskov Vladyka to put the priests there. The Senate defines Igumen and Igness in the monasteries, in the Senate send their requests for permission to settle in the monastery of the disabled soldiers.

In 1714, Moscow arose about Lekar Tveritinov, accused of commitment to Lutheranism. The case went to the Senate, and the Senate justified the hell. Metropolitan Stefan examined then the writings of Tveritinov and found his opinions of certainly heretical. The case rose again and reached the Senate again. On the analysis of the case in the Senate attended and the location. But the Senate spoke again about the innocence of Tveritinov. The debate between the senators with the location was very stubborn.

Since 1715, all central institutions began to focus in St. Petersburg and divided into arranged collegial departments. Of course, Peter comes to the idea of \u200b\u200bincorporating on the same grounds into the mechanism of government and the management of the church. In 1718, the locomotive of the Patriarchal throne, temporarily staying in St. Petersburg, receives a decree of His Majesty - "To live him in St. Petersburg constantly and the bishops come alternately in St. Petersburg, against how to come to Moscow". This caused the dissatisfaction of Metropolitan, to which Peter answered sharply and severely and for the first time expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating the spiritual college.

Creating a Spiritual College, or Holy Synod

The key figure in the organization of the spiritual collegium was the Malorosiysky theologian, the rector of the Kiev-Mogilyan Academy Faofan Prokopovich, whom Peter met in 1706, when he was talking about the Pechersk Fortress in Kiev in Kiev. In 1711, Faofan was under Peter in the Prut Cam. On June 1, 1718, he was informed in Pskov's bishops, and the next day he was dedicated to the bishopan in the presence of the sovereign. Soon, Prokopovich was instructed to draw up a project to create a spiritual board.

On January 25, 1721, Peter signed a manifesto on the establishment of the Spiritual College, which received a new name soon Holy Governing Synod. In advance, the convened members of the Synod brought the oath on January 27, and on February 14, the solemn opening of the new Church Management occurred.

In the same time published under a special decree Regulations of the Spiritual Collegium They were explained, as usual, Peter, "Important Wines", which forced him to prefer the cathedral or collegial and synodal control of the Church of the sole patriarchate:

"Veliko and Siya, that from Sobornago Legalia, you can not be afraid of the Fatherland of the References and Khuratiya, Jacob occurred by the unagnigaging of the ruler of the Spiritual. For the easiest people do not attend how the power of the spiritual from the autocratic, but the Great Highest Shepherd Shepherd Chestіyu and Glevoy is surprised, thinks that such a ruler is the second sovereign, equivalent to the autocrat, or more of him, and that spiritual Chin has another and the best state, And Ce himself, the people themselves, so Clean the OLD. What exactly, still pleel lure-loving spiritual conversations will be attached and the dry ch revoration of fire will be laid? And when it hears the nod-like rushing between them, VSI is spiritual pupgue than the Mirian ruler, and therefore, and prettier, agree, and the flasks are consuming that they are wondering. "

The composition of Holy Synod was determined by the Regulations in 12 "Governments", of which three certainly had to wear a San Bishop. As in civil colleges, one president was considered in the Synod, two vice presidents, four advisors and five tracks. In 1726, these foreign names, so not knitted with spiritual sans attending persons in the synod, were replaced by the words: the first dick, the synod members and the synod those present. The president, subsequently, the foregoing, belongs to the regulations, a voice equal to other members of the board.

Before joining the post, each member of the Synod, or, according to the regulations, "Any Collegiate, such as the president, so other," should "teach the oath or promise of the front of St. The Gospel ", where" Personal penalty and telenago punishment "was promised to" look for always the most sustaining truth and a milderness of truth "and flow throughout" written in the spiritual regulator, the charters continue to follow the additional to the definitions. " Together with the oath in loyalty to the ministry, the members of the Synod swore in loyalty to the ministry of the reigning sovereign and its successors, they were obliged to convey in advance about the damage to His Majesty of Interest, the Harm, damage, and in conclusion they shoulded "to confess Christian judicial Summer Say of the Colleague, to All-Russian monarch. Extremely significant to the end of this oath promise, compiled by Feofan Prokopovich and the ruling Peter: "Moblen and still all-seeing God that the whole thing now I am not interested in my mind in my mind, I will pronounce with my mind, but in that force and mind, I am so Written by ZDE word tagging and hearing. "

Metropolitan Stefan was appointed President of Synod. In the Synod, he somehow was a stranger, despite his presidency. For the entire 1721, Stefan in the Synod was only 20 times. He had no effect on affairs.

The vice-president was appointed a man, unconditionally devotee Peter - Feodosius, the bishops of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery.

On the device of the office and office workshop, the Synod reminded the Senate and the Board, with all the ranks and customs in these institutions. Just as there, Peter took care of the supervision device for the activities of the Synod. On May 11, 1722, it was ordered to attend the Synod a special obour-prosecutor. Colonel Ivan Vasilyevich Baltin was appointed first Ober Prosecutor Synod. The main responsibility of the Ober-Prosecutor was to conduct all the synod and civil authorities and vote against the Synod solutions when they were not agreed with the laws and decisions of Peter. The Senate gave the Ober-prosecutor of a special instruction, which was almost a complete copy of the Senate Prosecutor General instructions.

As well as a prosecutor general, the Ober-Prosecutor of the Synod is called the instruction "Okum Sovereign and Stranachim about state affairs". Ober Prosecutor was supposed to go only the sovereign. At first, the power of the Ober-Prosecutor was exceptionally observant, but little, the Ober-Prosecutor becomes a top of the Synod fate and his leader in practice.

As in the Senate, the position of the prosecutor stood fiscals, and in the Synod, spiritual fiscals called the inquisitors, with the proto-privitator headed. Inquisitors were to secretly observe the right and legitimate strength of church life. The chancellery of the Synod was arranged on a sample of the Senate and also subordinate to the Ober-Prosecutor. To create a living connection with the Senate, the Synod was established the post of agent, the responsibility of which, according to the instructions given to him, was "to recommend both in Senate and in the colleague and in the office, in order to put the Synodsky and Decision, the proper shipment of Chenen was without continued time. " The agent then looked at the Sodid Keepings sent to the Senate and the Board, heard before other cases, otherwise he had to protest "the presidency of Tamo to protest" and convey the prosecutor general. Important papers arrived from Synod to the Senate, the agent had to wear himself. In addition to the agent, during the Synod there was another Commissioner from the monastery order, who made frequent and extensive in its volume and the importance of this order with the Synod. The position of his largely reminded the position of commissars from the provinces during the Senate. For the convenience of the head of the institution itself, they were divided into four parts, or offices: a second of school and printing houses, the office of the vessel, the office of the split business and the office of the Inquisitor.

A new institution, according to Peter, was to immediately take up the correction of vices in church life. The spiritual regulation pointed out the tasks of a new institution and noted those disadvantages of the church device and the life, with which to begin a decisive struggle.

All cases subject to His Holiness Synod, the Regulation subdivided into general concerning all members of the Church, that is, and secular and spiritual, and on the works of "own", belonging only to the clergy, white and black, to spiritual school and enlightenment. Defining the general cases of the Synod, the Regulation imposes on the synod the obligation to observe everything among the Orthodox "It was done correctly by the law of Christian"so that nothing has happened to this "Law"and not to be "Poverty in the instruction, approved by every Christian". The regulation lists, follow the correctness of the text of the Holy Books. The Synod was to eradicate superstitions, to establish the authenticity of the miracles of the newly connected icons and the relics, to observe the order of church services and their correctness, to protect faith from the detrimental influence of falsecracies, for which the right of court over the splitters and heretics and to have censorship over all the "saints" and all The genus theological writings, observing not anything opposed to Orthodox fault. Synod has a categorical resolution "Non-shift" Cases of pastoral practice in the affairs of Christian faith and virtue.

In terms of enlightenment and education, the spiritual regulations prescribed the Synod to follow "We had satisfied with the correction of the Christian doctrine"For which it is necessary to make a brief and counter-friendly books for ordinary people to teach the people the main dogmas of faith and the rules of Christian life.

In the managing church management, the Synod was to explore the dignity of the persons supplied in the bishops; protect church cleric "Sospesky Lords team having"; Watch that every Christian is in his rank. Synod was obliged to instruct and punish the sick; Bishops should look "Whether the priests and deacons do not claim, do not lure drunk on the streets, or, worse, in churches do not quarrel with a man". Regarding the bishops themselves, prescribed: "Take a cruel bishop to the Wielmi's cruel bishops, so that you are under your hands, until useless, not submitted and in the ground they would not bow to the ground.".

Sidin's court was subject to all cases that were previously subject to the court of Patriarch. As part of the church property, the Synod should look at the right use and distribution of church heritage.

Regarding the deeds of its own regulations, it should notice the synod to properly fulfill its task, which is the obligations of each member of the Church, that is, bishops, presbyters, deacons and other chickens, monks, teachers, preachers, and then devotes a lot of place for bishops, cases Educational and educational and responsibilities of the Mijan in relation to the Church. Other things in the clergy and concerning monks and monasteries were described in detail in detail were somewhat later in a special "adding to the spiritual regulation."

This addition was drawn up by the Synod himself and was covered with the spiritual regulation without the knowledge of the king.

Measures to limit the white clergy

Under Peter, the clergy began to turn into the same class, having public objects, their rights and obligations, like a gentleman and townspeople. Peter wanted the spiritual Chin to be made by the body of a religious and moral impact on the people who are fully disposed of the state. By creating the highest church management - Synod - Peter was able to the High Order of Church Affairs. The formation of other classes - gentlemen, citizens and peasants - already limited quite definitely to those who belonged to the clergy. A number of measures regarding the white clergy meant to further figure out this restriction of the new estate.

In ancient Russia, access to the clergy was widely open for everyone, and the clergy was not connected with any shy decrees: every spiritual face could remain or not to remain in spiritual rank, to freely move from the city to the city, from ministry in one temple to another; Children of the spiritual persons, too, have not been connected with their origin and could choose what kind of activity they wanted. In the spiritual title in the XVII century, even people could even join, and the landowners of that time often had priests from the spirits of people. The clergy was wallace, because here it was more opportunities to find earnings and it was easier to avoid tax. The lower parish clergy was then selective. The parishioners were chosen, usually, from their own medium, as it seemed to them, suitable for the priestly man's shan, gave him a diploma of the choice and sent to "put" to the local bishine.

The Moscow government, protecting the state payment forces from declaring, has long been prescribed to cities and villages so that they are for decoracing the priests and deacon places choose children or general relatives of dead priests, hoping that such persons are more prepared for the priesthood than "Rural ignoramus". Communities, in the interests of which, too, not to lose excessive coils, and they themselves tried to choose her shepherds from famous spiritual families. By the XVII century, this is the custom, and the children of clergy, although they can enter the service in any rank, prefer to wait the queue to occupy the spiritual place. The church cleric is therefore an extremely crowded clergy, old and young, waiting for "places", while the priests are pretending to the fathers and grandfathers, and t. In 1722, the Synod came to call, that in some Yaroslavl churches, it was listed So many Popovsky children, brothers, nephews, grandchildren on the student places, that they had to have five priests hardly to fifteen people.

As in the XVII century, and during Peter, there were very rare parishes, where the priest was one only, - most of the two and three and three. There were such parishes, where with the cash of fifteen yards of the parishioners had two Ieries with a dark, wooden, dilapidated church. With rich churches, the number of priests reached six or more.

Comparative lightness of the production of Sana created in the ancient Russia stray association, the so-called "sacral". The sacrings were called in the old Moscow and other cities of the intersection of large streets, where many people always crowded. In Moscow, the barbaric and Spassky sacrats were especially famous. Here, the advantage was gathered by the clergy, which was gone from his parishes for the free fishing of the priest and deacon. Some combustion, the abbot of the church with the arrival of two or three yards, of course, could earn more, offering his services to those who wanted to serve prayers at home, to play in the house of Sorokoust, bless the memorial meal. All those who need the priest went to the cresses and here they chose someone. The vacation certificate from the bishop was easily obtained, if even the Vladyka was against: such profitable affairs did not bring a hoochier to bribes and promises, bishops' servants. In Moscow, Petrovsky, even after the first revision, after many measures aimed at destroying the sacrifice, there were more than 150 people registered Popov, who recorded the order of church affairs and paying the epithille money.

Of course, the existence of such a stray clergy, with the desire of the government, everything and everyone in the state will be recorded on the "service", could not be tolerant, and Peter still at the beginning of the 1700s makes a number of orders that limit the freedom of entry into the spiritual chin. In 1711, these measures are somewhat systematized and confirmed, and the explanation should be explained to the reduction of spiritual rank: from its dissemination of "sovereign services, the needs of Umälenіe felt." In 1716, Peter issued a disposal to the bishops so that they "did not multiply the priests and Dyakonov Square for the sake of profits, below for the hallway." The exit from the spiritual title was facilitated, and Peter favorably looked at the priests who left spiritual San, but also the Synod himself. At the same time with concerns about the quantitative reduction of spiritual rank, the Government of Peter is concerned about attaching it to the place of service. The issuance of the surveillance of the diploma is very difficult very difficult, and then it is completely stopped, and the rigorish, under the fine and punishment, it is forbidden to accept for the fulfillment of the requirements of Popov and Deacons. One of the measures to reduce the number of clergy was the prohibition of building new churches. The bishops, taking the department, had to give an oath promise that "either themselves will not be allowed to build churches over the needs of Podishozhan."

The most important measure in this regard, in particular for the life of a white clergy, is the attempt by Peter "to determine the number of sacred-church-earliers and to dispose of the church, so that the number of assistant is assigned to any number of parishioners." The state of the clergy, which was determined by the Synodic Decree of 1722, "so that there were no more than three hundred yards and in the great parishes, but would have been in such a parish, GDѣ one priest, 100 yard or 150, and where two, Tamo 200 or 250. And with three numerals, it would be up to 800 yards, and with the Toligiki Mop, there was no more Dyakonov, but to be in the pretexts of Popov, that is, with each Pop Oyoka and one Ponomar. " This staff was supposed to do not immediately, but as the extra chummers will die; The bishops were ordered not to put new priests, while there are alive old.

Having established the States, Peter thought about the impregnation of the clergy, dependent in everything from the parishioners. The white clergy lived in that he brought him a correction of demand, and with general poverty, and even with a certain decrease in adherence to the church undoubtedly in those times, these revenues were very small, and the white clergy of Petrovsky times was very distressed.

Reducing the quantitatively white clergy, forbidding and finding access to it with new forces on the part, Peter, as it were, closed the spiritual estate in him. Specifically, the caste features, characterized by the obligatory inheritance of the son of the Father's son, acquired in the life of the clergy. According to the death of his father who served as a priest, the eldest son came to his place, who was at Dyakon's father, and the next brother, who served as a deacon was determined in his place. The Dyachkovskaya Place occupied the third brother, formerly Ponomart. If you lacked on all the places of the brothers, the vacant place was replaced by the Senior Brother's son or only he was credited, if he did not grieve. This new estate was posed by Peter to the pastoral spiritual educational activities According to the law of Christian, however, not on all the will of understanding of the law shepherds as they want, but only as prescribes to understand his state power.

And the clergy in this sense was assigned by Peter grave responsibilities. With him, the priest not only had to be able to sall and exalt all the reforms, but also help the government in the cheek and the courtesy of those who had the activities of the king and were hostile to her. If the confession was revealed that the professionally committed a state crime, involved in the rebellion and mistakes on the life of the sovereign and his family, then the priest was under the fear of concern to convey about such a confession and his confession to secular authorities. The clergy further was entrusted with the obligation to search for and with the help of the secular authorities to pursue and catch the splitters disconnected from paying double filters. In all such cases, the priest began to act as the jurisdiction of the secular power of the official: it operates in such cases as one of the state police officers together with fiscal, detectives and worsers of the Preobrazhensky order and the secret office. The priest's denunciations attracts the court and sometimes a cruel violence. In this new ordinary responsibility of the priest, the spiritual nature of his pastoral activity was shamed, and a more or less cold and strong wall of mutual alienation was created between him and parishioners, increasing the distrust of the paste to the shepherd. "As a result, the clergy, "N. I. Kedrov says, - closed in his exceptional medium, in the heredity of his title, not refreshing with the influx of fresh strength of the thoroughly, gradually it should have dropped not only his moral influence on society, but also began to squeeze the mental and moral forces, cool, so to speak, to the movement of public life and her interests ". Not supported by a society that does not feed on a sympathy for him, the clergy during the 18th century is produced into the obedient and unquestioning weapon of secular power.

Position of the black clergy

Peter clearly did not like monks. It was the trait of his character, which was probably under the strong influence of early childhood impressions. "Scary scene, - Say Y.F. Samarin, - they met Peter at the cradle and worried all his life. He saw the bloody Berdysshi of the Archers, who called themselves defenders of Orthodoxy, and got used to mixed piousness with fanaticism and fawn. In the crowd of renovshchikov on the Red Square, he was black rows, reached him strange, incendiary sermons, and he was performed by the hostile feeling for monasticism. ". Many suitable letters sent from monasteries, "inductive notebooks" and "Pishanitsa", who called Peter Antichrist, were distributed to the people on the squares, secret and admission, monks. The Tsaritsa Evdokia case, Tsarevich Alexey, could only strengthen his negative attitude towards the monastery, showing how his hostile state order is hidden behind the walls of the monasteries.

Under the impression of all this, Peter, in general, in all of his soulful, far from requests of idealistic contemplation and put into the appointment of life to a person, continuous practical activity, began to see in monks only different "Rabones, heresy and superstition". The monastery, in the eyes of Peter, is completely superfluous, an unnecessary institution, and since it is still a hearth of sink and riots, then he, in his opinion, and a harmful institution that will not be better to completely destroy? But Peter was not enough for such a measure. He began very early, however, to take care of the most stringent restrictive measures to steal monasteries, reduce their number, prevent the emergence of new ones. Any decree it relating to monasteries breathe the desire to prick monks, show themselves and all the uselessness, all the unnecessaryness of monastic lives. Back in the 1690s, Peter categorically banned the construction of new monasteries, and in 1701 ordered to rewrite all existing ones to establish the states of the monasteries. And all the further legislation of Peter relative to the monasteries is steadily sent to three goals: to reduce the number of monasteries, to establish heavy conditions for adoption in monasticism and to give the monasteries practical purpose, to extract some practical benefit from their existence. For the sake of the last Peter, he clone to turn monasteries in the factory, schools, climbing, wheelchairs, that is, "useful" government agencies.

The spiritual regulation confirmed all these orders and especially collapsed on the foundation of the heads and the desertism, which is not made for the reasons for sincere salvation, but "free to the sake of Zhitіya to be removed from any power and supervises and in order to bring money to a newly built Skit." The rule was placed in the regulations: "None in the Clay letters, such as discharge from books, so not to write to anyone, and on the spiritual and civilian regulation ink and paper, do not keep anything for the monkhascago, like a skiastone and Push letters ... ".

Further measures, the monks were ordered to live in the monasteries inexitiously, all sorts of long-term outcomes were prohibited, the monk and the nun could go beyond the walls of the monastery only for two hours, for three, and even then with a written resolution from the abbot, where his signature and printing was registered . At the end of January 1724, Peter published a decree on the rank of monastic, about determining the retired soldiers in the monasteries and about the establishment of a seminary, hospitals. This decree, finally deciding than to be monasteries, as usual, told, why and why a new measure is being made: monasticism has been maintained only for the sake of the "pleasure of those who are the direct conscience of it," and for the bishop, because, according to custom, bishops can only be From the monks. However, after a year, Peter did not become, and this decree did not have time to enter life with all the fullness.

Spiritual School

The spiritual regulation in the two sections of the "Bishops" and "houses of the schools and in them teachers, and students, and preachers" made an indication of the establishment of special spiritual schools (bishops) to prepare priests whose level of education by this time was extremely unsatisfactory.

In the sections of the "Bishops' business" it is reported that "Velmi to the correction of the church is useful to eat this, so that every bishop had in the house, or at the House of His school for children of priesthood, or other, in the hope of priesthood defined."

Introduced the obligation of training for the sons of clergy and trials; Utraught to be excluded from the spiritual estate. According to the Regulations, the diocesal spiritual schools were to be held on the means of bishops and income from the monastery lands.

In pursuance of the project set forth in the Regulations, the spiritual seminar type schools were gradually created in different cities of Russia. In St. Petersburg in 1721, two schools were open at once: one - in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Archbishop Feodosius (Yanovsky), the other - on the Karpovka River by Archbishop Fauofan (Prokopovich). In the same year, a seminary opened in Nizhny Novgorod, in 1722 - in Kharkov and Tver, in 1723 - in Kazan, Vyatka, Kholmogov, Kolomna, in 1724 - in Ryazan and Vologda, in 1725 - in Pskov.

Boys were accepted in the school who had already received primary education at home or in cyphine schools. The course of study, according to the rules developed by Feofan (Prokopovich), was divided into eight classes, with teaching in the first grade of Latin grammar, geography and history, in the second - arithmetic and geometry, in the third - logic with dialectics, in the fourth - rhetoric and pigeratics, in Fifth - physics and metaphysics, in the sixth - politicians, in the seventh and eighth - theology. Languages \u200b\u200b- Latin, Greek, Jewish, Church Slavonic - were to be studied in all classes, but in reality one Latin was taught, which was also a language of teaching: even the sacred writing was studied by Vulgate.

Reform of public administration

The creation of the near office (or the conservima of ministers) in 1699 was transformed in 1711 to the Government Senate. Creation of 12 colleges with a certain scope of activity and powers.

The government system has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies have become regulated, the collegium had a clearly defined area of \u200b\u200bactivity. Control bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

1708-1715. and 1719-1720.

At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia for 8 provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelogodskaya, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were managed by the governors who made the troops located in the province, as well as with all the completeness of the administrative and judiciary. At the second stage of the reform of the province were divided into 50 provinces managed by voivods, and they were divided into distributs led by the Zemskiy Commissioners. Governors were deprived of administrative power and solved judicial and military issues.

There was centralization of power. Local governments almost completely lost their influence.

Judicial reform

1697, 1719, 1722

Peter 1 new judicial authorities were formed: Senate, Justice-College, Hoffgericht, Lower Courts. The judicial functions also performed all colleagues except foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of culisants (analogue of the jury) was canceled, the principle of inviolability of the false person is lost.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activity (the emperor, governors, governors, etc.) contributed to the proceedings of Supbar and confusion, the introduction of the ability to "knock out" the testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and blesses. At the same time, the competence of the process was established and the need for the sentence was based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the disassembled case.

Military reforms

Introduction of the recruitment service, the creation of the Navy, the establishment of the military collegium that made all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "table of ranks" of military ranks, uniforms for all Russia. Creating military industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military charters.

Peter 1 created with its reforms, created a formidable regular army, which appeared by 1725 to 212 thousand people and a strong naval fleet. Divisions were created in the army: shelves, brigades and divisions, on the fleet - squadron. A variety of military victories was obsessed. These reforms (although ambiguously estimated by different historians) created a bridgehead for the further success of Russian weapons.

Church reform

1700-1701; 1721

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the Patriarchate Institute was actually eliminated. In 1701, the management of church monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the monastery order, which controlled church income and trial over monastic peasants. In 1721, a spiritual regulation was adopted, actually deprived the church of independence. His Holiness Synod, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, who were appointed to be replaced by the Patriarchant. Church property was often told and spent on the needs of the emperor.

Church reforms of Peter 1 led to almost complete subordination of the clergy of secular power. In addition to eliminating the patriarchate, many bishops and simple priests were persecuted. The church could no longer conduct an independent spiritual policy and partly lost credibility in society.

Financial reforms

Almost all the reign of Peter 1

Introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salts and other goods. Damage (weight reduction) coins. Speaker mill Regional reform

In 1708-1715, regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of the authorities in the field and the best provision of the army with supply and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces led by governors entrusted with the fullness of judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhanghelogo and Siberian. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the revenue to the treasury, the Kazan province was followed.

The governors also made the arms located in the territory of the provincial. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - the shares that united 5536 yards. The first regional reform did not solve the tasks set, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their content.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, eliminating the shares. The provinces began to share for 50 provinces led by the governors, and the provinces for distributes led by the Zemski Commissioners appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and court cases remained under the management of the governor.

Judicial reform

In Peter, the judicial system was subjected to radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court received the Senate and Justice College. Below they were: provinces - Hofgerichti or superior appellate courts in major cities, and provincial collegial lower courts. The provincial courts led civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for monastic, as well as citizens not included in Posad. The court cases of citizens included in Posad, from 1721 led the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called sole court acted (cases solely solved Zemskaya or a city judge). However, in 1722, the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a governor

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration, aimed at eliminating autonomous from the state of church jurisdiction and the subordination of the Russian church hierarchy to the emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I instead of the convening of the Cathedral for the election of the new Patriarch temporarily put at the head of the clergy of the Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, who received a new title of the Patriarchal Patriarchals Through or Exarch to manage the property of patriarchal and bishops, as well as monasteries, Including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the monastery order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to lead the court over the monastery peasants and control the income from the church-monastic land tenments. In 1701, a series of decrees was published to reform the management of church monastic possessions and the device of monastic life; The most important were decrees on January 24 and 31, 1701

In 1721, Peter approved the spiritual regulations, the compilation of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, an approximate king of Malorosce Faofhan Prokopovich. As a result, the indigenous reform of the church occurred, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely submitted to his state. In Russia, the Patriarchate was abolished and the spiritual board was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized as the eastern patriarchs of the self-pointed Patriarch. All members of Synod were prescribed by the emperor and brought him a loyal oath upon joining the position. War time stimulated the seizure of values \u200b\u200bfrom monastic storage. Peter did not go to the full secularization of church monastic possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign

Army and Fleet reforms

The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of the regiments of a new system reformed by a foreign sample was launched long before Peter I, even with Alexei I. However, the combat capability of this army was low the reform of the army and the creation of the fleet became the necessary conditions of victory in the Northern War 1700-1721 years

The era of Peter the Great in the life of the Russian Church is full of historical content. First, it was obvious and adopted new forms as the attitude of the church to the state and the church management. Secondly, the inner church life was noted by the struggle of theological views (for example, a dispute acquaintance of us about the liberation between the Velibor and Malorussian clergy and other disagreements). Thirdly, the literary activities of representatives of the Church revived. In my presentation we will touch only the first of these items, because the second has a special church-historical interest, and the third is considered in the history of literature.

Consider at first the measures of Peter I, which were established by the relations of the Church to the state and the general procedure of the church management; Then we turn to private measures regarding church affairs and clergy.

The attitude of the church to the state to Peter I in the Moscow state was not accurately determined, although at the church cathedral of 1666-1667. Greeks were fundamentally recognized as the main power of secular power and denied the right of hierarchs to interfere in secular affairs. The Moscow Sovereign was considered the Supreme Patron of the Church and took an active part in church affairs. But the church authorities were called for participation in the state administration and influenced it. The struggle of the church and secular authorities, familiar West, Rus did not know (there was no, strictly speaking, and in Nikon). The huge moral authority of Moscow patriarchs did not seek to replace the authority of state power, and if he was heard from the Russian hierarch, the voice of a protest (for example, Metropolitan Philip against Ivan IV), he did not go with the moral soil.

Peter I grew not under such a strong influence of theological science and not in such a pious atmosphere, as his brothers and sisters grew. From the very first steps of his conscious life, he agreed with "Heretics by the Germans" and, although he remained Orthodox in convictions by a person, but he was freer for many rises than ordinary Moscow people, and seemed infected with "heresy" in the eyes of old-fashioned jealousness of piety. It is safe to say that Peter from his mother and from the conservative Patriarch of Joachim (mind 1690) has repeatedly met condemnation for his habits and acquaintance with heretics. Under Patriarch Adriana (1690-1700), weak and loose man, Peter met no more sympathy with his innovations, followed by John and Adrian forbade Brazing, and Peter thought to make it mandatory. At the first decisive innovations of Peter, all the protesters against them, seeing heresy in them, were looking for a moral support in the authority of the church and indignged to Adriana, who was unwell silent, in their opinion, when he should be for the wrong behavior. Adrian really did not interfere with Peter and was silent, but he did not sympathize with reforms, and his silence, in essence, was a passive form of the opposition. Minor in itself, the Patriarch became uncomfortable for Peter, as the center and the uniting principle of all protests, as a natural representative of not only church, but also public conservatism. The patriarch, strong willow and spirit, could be a powerful opponent of Peter I, if it became on the side of the conservative Moscow worldview, condemned the entire social life on immobility.

Understanding this danger, Peter, after the death of Adrian, was in no hurry with the election of a new patriarch, and the Ryazan Metropolitan Stephen Javorsky, a scholar of Malorus, appointed the "location of the Patriarchy Patriarch". The management of the patriarchal economy passed into the hands of specially appointed secular faces. There is no need to assume how some do that, that's right after the death of Adrian Peter decided to abolish the patriarch. Rather, think that Peter simply did not know what to do with the election of the Patriarch. Peter treated the Great Russian clergy with some distrust, because it was convinced many times how it does not sympathize with reforms. Even the best representatives of the ancient Russian hierarchy, who managed to understand the entire nationality of Peter I's foreign policy and helped him as they could (Mitrofan Voronezh, Tikhon Kazan, Job Novgorodsky), and those were against the cultural innovations of Peter. Choose the patriarch from the medium of Velikors for Peter meant to risk creating a terrible opponent. Malorussian clergy held herself differently: it itself was influenced by Western culture and science and sympathized with the innovations of Peter I. But to put Malorus Patriarch was impossible because during the Patriarch of Joachim, the Malorusky theologians were compromised in the eyes of Moscow society, as people with Latin delusions; For this, even the persecution was erected on them. The construction of Maloros to the patriarchal throne would be therefore to the general temptation. In such circumstances, Peter I decided to stay without the Patriarch.

There is temporary such order of church management: at the head of the church administration, Stefan Yavorsky and a special institution, a monastery order, with secular persons at the chapter; Supreme authority in the affairs of religion recognized the Council of Hierarchs; Peter himself, as well as the previous state trucks, was the patron saint of the Church and took a living participation in its management. This participation of Peter led to the fact that in church life important role Began to play the bishops of Maloros, before those who are striking. Despite the protests and in Russia, and at the Orthodox East, Peter constantly advanced the Bishops' departments of Malorussian scientists of monks. Velikoruskoye, poorly educated and hostile reform, the clergy could not be an assistant to Peter I, while Malororsia, who had a wider mental horizon and grew up in the country, where Orthodoxy had forced to the active struggle with Catholicism, brought up the best understanding of the tasks of the clergy and the habit of wide activity. In his dioceses, they did not sit back, but turned in Orthodoxy foreigners, acted against the split, started schools, cared for the life and morality of the clergy, found time and for literary activities. It is clear that they more met the desires of the converter, and Peter I appreciated them more than those spiritual persons from Velikors, whose narrow views often became on the road. You can cite a long number of Names of Maloros-bishops who have won prominent places in the Russian hierarchy. But especially remarkable from them: Amented above Stephen Yavorsky, St. Dmitry, Metropolitan Rostovsky and, finally, under Peter - Bishop Pskovsky, subsequently Archbishop Novgorod. It was a very capable, alive and energetic person, prone to practical activity much more than an abstract science, but quite educated and studied theological science not only in the Kiev Academy, but also in the Catholic colleges of Lviv, Krakow and even Rome. The scholastic theology of Catholic schools did not affect the living mind of Feofan, on the contrary, - settled in it dislike for scholasticism and Catholicism. Without receiving satisfaction in the Orthodox theological science, then poorly developed, Feofan from Catholic doctrines turned to the study of Protestant theology and, fond of them, learned some Protestant views, although he was an Orthodox monk. This inclination to the Protestant worldview, on the one hand, was reflected in the theological treatises of Feofan, and on the other hand, helped him get close to Peter I in views on reform. The king, which erected at Protestant culture, and a monk, who ended his education at the Protestantology, perfectly understood each other. Recommending the Feofan for the first time in Kiev in 1706, Peter in 1716 summoned him to Petersburg, made it his right hand in the case of church governance and defended him from all the attacks by other clergy, who had noticed the Protestant Spirit in Petra. Feofan, in his famous sermons, was an interpreter and apologue of Peter's reforms, and in his practical activity was a sincere and helper capable.

Fefan and belongs to the development and, maybe even the most thought of the new plane of the church management, which was stopped by Peter I. For more than twenty years (1700-1721), temporary confusion continued, in which the Russian church was governed without a patriarch. Finally, on February 14, 1721, the discovery of the "Holy Governing Synod" was made. This spiritual board forever replaced the patriarchant power. In the leadership, she was given a spiritual regulation compiled by Feofan and edited by Peter I. In the regulations, frankly indicated the imperfection of the sole department of the Patriarch and political inconveniences arising from exaggeration of the authority of the patriarchal power in state affairs. The collegial form of church management was recommended as the best in all respects. The composition of the Synod according to the regulations is determined as follows: the president, two vice-presidents, four advisors and four assessors (their representatives of the black and white clergy were among them). Note that the composition of the Synod was similar to the composition of the secular colleges. The persons held at the Synod were the same as during the colleges; The representative of the sovereign person in the Synod was the Ober-Prosecutor, with the Synod there was a whole department of fiscals, or inquisitors. The external organization of the Synod was, the word taken with total type College organization.

Speaking about the situation of the Synod in the state, it should be strictly distinguished by its role in the church of the Church from the role in the general system of government. The value of the synod in church life clearly determines the spiritual regulation, according to the expression of which the Synod has "power and power of the Patriarchant". All areas of keeping and all of the fullness of the Patriarch's church authorities are inherent in the Synod. He was transferred to the diocese of the Patriarch, who was under his personal control. This diocese Synod managed through a special collegium, called the dicaster, or consistory. (According to the sample of this consistory, consistory and in the dioceses of all bishops were gradually arranged). So, in church affairs, the synod completely replaced the patriarch.

But in the field of public administration, the Synod did not quite inherit the patriarcial authority. The meaning of the synod in the total composition of the administration under Peter we have a variety of opinions. Some believe that "the Synod in everything was compared with the Senate and along with him directly subordinate to the sovereign" (such an opinion is held, for example, P. Znamensky in his "leadership to Russian church history"). Others think that under Peter, in practice, the state value of the Synod was lower than the value of the Senate. Although the synod also strives to become independent of the Senate, however, the latter, considering the synod as an ordinary collegium on spiritual affairs, considered him a subordinate. Such a view of the Senate was justified by the general thought of the transducer based on church reform: with the establishment of the Synod, the church was dependent on the sovereign, as before, and from the state, the management of it was introduced into the general administrative procedure and the Senate, who managed the church affairs to the Synod Affairs Could consider himself above the spiritual board as the Supreme Administrative Body in the state (such a look was expressed in one of the articles by prof. Vladimir-Budanova). It is difficult to decide which opinion is fair. It is clear that political importance Synod never rose so highly as the prestige of Patriarchs (about the beginning of the Synod, see P. V. Verkhovsky "Establishment of the Spiritual Collegium and Spiritual Regulations", two volumes. 1916; also G. S. Runkevich "Institution and initial device of St. Ave. Synod ", 1900).

So the establishment of Synod Peter I came out of that difficulty in which stood for many years. His church-administrative reform preserved authoritative power in the Russian church, but deprived this power of that political influence, which patriarchs could act with. The question of the attitude of the church and the state was resolved in favor of the latter, and the eastern hierarchs recognized a completely legitimate change of Patriarch Synod. But the same Eastern Greek hierarchs at Queen Aleksa have already decided in principle the same question and in the same direction. Therefore, the church transformations of Peter, being a sharp novelty in their form, were built on the old principle, taking Peter Moscow Rus. And here, as in other reforms of Peter I, we meet with the continuity of historical traditions.

As for private events for church and faith in the era of Peter I, we can only briefly mention the main of them, it is: about the church court and land tenure, about the clergy of black and white, about the attitude to the injectors and split.

Church jurisdiction was very limited at Peter: the mass of the church courts went to the courts of secular (even court of crimes against faith and the church could not be committed without the participation of secular power). For the trial of church people, on the claims of secular persons, he was restored in 1701 (closed in 1677) Monastic order with secular vessels. In such a restriction of the judicial function of the clergy, you can see close relationship with the activities of 1649, in which the same trend affected.

The same close connection with the ancient Russia can be seen in the measures of Peter I relative to immunity church estates. Land defense of the clergy under Peter first was subjected to strict control of state power, and subsequently they were withdrawn from the economic conduct of the clergy. The management of them was transferred to the monastic order; They appealed to the state property, part of the income from which was on the maintenance of monasteries and Vladyk. So tried Peter to resolve the age-old question about the land ownership of the clergy in Russia. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. The right of monasteries to own the questions denied part of the monastery itself (Nile Social); By the end of the XVI century. The government drew attention to the rapid alienation of the land from the hands of serviced people in the hands of the clergy and sought if not at all stop, then limit it alienation. In the XVII century Zemskiy jobs persistently pointed to the harm of such an alienation for the state and noble class; The state lost land and duty with them; The nobles became landless. In 1649, it was finally the law forbidding the clergy for the clergy for the clergy. But the imposition has not yet decided to return to the state those land owned by the clergy.

Taking care of lifting morality and welfare in the clergy environment, Peter with special attention Relevant to the everyday life of the white clergy, poor and low-educated, "unmarried arable men," according to the expression of the contemporary. Near the Petr decrees tried to clear the clergy environment by the fact that forcibly distractedly distinguished his members to other estates and classes and pursued his bad elements (stray clergy). At the same time, Peter tried better to ensure parish clergy with a decrease in its number and an increase in the area of \u200b\u200bparishes. The morality of the clergy he thought to raise the formation and strict control. However, all these measures did not give big results.

Peter I was treated not only with less concern, but even with some hostility. She proceeded from the conviction of Peter that the monks were one of the reasons for popular discontent with reform and stood in opposition. A man with a practical direction, Peter poorly understood the meaning of modern monasses and thought that the majority had a majority "from the serves and from the tanniff to eat the gift." Without working, the monks, according to Peter, "eat other people's works" and in the inaction, the heresy and superstitions are fruit and do not engage in their business: they excite the people against innovations. With such a look, Peter I understand the desire to reduce the number of monasteries and monks, to a strict supervision of them and restrict their rights and benefits. The monasteries were taken away by their land, their income, and the number of monks was limited to the States; Not only vagrancy, but also the transition from one monastery to another was banned, the personality of each monk was put under strict control of the rebels: classes in the cells writing a letter, the communication of the monks with the laity is difficult. At the end of the reign, Peter I suggested his opinion on the social importance of the monasteries in the announcement of the monasticism (1724). Therefore, monasteries should have the appointment of charity (in monasteries were placed on the wagonism, sick, disabled and wounded), and in addition, monasteries were to serve to cook people to higher spiritual positions and for the shelter to people who are inclined to the pious contemplation . With all its activities regarding Monasteries Peter I, and sought to put them in line with these goals.

In the era of Peter I, the attitude of the government and the Church to the Inoverts became softer than in the XVII century. We used tolerance to Western Europeans, but at Peter to Protestants favor more than to Catholics. Peter's ratio to the latter was determined not by alone religious motives, but also political: Peter I responded to the oppression of Orthodox in Poland I repulsed the threats to erect the persecution of Catholics. But in 1721, the Synod issued an important decree on the assumption of Orthodox marriages with non-erect - and with Protestants and Catholics the same.

Political motifs were granted partly Peter and in relation to the Russian split. While he saw an exceptionally religious sect in the split, he treated him rather gently, not the touch of rings (albeit from 1714 and told you to take a double stop salary from them). But when he saw that the religious conservatism of Raskolnikov leads to conservatism to civilians and that the splitters are sharp opponents of his civil activity, then Peter changed their attitude to the split. In the second half of the reign of Peter I, the repression was accounted for next to violence: Raskolnikov pursued as civil opponents of the dominant church; At the end of the reign and religious tolerance, it seemed to be reduced, and the restriction of civil rights of all, without exception, decisions, mixed and not involved in political affairs. In 1722, the splitters was given even a certain outfit, in whose features it was visible as if mocked over the split.

In 1689, Peter ι the Great was approved on the Russian throne, having received the opportunity to make independent decisions, and not just to literate the king (from 1682). It was remembered as a controversial and imperative man who, who has been contradictory and domineering, which has shown global transformations in the country. About these historical reforms will be discussed in our article.

Conditions for change

Having gained true power, the king immediately began to manage the country. The main reasons for this are several:

he got a state, quite a much lagging in development from European powers;
he understood that such large and poorly mastered territories need constant protection, establishing new economic and political ties.

To adequately keep the army, you need to raise the standard of living of the whole country, change the foundations and strengthen power. This was the main purpose and tasks of Peter's first reforms.

Not everyone liked the innovations. Some layers of the population tried to resist the reforms of Peter the Great. The boyars and the highest clergy lost a special status, and a small group of nobles and merchants was afraid to retreat from old customs. But, due to the lack of sufficient support, they could not stop the changes, only slowed down the process.

Fig. 1. The first Russian emperor Peter the Great.

The essence of transformations

State reforms in Russia times Peter ι can be divided into two stages:

Consequences of reforms

It would be misunderstanding the meaning of the reorganizations spent by Peter ι. They contributed to the comprehensive development of the Russian state, which made it possible to make it in 1721 by the empire. But do not forget that not all the results turned out to be positive. Transformations led to the results:

Strengthening power with the help of a new state office (the strengthening of autocracy);
Construction of the fleet, improving the army, getting out access to the Baltic Sea (25 years of military service);
Development of the domestic industry (use of free wages to serfs);
Improving the conditions for the development of science, education (practically no simple people);
The spread of European culture (oppression of national traditions);
Salary of the noble title for service merit (additional responsibilities for all segments of the population);
Introduction of new taxes.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Russia before Peter's first reforms

1 Natural and geographical conditions

2 Factors contributing to reforms

Chapter 2. The era of Peter the first and maintenance of Petrovsky reforms

1 reform of Peter the first

Chapter 3. Results and Essence of Petrovsky Transformations

1 Evaluation of the Essence of Petrovsky Reforms

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

peter First Reform

Peter's first activities, as policies and commander, as well as his contribution to Russia's development are questions that are interested in and are engaged in historians not only our state, and many other countries.

But in assessing the activities of Peter's opinions, historians were divided. Part of historians, his adherents, talk about the great achievements and influences of Peter in many areas of life, which in turn led to the rise of Russia, as a great and mighty power, which the whole world spoke after Peter. It was a kind of phenomenon, because in such a short period of time Peter first with the help of his diplomatic qualities, as well as the qualities of a good statesman and commander, was able to bring Russia from destruction into a dynamically developing state. But at the same time, historians are missing for another plan and some negative aspects of Peter's first and its activities. The other part of historians, on the contrary, trying to defame the name of Peter, pointing to what ways and methods he achieved such success in his political and military activity.

Studying the era of the board of Peter the first, we trace the development process and the formation of Russia, which moved from the barbaric kingdom to the mighty and great empire.

For this course project such tasks were delivered:

· Studying the preliminary conditions and the causes of the need for Peter first reforms.

· We analyze the main content and meaning of reforms.

· Recove the results of the influence of Peter's first reforms on the development of the state.

This course work Consists of such sections:

· Introduction;

· Three chapters;

· Conclusions

Chapter 1. Russia before Peter's first reforms

.1 natural and geographical conditions

It is often believed that with the coming to power of Peter the first, a new era began in Russia.

What was Russia at the end of the 17th century? It was a huge territory that was not similar to the countries of the West. Russia immediately rushed into the eyes of foreigners who visited it. It often seemed to them that it was a backward, wild and nomadic country. Although in fact, the backwardness of Russia's development was their reasons. The intervention and destruction of the early 18th century left a deep mark in the state economy.

But not only the war that ruined the land led to the crisis of Russia, and also its social status of the population of the time, as well as natural and geographical conditions.

According to S.M. Solovyov, "Three conditions have a special impact on the life of the people: the nature of the country where he lives; The nature of the tribe to which it belongs; The course of external events, the influences coming from the peoples that surround it. "[№1, p.28]

In assessing how the conditions of nature affect the development of states. Solovyov made such a conclusion that nature is favorable to Western countries, but the conditions of Russia are more severe. Western Europe was divided by mountains that served for her natural fortresses and in some plane, defended their enemies from external attacks. On the other side, the sea, which served through the development of foreign trade in various activities. In Russia, everything was different. She did not have natural protection and was opened to attack the invaders.

At these open areas lived very a large number of The population, which to feed themselves should always work and periodically look for new fruitful lands, as well as more prosperous among habitats. In the process of relocation to land, which was empty, and the state of Russia was formed.

Solovyov was confident that it was precisely the natural-geographical condition that had such a negative impact. Russia, according to him, "was a state that was constantly a heavy struggle with neighbors, the struggle is not an offensive, but defensive, and not material well-being was defended, but the independence of the country, freedom of residents" [№2, p.29]. During the war with Mongol-Tatars, the Slavic people, including the Russians, performed a protective shield for Western European countries. Therefore, Russia had to always replenish their troops to be able to give proper repulsion to the invaders and reliably protect their borders.

But the state of that time could not afford to support a large army, since during this period in Russia trade and industry was poorly developed. Therefore, people who served in the troops were distributed to the lands that were their estates. On the one hand, the person has gained his own land for its use, but on the other hand, that as it would be to develop it, the Earth has to be processed. "The state," Solovyov wrote, "the land who served a serve, was obliged to give him permanent workers, otherwise he could not serve" [№3, p.32]. Therefore, at that time, it comes out the prohibition of peasants to leave their land, because they were obliged to handle it to be able to feed the owner with his military servants.

That is what served as the basis for the origin of serfdom in Russia. But besides the peasants, the urban population worked on the content of the army. They were obliged to pay very large taxes in the state treasury on the content of the troops.

That is, all the layers of the state turned into his servants, which contributed to an even more severe destroying system, which in turn braked as economic situationand development in spirituality. Since on numerous economic land, which constantly expanded, a very small number of population worked hard. It did not create any interest in the development of employment, and on the contrary, agriculture developed by exhaustion natural Forcesrather than playback. The minimum amount of costs left agriculture. Because almost the entire treasury of the state went to ensure the needs and development of the army. All this led to the fact that strong state In terms of defense, there has not had a practically no material base.

In addition to difficulties in the middle of the state, historians pay attention to a number of external obstacles that thormented the development of Russia. This is that there was no direct access to the sea in Russia, which meant that she could not use a cheaper way of communications with other countries. Sea such as the Baltic and Black, at that time belonged to other states, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire, respectively. The seas that were washed with the northern part and the East could not be used in all power, the reason for this was the fact that the regions adjacent to the seas were practically not mastered and poorly developed.

The White Sea, too, as the junction path with Western European countries, was practically not used. First, most of the water are closed with under ice in the year, and the second journey from Arkhangelsk to the Western European countries was longer, twice as before Baltic.

Russia through Astrakhan had a connection only with Iran and Central Asia, although these countries could have a little affecting its development, because he had lagged behind it.

1.2 Factors contributing to reforms

The state of Russia urgently needed change. It was connected with a number of different factors.

Under the threat was the national sovereignty, the reason for this was the lag of the Russian state in all sectors of the economic, political life States, which, in turn, led even to military lag.

The class of feudalists, who was at the military and court service, later became the support of power of that time, not for any parameters did not comply with the requirements of the country's social development. This estate lagged both in socio-political and in cultural development, sometimes they even could not clearly realize their rights and duties, as a serviceable estate and, in principle, remained just a patriarchal social community.

In the 17th century, Russia needed an urgent change of its position. It was necessary to strengthen the position of power, which was undermined by the rebellious nature of the population of the time and social instability of this time. Russia also needed the improvement of the state apparatus and the army itself. To raise the standard of living and culture at least, it was necessary to have access to the seas that could give a more advantageous economic situation, and this in turn demanded timely mobilization of both resources and the human factor.

The spiritual sphere of life of Russians also needed a transformation. The spirituality of that time was strongly influenced by the clergy, which in the 17th century suffered a crisis associated with the split from the Church. Russia urgently needed to return to the subsoil of the civilization of Europe, and also needed to create, and further strengthen the rationalist concept that would be for the change of religion.

Changes and transformation is impossible, it was essentially avoided, because everything that happened during the 17th century led directly to this. In the country, the intensive development of the crafts is beginning, the first enterprises appear, which was called manuffs, this in turn contributed to the development of foreign trade, the border, which was constantly expanded. In the 17th century, the policy of protectionism is beginning to develop, which limited imports, and this most defended the domestic market from foreign competition. This all testified that small steps, but the economy began to move forward. Starting from the late 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, the state tried to erase the conventions between the lean land tenure and behavior. At this time, several decrees came out, according to which I was approaching the estate. What gave the right to the state to expand the rights to confiscation of land and not allow it to concentrate in the hands of the feudalists or clergy.

In 1682, the state abolished the system of distribution of official places to public post, namely, military, administrative or court service, depending on origin. The number of people who took the service increased by strengthening serfdom.

In the political system, the country was an absolute monarchy and continued to develop in this direction. At this time, the Left-Bank Ukraine was joined to Russia, and the state could enter the sacred league, this most was overcome diplomatic barriers. Changes in culture began with the transformation of the church. The clergymen began to involve worldwide issues to solve everyday issues. Also changed to be the upper layers of the state, which approached the European.

After analyzing all the facts, it is safe to say that the country was completely ready to change in all its spheres of life. But in order for this happened, I needed a push, some kind of impulse. This impetus was to be a personality that would stand at the very beginning of power. And this is such a person and Petr first became. Its activity, both state and military, influenced such a factor as his character traits and its worldview.

Chapter 2. Peter I Epoch and the content of Petrovsky reforms

Peter the first instantly joined the rule of strange, the expansion of its borders and the development of the country as a whole. In Peter, the struggle for possessions by the seas was resumed, namely black. Which opened new opportunities for the state. And Peter realized it well. Therefore, in 1695 announced a collection of troops for a trip to crimean Tatars. But this was done in order to hide the present objectives, which were to organize a campaign to Azov. Peter took over all the failures of foreseen companies and organized an army that will move in two directions. It was the first campaign on Azov. Autumn bad weather, as well as the absence of a fleet forced commanders to declare a retreat.

In preparation for a new campaign, the major efforts were focused on the construction of a fleet, which would allow could cut off the Azov Fortress from the sea, and this is the most deprining the reinforcement Turks. It was decided to build a vessel of two types: Sea galleys and river stops. The second Azov campaign began in May 1696 and on June 19, 1696, the Turks surrendered. The conquest of the Azov Fortress has become an impetus at the beginning of the formation of Russia as a marine power.

The beginning was done, now it was necessary to get access to the Black Sea. And to consolidate the successful operation and for the implementation of new plans, Peter had to create a large and powerful sea fleet. For this, a decision was made to organize the construction of this fleet, in addition, Peter First sent a notable youth to the training of marine sciences abroad, followed by their use of their Russian fleet.

At the same time, diplomats were sent abroad to participate in the negotiations to find allies among European countries and organize the Union with them. The purpose of this Union was to jointly against Turkey, as well as to join material support for further hostilities. Peter himself personally entered the embassy, \u200b\u200bbut besides the goals of the negotiation, he also pursued the purpose of studying the sea.

After his return, Peter under the impressions of his trip, he actively joined the activities of the state. He began to change at the same time in all areas. In the first Pir, Peter first cut off the beard to several boyars and after that, he ordered everyone to shave. Further shave was replaced by tax. If the nobleman wanted to wear a beard, he had to pay a certain tax per year for it. In the future, innovations concerned and clothing when long boyar dresses changed short and all comfortable costumes. In the fashion of all nobles, the maximum approached the European. So initially, Peter divided the population into two groups: one is the "top" of the society, which was supposed to live, dress in Europe, the other - all the others, the life of which did not change, and they lived on the old way.

Peter first led the calendar, the new year began on January 1. On the eve of this, it was prescribed to decorate at home outside and congratulate each other with the onset of the new year.

In 1699, Peter First issues a decree on the formation of a facility in the city of Moscow, which will be called the Town Hall or the Burgomister Chamber. The duties of the Town Hall was to manage merchant affairs, as well as cases that concerned the city itself. This in turn caused some displeasure from the merchants, who were always afraid of ruin on the part of the courts and the governor of this department. An example of such a control was the ship chamber. She was created immediately after taking Azov and the purpose of this chamber is to collect taxes from merchants, for the construction of a fleet. Later on the example of the same commission, the Town Hall was and formulated, the burramusers were seen in it, they, in turn, were chosen by merchants and artisans. Taxes, which, by order of the Court, gathered officials, were transferred to the hands of elected people. In general, a new establishment, although it was elected and the goal was to manage merchants, but in fact this is the management of the interests of the trade and industrial class.

Also, the results of the trip of Peter the first abroad was that specialists of shipbuilding were invited to Russia and not only. Peter the first was able to purchase weapons, which also had a positive effect on the development of the army. By how much, the army although it was rather large, but armed was weak.

Innovation touched and the education of the population. Russia acutely needed qualified personnel. In Russia itself, at that time there were no such institutions, a lot of young men drove abroad to master the new sciences. A little later, his Novigatskaya school appeared in the Russian Empire, opened it in 1701, in the city of Moscow. In Amsterdam, a typography was opened, which printed books in Russian. At the same time, the first Russian Order of St. Apostle Andrei First Called was founded.

The reform began in the management of the state of Russia. In Peter, there was a transition to the new state form of government, such as the absolute monarchy. Power of Peter the first almost nobody was limited to anything. Peter was able to replace the boyars in the Senate, which controlled on top. Thus, he saved himself from the last boyars claims and deprived them of any political competition. From the same competition he got rid of the church, with the help of Synod.

At the same time, at the end of 1699, it was crime to reform in the military sphere. Much attention was paid to creating a regular and qualified army. 30 new regiments were formed. The army, as before, was gained mainly from the peasants. But if earlier they spent on their uniforms themselves, then for Peter, each recruit was given a green shape and weapons - guns with bayonets. Since experienced commanders at that time were a bit, they were replaced by foreign officers for some time.

Simultaneously with the beginning of reforms, Peter was preparing for war against Sweden. He was confident that her conquest was absolutely necessary, so that Russia normally developed further. This was facilitated by a prosperous situation of that time. European countries have created a coalition for returning their land, previously captured by the same Sweden. Russia, signing a peace treaty in 1700 with Turkey, for 30 years, also connected to war. So the Great Northern War began, which was delayed for 21 years.

From the very beginning, Russia and its allies suffered defeat. This was due to the fact that Sweden, although there was a small country, but the army and preparation for military action was at the highest level, compared with its rival strength. In addition, the King of Sweden at the time was the 18-year-old Karl XII, which showed unexpectedly for everyone to the war big Talander, as a commander with a very large energy potential. With a detachment, only 15 thousand people he opposed Denmark. As a result of this campaign, the Danish king signed a peace treaty in 1700, this most went out of war. Without losing time, Karl XII went to the Baltic States, namely to the Russian army. The privileges were on the side of Russians, their army consisted of 40 thousand people, but these forces were not provided with food and stretched in a huge territory. What facilitated the attack on them. On November 19, 1700, Karl Xii unexpectedly attacked the Russian army and won. Russia retreated, command turned out to be not ready for war.

Abroad was sincerely rejoiced by the defeats of the Russians, even a coin was poured, on which the running Russian soldier and the crying king was depicted. At first, Peter wanted to lead peace negotiations, but they were not successful. Showing all its energy and analyzing the cause of failures, Peter first begins to prepare for a new stage of war. A new recruit call has been declared, intensively began to pour guns and by early 1702 the Army of Russia, charged 10 regiments and 368 guns.

By choosing the right moment when Karl Xii, having considered that I completely defeated Russia, I went to Poland and for a long time there, Peter, a new stage of war began to collected the army. In December 1701, Russia won the first victory. As a result of hostilities, two fortresses were taken, such as Noteburg and Nienshanz

Peter at the head of the troops reached, finally, the Baltic Sea. On May 16, 1703, a wooden fortress, named Petropavlovskaya, began to build on the island. She was the basis of St. Petersburg. And in October, the first trading ship came in the mouth of the Neva. In the shipyards of St. Petersburg, the first ships of the Baltic Fleet were built.

Russian victories in the Baltic States continued. But the initiative passed on the side of the Swedes, when Poland surrendered and Russia remained without allies. And at that time, Sweden, after the conquest of Poland, has already taken Saxony and came to the borders of the Russian state. Peter stopped offensive actions and focused on the preservation of existing borders, their strengthening, also sought to expand and improve his army and military potential as a whole. To achieve the goals of Peter, Peter first had to spend a lot of effort and bring many victims, but ultimately the goals were achieved.

In 1708, Karl met with Russians near the town. Using the effect of surprises, as well as a dark time of day and rainy weather, the Swedes defeated the Russians and forced them to retreat. It was the last victory of Karl. Carla's troops carried losses because of hunger, the Russian population, learning that the Swedes were suitable, went to the forest, taking with them all the supplies and cattle. And Russian troops occupied all the important strategic objects. Carlo did not stay anything, how to turn south.

At this time, the Russians have already taken victory not by quantity, as usual, but already strategically prepared battles. The initiative passed on the side of Peter, but the nature of hostilities has changed dramatically. Russia refuses all previously acquired allies. For military purposes, Peter use the territory that the battle won. In 1710, Karelia, Liflandia, Estlandia were liberated from the Swedes, Vyborg, Revel, Riga fortresses.

The Poltava battle was decisive on the course of war, which took place on June 27, 1709. As a result of a fierce battle, the Russians won full victory. The Swedes fled so quickly that for three days reached the shores of the Dnieper. Karl went to Turkey. In the future, the war was already in Swedish possessions, which made the Swedish Empire.

But it was not the end of the war. Only in 1720, the Russian troops again attacked the Swedish coast, the Russian landing was deepened by 5 miles deep into Sweden. In the same year, the Russian fleet broke the Swedish squadron with the island of Greengam. After that, the Swedes agreed to peace negotiations. They took place in the city of Nishtand in Finland, where on August 30, 1721, an agreement on the eternal world was signed. A heavy and long war (1700 - 1721) was completed. As a result of this agreement, the Russian Empire remained ingria with St. Petersburg, all Estland and Liflaland. Phenlyland retired Sweden.

The Northern War has a positive effect on the position of Russia. She became one of the powerful states of Europe. Also as a result of the war, Russia was able to return his sea shores and this most received access to the sea. Russia has become the main sea power on the Baltic coast. As a result of the war, a strong, mighty, well-trained army, as well as a powerful Baltic fleet, was formed. On the shore of the Gulf of Finland, a new capital St. Petersburg was founded. All this contributed to the further development of the economic and cultural lift of the Russian Empire. As a result of the Northern War, other states saw Peter the first, as a great commander and diplomat, who fought for the interests of their powers.

But Nesteadt world did not serve to end military operation during the reign of Peter the first. Already next year, 1722, Peter began the war with Iran. The main reasons for this war were the first silk, which was exported from Iran in large quantities, secondly russian state Attracted Iranian oil. Having learned about the intentions of Peter, an uprising began in Iran, during which the Russian merchants were killed, but it was just that it served as a reason to start the war. In Iran, Peter did not meet special resistance and already in 1723 a peace treaty was signed with the Iranian government. Under this agreement, such cities such as Derbent, Baku and Astrabad passed to Russia.

All wars that were during the reign of Peter the First are connected with the fact that he constantly expanded and improved his army, as well as from the creation of one of the most powerful fleets at that time. Since the feather of the military, such a thing, as the Russian Navy was not. Peter personally commanded the construction of this fleet. Also to Peter and did not exist a specially trained army. Which began to come in even nobles, starting from 15 years. They served everything around. Everyone was to serve with their peasants, the number of which depended on the position of the nobleman. Also, the service came with its margin food, on their horses and with their uniforms. These troops were dissolved during the world and they were going only when preparing for new campaigns. In addition, the Streletsky infantry was created, the infantry included the free population. In addition to the execution of the main tasks, and the infantry carried a police and garrison service, they had the right to do both craft and trade.

2.1 Reforms Peter First

In 1716, a military charter comes out, which determines the order in the army, both in military and peacetime. The charter demanded to show commanders of independence and military resourcefulness during the war. Otto Pleir in 1710 wrote about the Russian army in 1710: "Regarding the military forces of Russia ... It is necessary to be very surprised, to which they are communicated, to what perfection they reached the soldiers in military exercises, in which they are the order and obedience to the orders of the authorities and how boldly behave in the case, I will not hear from anyone and the words, but the less screaming. "

The merit of Peter's first was the fact that he was the creator of diplomacy in Russia. In addition to the permanent warrior, there were still active diplomatic activities in the era of Peter. Permanent embassies were created, our consuls and ambassadors were sent for permanent residence abroad and as a result, Russia was always aware of the events that took place abroad. Russian diplomats were respected in many countries of the world, it was associated with their ability to negotiate and reasonably prove their point of view, which concerned foreign policy.

Politics of Peter the First touched also the development of industry. During the reign of Peter in Russia, about 200 factories and factories were created. The largest factories for the manufacture of cast iron, iron mills, copper, and still cloth, canvas, silk, paper, glass.

The largest enterprise of that time was a manufactory for the manufacture of sailing cloth. Here was the production of ropes on a special cable yard. "Hammnyard" served as a sailing cloth and navy ropes.

Another major industrial manufacturer was the Dutchman Times, who lived and worked in Moscow. This production has been manufactured by the canvas. The Dutch Factory consisted of spinning, where they produced yarn from flax, then the yarn went to the weaving department, where the linen fabric was made, as well as tablecloths and napkins. The compririsonment stage was the separation where the finished tissue was bleached and separated. The Tammes Factory was so famous that Peter and many foreigners visited it more than once. Weaving branches have always performed a special impression. Almost all Russian worked at the factory and produced different types of cloths, most popular in everyday life.

As for the position of the workers in these factories, it can be said that it wanted the best. The position itself was very heavy. The basis of the working layer was fortress people. To please entrepreneurs, the state went to them for concessions and allowed in 1721 to buy the villages with the peasants who live in them. The difference between these peasants and the peasants who worked on landowners were only what they were bought and sold only in charge of factories or factories. At the factories were also winsted people, mostly were masters and artisans, but the earned fee was very meager. For example, on a linen manufactory, located in the tails of St. Petersburg, weakly received about 7 p. Per year, Master - 12 rubles, apprentice - 6 rubles. in year. Although ingenic specialists paid much more, for example, on a silk manufactory, he could earn from 400 to 600 rubles. in year.

In addition, state peasants were attributed to whole whales to the factories. As "assigned", they had to work for 3 to 4 months at the factory forced. The labor fee was very small and even these penny they could not get in their arms, as they were withdrawn as a tax in the treasury.

At the same time, the development of ores in the Urals begins. Back in 1699, the Neva Plant was erected, which exists before our time. At first, this plant belonged to the state, but then he was given to Tula entrepreneur N. Demidov - it was the first of the Demidov dynasty, one of the prosperous dynasties of the time and the most cruel in relation to its workers. The first thing that Demidov did, it entered the prison for workers under the walls of the plant. Thanks to her plant, he could get rich so much that he could have made presents and gifts to the king himself.

The plants were built on the banks of the rivers, to use the power of water that moved. The basis of the construction was the dam, which was built the very first, the holes were made in the dam, through which water was going on, then the water went to the reservoir. And already from the reservoir on wooden pipes on the wheels, the movement of which made the movement of the blowers from the domain and the mountains, raised the hammers for the forging of metals, the levers were moving and rotated drilling machines.

In 1722, a shopping device of artisans was introduced in Russia. The state forced urban artisans to record in the shops. The sample foreman was standing on each workshop. Full artisans could be considered those who could afford to hire and hold students and the apprentice. To get the title of the Master, the artisan was supposed to prove his skill with the senior. Every craft workshop had its own stigma, a farm sign, which was put on a good quality product.

Intensive industry growth in the country demanded good roads that were necessary for the transport of goods and raw materials. Unfortunately, Russia could not boast of good roads. This situation was associated with the small treasury and natural conditions of the country itself. Therefore, for a long time, the best way to trade was rivers and the sea. One of the important ways of the message was the Volga on which channels were built to improve the routes. Channels of the message were built as Volga - Don, Volga and the Baltic Sea. Channels were to expand trade and ensure the flow of goods to St. Petersburg, to the Baltic Sea. Peter also improved the St. Petersburg port, not only as a military facility, but also as a trading.

In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, in which the exact dimensions of the duties on one or another product were indicated, both during import and export. This largest government of Russia tried to expand the large industry of the country. If the foreign goods amounted to the competition in domestic, a very high duty was installed on it, and the goods in which Russia needed, since could not be made on his own manufactory and plants, the duty was very low.

As a result of frequent and prolonged warrior, the treasury was devastated, and the content of the army and the fleet required high costs. To replenish the treasury, a private trading was forbidden by some types of goods. All trading in a certain product was under the leadership of the state and at high prices. Over time, the state began to control the sale: wines, salts, potash, caviar, fur, tar, chalk, sala, bristles. Most of this goods were exported, so all trade with foreign countries Was in the hands of the state.

But this was not enough to complete the renewal and constant replenishment of the state treasury. Peter the first began to look for other ways to find the necessary means. In order to this, new taxes were established, taxes on use. For example, on the use of a fishing site or place for bee apias, etc.

During the reign of Peter, the treasury was replenished with 2/3 indirect taxes, customs duties, income from the sale of wine and other goods. And only 1/3 of the state budget was replenished with direct taxes that directly paid the population. The reason for this was that ordinary artisans and peasants were charged with direct taxes, and the clergy, nobles and rich entrepreneurs were freed from this service. Although instead of direct tax, from each person a male individuals of noble origin was filmed to file. This file was intended for the content of the army, such an image of a common scale for its content was broken between all the "audshes souls". The maintenance of such a statement has greatly enriched the state treasury. Over time, the taxes began to generate half the budget. And so the heavy position of the peasants, aggravated even more. Among the peasants began to meet mass shoots from landowners. Peter tried to squeeze the fortress and issued a decree about the capture of fluorescent peasants and returning their former landowner, while the punishment was increasing those who tried to hide fugitives. Peter widely distributed the earth and peasants with nobles.

Also, the work of the peasants was used to build fortresses and a new capital. In St. Petersburg, for this gathered twice a year to three months to 20 thousand people.

Thus, it is possible to draw conclusions that the peculiarity of the industry in the era of Peter the first was that it was created at the expense of the state budget, a certain period was under its control, but periodically the forms themselves and methods of this control changed.

The long period of the state itself created the manufactory, and was their full owner. But every year the number of manufactories and factories increased, and the means and opportunities of the state lacked to hold and develop them in a similar way. Therefore, politics is that the industry has been considered.

The state began to give, and sometimes selling manufactories and plants that were on the verge of closing in private hands. Thus, the beginning of a private entrepreneurship, which intensively gained momentum. The position of breeders was strengthened with the help of various benefits from the state, as well as financial support, in the form of loans from merchant companies. At the same time, the state was not distinguished from industry, but actively participated in its development and support, as well as in obtaining income from it. For example, state control manifested itself through a system of state orders. The activities of the Manufactures themselves and the factories are even controlled by inspections, which were carried out periodically and unexpectedly.

Another feature of the industry in Russia was that the work of fortress people was used on manufactory and factories. As noted earlier, people of different layers of society worked in factories and factories. From the beginning, these were civilian workers, but with an increase in the number of enterprises, the sharp lack of workers began. And then the decision of this problem was the use of sub-minced labor. This was the reason for the exit of the law on the sale of entire villages with peasants who lived there for work in these factories.

In turn, Petro first secured the situation about the service of the Russian nobility, it was in this way he believed that this nobility was responsible for the state and the king. After the equation of the rights between the behavior and estate, the process of combining different layers of the feudalists was completed, in one class, which had specific privileges. But the title of nobleman could only be deserved thanks to the service. In 1722, the organization of the structure of the ranks was introduced, in which the procedure for subordination of the lower ranks of the Higher was introduced. All posts, regardless of the military they or civilians shared on 14 ranks. To get a specific rank, it was necessary to go through all the previous ones. And only reaching the eighth rank, the college astronor or Major received the nobility. The birdlikeness in this case was replaced by a service. If a refusal to serve, the state had the right to confiscate possessions. Even if these were hereditary estates. In Western countries, the service in the state was a big privilege, and in Russia it is just a duty, one of numerous duties, which was not always fulfilled qualitatively and the benefit of this state. Therefore, you can not consider the nobility class, which dominates the Power, since this class completely depended on the state. It was more like a privileged class, which consisted of military and civilians who completely and unconditionally served as an absolute monarchy. Their privileges ended in the same minute when they fell into disgrace of the king or left service. "Emancipation" of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. XVIII century

In history, there are two points of view that relate to the absolute monarchy of Peter the First. The first of them is that the absolute monarchy, which formed during the reign of Peter's first identically absolute monarchy of Western states. The absolute monarchy of Peter had the same characteristics as in other countries - this is the power of the king, which is no longer limited to anything, the constant mighty army, which protects this autocracy, is also very well developed in such countries and, and at all levels of the bureaucracy state Finally, the centralized tax system.

As for the second point of view of historians, the essence of it is that: the absolute monarchy in the West arose in the conditions of capitalism, and Russia before that was very far away, then the Russian government management system can be called or despotism, which is nearing an Asian or absolute monarchy which arose in Russia is fully typologically different from Western countries.

After analyzing all the events occurring in Russia during the period of Peter of the first, one can safely say that the second point of view has more rights to existence than the first. This can be confirmed by the fact that in Russia the absolute monarchy is independent in relation to civil society. That is, everyone unconditionally had to serve the monarch. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practices.

The development of the state in all areas of activity, both in industrial and political, demanded knowledgeable and prepared people. Schools were created to prepare specialists. Teachers were often invited from abroad. Science and education of that time often depended on countries of abroad. Since there was a sharp not the grip of educated teachers, and they were often invited from Europe countries. But they often sent ours abroad, to obtain a higher and qualified education there. To this end, in 1696 Peter first issues a decree on the direction of 61 people to study, most of which belonged to the nobles. Abroad could be sent, both for goodwill and forcibly. If, before the time of Peter the first, they were right away, only people are approximate to the government and merchants, then in the era of Peter, the departure of the border was welcomed and encouraged. Sometimes even merchants and masters were sent to study.

In the 17th century in Russia there are two spiritual academies, one in Moscow, the other in Kiev. They were created with the aim of obtaining highly educated secular population.

In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigating Sciences opens the teacher of which was one of the most educated people of the time of Leonthius Magnitsky. Children were credited to this school, aged 12 to 17 years old, but due to what he studied in it did not want, there were cases when they took even 20-year-old boys. Since children were practically not trained in school, the school was divided into three compartments: 1) elementary school, 2) "Typhyr" school, 3) Novigatskaya or maritime school. In the first two branches, children studied almost all classes that could afford training. On the third stage of the teachings crossed children exclusively only noons. The main disciplines in the school was arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy and astronomy. The term of study did not have clear borders, mostly studied about 2.5 years and more. In addition, engineering and artillery schools were arranged for the nobles. In 1715, the senior classes of new school school were translated into St. Petersburg, where the Academy was created. The Academy did immediately after the end of the Tsifir school, and after the Academy of Pupils could be sent abroad.

The order in the Moscow Academy was held with the help of promotions and punishments. This charter of the school was approved by Peter themselves first, he personally adds some paragraphs to this instruction. This item was reading that to take noisy students and maintain order in the class during the class should a retired soldier and it should do it with the help of a whip. It could apply such a method to any student, regardless of its name and status.

Still in Moscow at the hospital created a surgical school. At the head of this school was Nikolai Bidloo. School studied anatomy, surgery, pharmacology.

Having distinguished in the navigation school of students for their behavior, and the main level of knowledge gained was used as teachers. They were taught in new schools that were created in many cities of Russia. In 1714, a decree on the mandatory teaching of children of the nobles in the cyphic schools. At the end of training, the disciples received a testimony of the end of this or that school. For example, without this testimony, priests could not interfere with the nobles. Like a lot at that time, the formation was like a meantiness, which limited and braked a set of new students. For example, in cuts from 96 students, 59 simply escaped.

But in general, tiphir schools continued to exist, already in the 1720s, their number reached 44, with a total number of students up to 2,000 people. The leading place among students occupied the children of the clergy, then children of ordinary and soldiers, and the smallest kids and citizens had the least to their studies. Also, at that time were special schools in which the clergy was preparing, they were created in 46 cities. That is, in every major city of Russia there were two schools, digital and spiritual.

Engineering schools were also created, to train the frames of the army and industry. In the Urals of Yekaterinburg, the genetic engineer created two schools - verbal and arithmetic, about 50 people studied in each of them. In these schools, the preparation of factory masters, stationery employees, also learned by diploma, geometry, drawing and drawing.

In Moscow, Paster Glyuk created a school with a broader general educational program. He planned to conduct in his school lessons philosophy, geography, various languages, and was also planned to introduce dance lessons and riding. In this school, as in all other, only young men were trained. After the death of Pasteur, the program was very simplified. In this school, training was conducted for civil service

Another way to raise education is foreign business trips to improve this level. The first such campaign was before the construction of the fleet. Noble nobles were sent abroad to teach shipbuilding and ship management. Yes, and Peter himself, the first has repeatedly leaving abroad to know and learn new.

Textbooks for school were produced in Russian, but they were translated from a foreign language. Tutorials on grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, geography, mechanics, land surgery were translated, geographical maps were made for the first time. The textbooks were translated not qualitatively and the text was very difficult to gave the disciples, they simply memorized him for frequent. It was at that time that Russia accepted foreign words to use such as Harbor, Raid, Michman, Bot. Peter first introduced a civil font to use. The alphabet was simplified, part approached Latin. This font printed all the books since 1708. With a little change, but it has been preserved to this day. At the same time, Arabic figures were introduced, which replaced the designations of the letters of the Church-Slavic alphabet.

Over time, Russian scientists began to create textbooks and benefits for education themselves.

Of scientific workThe largest was a description of the geographical expedition, which described the studies of the coast of the Caspian Sea., And also for the first time a map of Caspiana was compiled.

With Peter the first one began to leave the first printed newspaper "Vedomosti". The first room was released on January 2, 1703.

Also, the survival goals were meant at the base of the theater. Under Peter had attempts to create people's Theater.. So in Moscow on the Red Square was built buildings for the theater. From Denmark, the Troupe Johann Kunstush, who should have learned the artists of the Russian population. At first, the theater was very popular, but over time the audience became less and less and the theater on the Red Square was closed at all. But this gave the impetus for the development of theatrical spectacle in Russia.

Higher class has changed significantly. Before the era of Peter, the female half of the boyars lived closed, rarely appeared on the light. The main time was held at home by doing homemade. With Peter the first, balls were introduced, which were arranged in houses of wine alternately and women were obliged to participate in them. Assemblies, so called balls in Russia, started at about 5 hours and lasted to 10 pm.

The manual for the correct etiquette of the nobles was the book of an unknown author, which came out in 1717, called "Youth Pure Zeror". The book consisted of two parts. In the first part, the author stated the alphabet, tables, numbers and numbers. That is, the first part served as a scientific book on teaching the innovations of Peter the First. The second part, which was the main, consisted of rules of behavior for boys and girls of the highest estate. It can be safely argued that it was the first textbook of ethics in Russia. Young people of noble origin were recommended primarily to learn foreign languages, horseback riding and dance, girls must obey the will of their parents, they also had to differ hardworking, as well as silence. The book described the behavior of the nobility in public life, from the rules of behavior at the table to service in government. The book has been formulated a new stereotype of the behavior of a person of the highest estate. The nobleman had to avoid companies that at least somehow could compromise him, and the drunkenness, rudeness, mercy were contraindicated. And behavioral manners themselves must close as much as possible to European. In general, the second part was more like a meeting of publications on the rules of etiquette of Western countries.

Peter wanted to raise the highest-class youth on the European type, while bringing up the spirit of patriotism in them and serving the state. The main thing for the nobleman was considered to take care of his honor and honor to their homeland, but at the same time the honor of the Fatherland defended his sword, but the nobleman could protect his honor with a complaint of certain instances. Peter was an opponent of the duel. Those who violated the decree strictly punished.

The culture of the epoch of Peter the First was always under the control of the state and in its main direction was the development of the culture of the nobility. This was a feature of Russian culture. Power encouraged and highlighted finances with state treasury only on those areas that considered important. In general, the culture and art of Peter the first walked in a positive direction of development. Although even in culture, bureaucracy was traced in time. Because writers, artists, actors consisted in public service, their activities were completely subordinated to the state and, accordingly, for their works, they received a remuneration. Culture performed government functions. Theater, press and many other industries served as protection and propaganda of Petrovsky transformation.

Chapter 3. Results and Essence of Petrovsky Transformations

Petrov's reforms are grandiose on their scale and consequences. These transformations contributed to the solution of tasks stood in front of the state, primarily in the field of foreign policy. However, they could not provide the country's long-term progress, as they were carried out within the framework of the existing system and, moreover, the Russian feudal-serf system was preserved.

As a result of the transformation, a powerful industrial production, strong army And the fleet, which allowed Russia to reach the sea, overcome isolation, reduce the lag from the advanced countries of Europe and turn into a great power of the world.

However, the forced modernization and borrowing of technologies were carried out at the expense of a sharp increase in the archaic forms of exploitation of the people who paid the extremely high price of positive results of reforms.

The reforms of the state system gave new forces to serve as a despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practices.

Reforms in the field of culture and life, on the one hand, created the conditions for the development of science, enlightenment, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and violent transfer of many European cultural and domestic stereotypes prevented the full development of culture based on national traditions.

The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values \u200b\u200bof European culture, was sharply isolated from the national tradition and its keeper - the Russian people whose attachment towards traditional values \u200b\u200band institutions increased as the country's modernization. This caused the deepest sociocultural split of society, in many respects predetermined the depths of contradictions and the strength of social shocks of the beginning of the twentieth century.

The paradox of the Petrovsk Reform was reduced to the fact that the "Westernization" of Russia, which was violent in nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, caused the strength to modernization, and on the other, provoked the anti-modeling and anti-pumping reaction of traditionalism supporters and national identity.

3.1 Evaluation of the essence of Petrovsky reforms

In the matter of assessing the essence of Petrovsky reforms, scientists disagree. The basis of understanding this problem is either a view based on Marxist views, that is, they consider that the policies of state power is based and is due to the socio-economic system, or the position according to which the reforms are the expression of the sole will of the monarch. This point of view is typical for the "state" historical school in pre-revolutionary Russia. The first of this many views is an opinion on the personal desire of the monarch of Europe by Russia. Historians who hold this point of view consider the "Europeanization" of Peter's main goal. According to Solovyov, a meeting with European civilization was a natural and inevitable event towards the development of the Russian people. But Solovyov considers Europeization not as an end in itself, but as a means, primarily the stimulating economic development of the country. The theory of Europeanization did not meet, naturally, approval from historians seeking to emphasize the continuity of Peter's era in relation to the previous period. An important place in disputes on the essence of reforms occupies a hypothesis about the priority of foreign policy goals over internal. This hypothesis was nominated for the first time Milyukov and Klyuchevsky. The conviction in her infallibility brought Kueyevsky to the conclusion that reforms have a different degree of importance: he considered military reform by the initial stage of the conversion activities of Peter, and the reorganization of the financial system is the ultimate goal. The remaining reforms were either a consequence of transformations in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the above-mentioned target. Self-meaning Klyuchevsky attached only to economic policies. The last point of view on this problem is "idealistic." It is most brightly formulated by theological, reform it characterizes how the practical implementation of the statehood perceived by the monarch. But then the question arises about the "principles of statehood" in the understanding of the king. Theological believes that the ideal of Peter the first was the absolutist state, the so-called "regular state", which was sought to regulate all parties to public and private life in accordance with the principles of mind and benefit the "common good". Theological Especially allocates the ideological aspect of Europeanization. He, like Solovyov, sees in the introduction of the principle of rationality, rationalism radical gap with the past. His understanding of the reformist activity of Peter, which can be called "enlightened absolutism," found many adherents among Western historians who tend to emphasize that Peter was not an outstanding theorist, and that the converter during his foreign journey took into account first of all the practical results of modern political science. Some of the adherents of this point of view argue that Petrovskaya state practice was by no means typical of his time, as the theologian proves. In Russia, under Peter, the Great attempt to realize the political ideas of the era were much more consistent and far-reaching than in the West. According to such historians, Russian absolutism in everything concerns its role, and the impact on the life of the Russian society occupied a completely different position than the absolutism of most European countries. At the time, in Europe, the government and administrative structure of the state determined the public system, in Russia there was a reverse case - here the state and the policy held them formed social structure.

The first who tried to determine the essence of Peter's reforms from the Marxist position was Pokrovsky. He characterizes this era as the early phase of the origin of capitalism, when shopping capital begins to create a new economic base Russian society. As a consequence of the movement of the economic initiative to the merchants, the authorities moved from the nobility to the bourgeoisie (that is, to these merchants). The so-called "spring capitalism" occurred. The merchants needed an effective state apparatus, which could serve their goals, both in Russia and abroad. It is according to this, according to Pokrovsky, administrative reforms of Peter, War and economic policy In general, combine the interests of commercial capital. Some historians, attaching great importance to commercial capital, associate it with the interests of the nobility. And although the thesis on the dominant role of commercial capital was rejected in Soviet historiography, we can say that the opinion on the class base of the state remained in Soviet historiography from the mid-30s to the mid-60s to the dominant. During this period, the point of view was generally recognized, according to which the Petrovsk state was considered " national State landowners "or" nobility dictatorship ". His politician expressed, above all, the interests of the feudal fasteners, although attention was paid to the interests of the injection of the bourgeoisie. As a result of the analysis of political ideology, conducted in this direction and social Position States, the opinion was established that the essence of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "common good" demagogic, she was covered by the interests of the ruling class. Although this provision shares most of the historians, there are exceptions. For example, raw materials, in their book about the Petrovsky state and his ideology, are fully joined by the theological characteristics of the state of Peter as a typical absolutist state of that era. New in the controversy about the Russian autocracy was his interpretation of the class foundation of this state, which was based on the Marxist definitions of the prerequisites of European absolutism. The raw materials believes that the unlimited powers of Peter were based on a real situation, namely: the opposing classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) reached this equality of economic and political forces during this period, which allowed the state power to achieve a well-known independence towards both classes, to become a kind of mediator Between them. Thanks to the temporal state of equilibrium in the struggle of classes, state power has become a relatively autonomous factor in historical development, and it has been able to benefit from increasing contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The fact that the state stood is thus in a certain sense over the class struggle, in no case meant that it was completely impartial. In-depth study of economic and social Policy Peter the Great led the Syromyatnikov to the conclusion that the conversion activity of the king had in general the anti-refortion orientation, "manifested, for example, in the events carried out in the interests of a stringy bourgeoisie, as well as in the desire to limit the serfdom." This characteristic of reforms given by raw materials did not find a significant response from Soviet historians. In general, Soviet historiography did not accept and criticized his conclusions (but not factual) for the fact that they were very close to rejected the provisions of Pokrovsky. In addition, many historians do not share the equilibrium equilibrium in the Petrovsky period, not everyone recognizes the bourgeoisie as a real economic and political factor that is barely norful in the XVIII century, which can resist with a plain nobility. This was confirmed during the discussions that were held in domestic historiography in the 70s, as a result of which the relatively complete unity of opinions were reached regarding the inapplicability of the thesis on the "neutrality" of the authorities and equilibrium of classes in relation to specific Russian conditions. Nevertheless, some historians, in general, do not agree with the opinion of Syroshnikov, share his view to Petrovskoy uniform, as relatively independent of class forces. They justify the independence of the self-adjusting the thesis of equilibrium in the new version. While the raw materials operate only the category of social equilibrium of two different classes - nobility and bourgeoisie, Fedosov and Trinity consider the contradiction of interests within the ruling class as a source of independence. And, if Peter is the first to implement such an extensive complex of reforms, contrary to the interests of individual social groups, was due to the potential of the very "intra-class struggle," where the old aristocracy appeared on the one hand, and on the other - a new, bureaucratic nobility. At the same time, the bourgeoisie, supported by the Reformed Policy of the Government, declared itself, although not so wonderfully, speaking in the Union with the last of the named opposing parties - the nobility. Another disputed point of view was put forward by A.Ya. Avrehich, the void debate on the essence of Russian absolutism. In his opinion, absolutism arose and finally strengthened under Peter the first. Its becoming and unprecedented lasting position in Russia became possible due to the relatively low level of class struggle in combination with stagnation in the socio-economic development of the country. Absolutism should be considered as the form of a feudal state, but distinctive feature Russia was the desire to carry out the obvious weakness of the bourgeoisie precisely bourgeois policy, and develop in the direction of the bourgeois monarchy. Naturally, this theory could not be accepted in Soviet historiography, because contradicts some Marxist plants. This permission of the problem did not find much recognition and during the continued discussion of Soviet historians about Absolutism. Nevertheless, Aberha cannot be called an atypical participant in this controversy, which was characterized, first a clear desire to emphasize the relative autonomy of state power, and secondly, the unanimity of scientists in the question of the impossibility of characterizing political development only through simple conclusions, excluding the characteristics of each history period .

Foreign literature about Russia, the era of Peter the Great, despite the differences in the approach of scientists to evaluate the events of that time, inherent common features. By giving tribute to the ruler, the successes that were achieved by a country, foreign authors, as a rule, were judged with some underestimation or openly disregarded about the Doparyrovsk era in the history of Russia. The great distribution was obtained, according to which Russia made a leap from backwardness, wildness to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the "West" - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who were the first to be the first in conducting transformations.

Conclusion

After analyzing the studied material, it is possible to come to such conclusions about the uniqueness of the reforms of Peter the Great and their influence on the state of Russia.

Before joining Peter's power, the main factor that influenced the development of the state was its natural-geographical position, as well as social conditions (a large territory, an unsuccessful geographical position, etc.). In addition to internal factors, external factors also influenced the development. Before Peter, Russia did not have exits to the seas, and she could not use this most, first of all, for trade, the fastest and cheap ways for the message.

Petrovsky reforms, like most of Russia's reforms, had their own peculiarity. They were planted on top and embodied in a quarrel order. The government regime, as it were, stood over all society and forced to serve as a state absolutely all, regardless of the estate. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practices.

Peter's reforms began immediately after arrival due to the boundary business trip and dealt with the appearance of the population, especially those who are close to the state and the most king. Changes related to the shape and type of clothing, as well as beard. Beards were obliged to shave everything except clergy and peasants.

Peter the first for his board created a powerful Russian Empire, in which the absolute monarchy and autocracy formulated. Control it was not there anyone else.

As for the industry, she also had its own characteristics. The development of enterprises was fully maintained by Power. With the state treasury, great sums were distinguished on the construction of new manufactories, factories and factories. Therefore, for some time they were under the control of the state. But ultimately switched to private hands, although the state still controlled the activities of private entrepreneurs. And the second feature of the industry was that serfs worked on these most manufacturers and factories. That is free workforce. Due to what the growth and development of manufactories, and the industry as a whole has increased.

As for the culture, it was mainly aimed at the development of education. Schools were built, which in general gave a few thousand people primary education, which was further cultivated for cultural lifting and changing attitudes towards school education. In addition to schools, special education developed. The progress of science was on the face.

Peter's first reforms were very large and brought very large results. As a result of these reforms, those tasks were solved that were formulated in the state, and to decide which it was urgent. Peter the first was able to solve the tasks set, but the process was practically failed to consolidate. It was associated with the system, which existed in the state, as well as serfdom. The main part of the population was the peasants, staying constantly under the oppression, they did not show any initiative in the development of their state.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Petrovsky reforms. About Peter I. -spb.: Peter, 2002.

Bagger Hans. The reforms of Peter the Great. M.: Progress.: 1985, 200 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Historical portraits. Fraights of historical thought. / Sost., Intr. Art. and notes. V.A. Alexandrova. M.: True, 1991. 624 p.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Course of Russian history. T. 3 - M., 2002. 543 p.

Lebedev V.I. Peter's reforms of the first. M.: 1937

Polyakov L.V. Kara-Murza V. Reformer. Russians about Peter the first. Ivanovo, 1994

Solovyov S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. M.: Progress, 1962

Solovyov S.M. About history new Russia. M.: Education, 1993

Collection: Russia during the reforms of Peter the first M.: Science, 1973

Tutoring

Need help to study what language themes?

Our specialists will advise or have tutoring services for the subject of interest.
Send a request With the topic right now, to learn about the possibility of receiving consultation.