Morphology- This is a section of grammar that studies the patterns of existence, formation (structure) and understanding of word forms (word forms) of various parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.).

The word has lexical and grammatical meanings. The lexical meaning is the content of the word, generalizing in our minds the idea of ​​an object, phenomenon, property, process (rib, ontogenesis, straight line, serous, bending, etc.).

The grammatical meaning is determined both by the categorical belonging of a given word to the corresponding part of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in a noun, the meaning of a sign in an adjective), and the particular meaning due to a change in the forms of this word (rib, ribs; direct, direct, direct, etc. .).

The word exists as a system of forms. The system of changing the forms of words is called inflection.

Grammar categories, according to which the forms of the noun change in Latin, as in Russian, there are cases and numbers (vertebra - vertebra, corpus vertebrae - vertebral body; foramen - hole, foramina - holes; os - bone, ossa - bones, sternum - sternum, manubrium sterni - handle of the sternum).

Noun

The inflection of nouns according to cases and numbers is called declension.

Cases

There are 6 cases in Latin.

Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).

Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (of whom, what?).

Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, what?).

Accusativus (Acc.) - accusative (whom, what?).

Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, creative (by whom, with what?).

Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

For nomination, i.e. for naming (naming) objects, phenomena, and the like in medical terminology, only two cases are used - nominative (n. p.) and genitive (gen. p.).

The nominative case is called the direct case, which means the absence of relations between words. The meaning of this case is the actual naming. The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.

1. Types of declensions

There are 5 types of declensions in Latin, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).

The genitive case in Latin serves as a practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension). singular. Genus forms. p. units hours in all declensions are different.

A sign of the type of declension of a noun is the ending gender. p. units h., therefore, in dictionaries, the form genus. p. units h. is indicated along with the form of them. p. units hours and they must be memorized only together.

The distribution of nouns by declension types depending on the gender ending. p. units h.Genitive endings of all declensions

2. The concept of the dictionary form of a noun

Nouns are listed in the dictionary and learned in dictionary form, which contains three components:

1) the form of the word in them. p. units hours;

2) the end of the genus. p. units hours;

3) gender designation - male, female or neuter (abbreviated as one letter: m, f, n).

For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i(n); pars, is(f), margo, is(m); os, is(n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us(m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).

3. Determining the practical basis

Some nouns have the III declension before the ending genus. p. units h. -is is also attributed to the final part of the stem. This is necessary if the stem of the word is in gender. p. units h. does not coincide with the basis of them. p. units hours:

The full form of the genus. p. units hours for such nouns are found as follows: corpus, =oris (=corpor - is); foramen, -inis (= foramin - is).

For such nouns practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to the gender. p. units hours by discarding its ending. If the basics in them. p. units hours and in the genus. p. units h. coincide, then only the ending genus is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. p. units hours without ending.

Consider examples.

The practical basis is the basis, to which, during inflection (declension), the endings of oblique cases are added; it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.

For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form genus is indicated in the dictionary form. n., for example pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.

4. Definition of the gender of nouns

In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and neuter (neutrum - n).

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of Russian words equivalent in meaning, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.

It is possible to determine the belonging of a Latin noun to a particular gender only by the endings characteristic of this gender in it. p. units h. For example, words in -a - female(costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words in -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).

A sign of the declension of a noun is the ending of the gender. p. units hours; a sign of the genus is a characteristic ending in it. p. units h.

5. Determining the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -a, -um, -on, -en, -i, -us

You can get acquainted with all the characteristic features of the gender of Latin nouns in a number of lessons on the III declension. In this section, we will focus only on the signs of the grammatical gender of some groups of words that have in them. p. units h. characteristic endings: -a, -um, -on, -en, -u, -us.

There can be no doubt that nouns in -a are feminine, and nouns in -um, -on, -en, -u are neuter.

As for nouns ending in -us, the answer cannot be unambiguous without involving additional data and, above all, information about the declension of the word.

All nouns in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:

lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;

ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.

If a noun with -us belongs to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain gender should be specified with the help of such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in gender. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is -r, then the noun is neuter, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then it is feminine.

For example:

tempus, or-is; crus, crur-is;

corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.

6. III declension of nouns. Grammatical signs of the masculine gender and the nature of the stems

Third declension nouns were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodological approach was absolutely justified. III declension is the most difficult to master and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.

1. The third declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in gender. p. units h on -is (a sign of the III declension).

2. In them. p. units h. words not only of different genders, but even of the same gender have different endings characteristic of a particular gender; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -eg, -ex, -es.

3. For most nouns, the third declension stems in them. n. and in the genus. items do not match.

With such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., but by genus. n. by dropping the ending -is.

1. If in the dictionary form of any noun before the ending genus. p. units h. -is the end of the stem is attributed, which means that the stem of such a word is determined by the genus. P.:

Basis cortic-.

2. If in the dictionary form before the end of the genus. p. units h. -is has no postscript, which means that such a word can also have a basis determined by them. p. units h., discarding the ending to them. P.:

3. Nouns III declension depending on the coincidence or mismatch of the number of syllables in them. n. and genus. p. units hours are equally complex and non-equisyllabic, which is important for the exact definition of the genus in a number of cases.

Equosyllabic

Nom. pubes canalis rete

Gen. pubis canalis retis.

Non-equisyllabic

Nom. pes paries pars

Gen. pedis parietis parti.s

4. For monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form in gender. n. the word is written in full:

7. General requirements for the definition of grammatical gender in the III declension

The genus is determined by the endings of them. p. units h., characteristic of a certain genus within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun of the III declension, three points must be taken into account:

1) know that given word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;

2) know what endings are in them. p. units hours are characteristic of one or another kind of III declension;

3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of the given word.

1) nouns ending in -a are feminine;

2) nouns ending in -urn, -en, -on, -u are neuter;

3) most nouns in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are masculine;

4) words in -us ending in gender. n. on -r-is, - neuter.

Knowing that a noun belongs to a certain gender, you can correctly agree with it (in gender!) An adjective or form a word form for them. n. pl. h.

In most cases, the belonging of a word to one or another declension cannot serve as an indicator of gender, since in the same declension there are nouns of two genders (II and IV declension) or three genders (III declension). Nevertheless, it is useful to remember the following relation between the gender of a noun and its declension:

1) in I and V declensions - only feminine;

2) in II and IV declensions - masculine and neuter;

3) in the III declension - all three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Of the words in -us, most belong to the II declension, only a few - to the IV.

It is important to remember that in dictionary form, some of the most frequent nouns are in the IV declension: processus, us (m) - process; arcus, us (m) - arc; sinus, us (m) - sinus, sinus; meatus, us (m) - passage, move; plexus, us (m) - plexus; recessus, us (m) - depression, pocket.

Renaissance (i.e. Renaissance), in the XIV-XVI centuries, when there was, as it were, a new discovery great civilization, which seemed to be an unattainable model. It was then that the concept of "ancient" (antiquus) began to be applied to history Ancient Greece and Rome. At this time, the figures of the Renaissance sought out and saved from destruction a large number of Latin and Greek manuscripts that have preserved the works of ancient writers. They turned out to be masterpieces, works of the highest class,

classy, ​​classy. This word also stuck to the concepts associated with antiquity - classical languages, classical sculpture, classical archeology.

MORPHOLOGY

Lesson 3

Noun. (Nomen substantivum) First declension

The Latin noun has 3 grammatical genders: genus masculinum (m) - masculine;

genus femininum (f) - feminine; genus neutrum (n) - neuter gender;

(genus commune (g.c.) is the common gender of some animal names).

It should be remembered that the gender of a noun in different languages ​​does not always coincide: Russian word"muscle" is feminine, and the Latin "musculus" is masculine.

The gender of a Latin noun is determined by the end of the nominative singular, or by meaning, for example, femǐna is feminine (woman), but nauta is masculine (sailor).

(Compare: Russian governor a - masculine in meaning).

In terms of meaning, masculine names, in addition to male persons and animals, include the names of winds, months and rivers: Augustus (August), Boreas (Boreas - north wind), Rhodanus (r. Rhone).

Female names, in addition to the names of female persons and animals, include the names of cities, countries, islands, trees. Roma (Rome), betǔla (birch), Creta (Crete), Graecia (Greece).

Latin noun has 2 numbers:

– numĕrus singularis (sing.) - singular;

– numĕrus pluralis (pl.) - plural.

Sometimes the meaning of a Latin word in the plural differs from its meaning in the singular: copia (sing.) - abundance, stock, copiae (pl.) - army, (cf .: hour - hours, dirt - dirt).

Some words are used only in the plural: arma (pl.) - weapon, castra (pl.) - camp, (cf .: scissors, sleigh, darkness).

§ 14. Cases

The Latin noun has six cases (casus):

treatment (Compare father, elder) Veterinary medical terms are used almost

always in the nominative and genitive cases.

§ 15. Declension of nouns

Declension is very important in Latin. The Latin noun has five of them. Since the ending of the nominative case of the singular sometimes coincides with a noun of different declensions, the declension is determined by the ending of the genitive singular.

IN Latin dictionaries list nouns

V two forms: next to the nominative case form

the singular is given the ending of the genitive case of the singular or the full form of the genitive case

(planta, ae; ocǔlus, i; os, ossis).

Table 1 Genitive singular endings

The stem of a Latin noun is the invariable part of the word, which is determined by the genitive case of the singular by discarding the ending:

Table 2 Nominative and genitive endings of all declensions

declination
			Us, -er, -um, -on

§ 16. First declension of nouns and adjectives

TO I declension includes nouns and

feminine adjectives ending in nominative case singular -a, and in the genitive singular -ae, for example aqua, aquae; fractura, fracturae; alba, albae.

Some nouns of the first declension are masculine in meaning: nauta, nautae m - sailor; collega, collegae m - colleague; poēta, poētae m - poet; agricǒla, agricǒlae m –

farmer.

In the term, adjectives, unlike the Russian language, come after the noun. For example: medicinal plant

– planta (n.) medicata (adj.). When declining in cases, such

nouns and adjectives only change the ending, for example:

		lingua latina - Latin language
				Plur.
				linguarum latinarum

Exercises

1) Read and determine the declension of nouns.

Derma, dermatitis; fascia, fasciae; cutis, cutis; carpus, carpi; venter, ventris; rabies, rabiei; genu, genus; sepsis, sepsis; squama, squamae; corpus, corporis; ocǔlus, oculi; cartilago, cartilaginis; cornu, cornus; manus, manus.

2) Identify and write out the stem of the following Latin nouns.

Stoma, stomatis; scapula, scapulae; dorsum, dorsi; frons, frontis; ungula, ungulae; iris, iridis; caput, capitis; inflammation, inflammation; vulnus, vulneris; tetǎnus, tetani; ren, renis; femur, femoris; processus, processus; species, speciei.

3) Try to guess the meaning of the following Latin words and determine their gender.

Majus, Hispania, Troja, olīva, Februarius, Sicilia, Nilus, Finnia, Januaris, Syria, laurus, Eurus, nympha, Danubius, Polonia, Genua, imperator, poēta, rosa, December, Romania, Aprīlis, Hungaria, Styx, Lithuania, Petroplis, Creta.

4) Determine the number and case of Latin nouns

I declination.

Vertebrārum, herbas, fracturam, costae, lamǐnis, scapula, ungulārum.

5) Find a phrase with a grammatical error. Vita longa, fasciae latae, fracturis compositis, plantārum

amaris, linguam latinam, orbitas dextras.

6) Write down and translate the nouns of the first declension. Gingiva, a.e.; cranium, i; vacca, ae; res, ei; juba, ae; quercus,

us; glandula, a.e.; ocǔlus, i; ala, ae; spina, ae; cornu,us; scabies, ei;

homo, ĭnis; fibra, ae; mucilago, ĭnis ; sutura, ae; abomasum, i ; incisura, ae.

7) Make phrases from a noun and an adjective, translate the received phrases.

Sample: fascia lata (fascia lata).

8) Decline.

Scapula dextra; fractura composita; costa vera.

9) Pick up Russian sayings corresponding to Latin ones; find in them words related to the 1st declension.

Mala gallina, malum ovum. Bad chicken, bad egg. Aquǐla non captat muscas. The eagle does not catch flies.

Mala herba cito crescit. Bad grass grows fast. Luscinia parva, sed vox magna. Nightingale is small, but

§ 17. Greek doublets

Pay attention to the Greek roots corresponding to the Latin nouns of the 1st declension. (The suffix -itis forms terms with the meaning "inflammation")

			Table 3
Greek doublets of Latin terms
latin	Greek
noun I	understudy roots	Meaning	suffix
declination
		cornea	keratitis keratitis
			adenitis
			glossitis
		breast	mastitis mastitis
		spinal cord	myelitis myelitis
			blepharitis
			phlebitis phlebitis
			cystitis cystitis
		(uric)

Terminological minimum

Nouns of the 1st declension

ala, ae f wing				cardia, ae f	heart, entry
	ae f inlet, hole			esophagus to stomach
aqua, ae f				fiber, ae f fiber
sarra, ae f				fissura, ae f	gap, crack
fovea, ae f				planta, ae f	plant
fractura, ae f				plica, ae f fold
gingiva, ae f				ruptura, ae f gap
glándula, ae f gland				spina, ae f spine, ridge
glossa, ae f		(Greek) language		squama, ae f scales
herba, ae f				sutura, ae f
incisura, ae f				ungula, ae f
juba, ae f				vagina, ae f	vagina
lamina, ae f			plate	vacca, ae f cow
medulla, ae f			bone marrow,	vesica, ae f
dorsal, oblong				vita, ae f life
orbita, ae f		eye socket

Adjectives of the 1st declension

alba - white compósita - complex magna - large parva - small plana - flat profunda - deep

próxima - closest

flava (lútea) - yellow longa - long

pura - pure rubra - red spúria - false vera - true

Questions for self-control

1. Which grammatical categories does a Latin noun have?

2. How to determine the declension of a noun?

3. How to find the stem of a latin noun?

4. What nouns belong to the 1st declension?

5. What exceptions in the I declension can you name?

§18. Country Studies

Get to know following text and answer the questions:

1. What parts did the name of a Roman citizen consist of?

2. What were the names of Roman women? What were the names of the daughters of Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Tullius Cicero, Mark Antony?

3. What was the freedman's name?

4. How can you explain the meaning of Latin names: Gennady, Victor, Konstantin, Valery, Nona?

5. Memorize the following Latin expressions:

Nomen est omen. The name is already a sign.

Magni nominis umbra. The shadow of a great name.

Venerable nomen. honorable name.

Nomina obscura. Dark names.

Roman names

The Romans usually had three names, as we have - the first name, patronymic and surname.

The first name - praenomen - was personal, like Peter or Mary. There were few such names, there are no more than 30 of them. In writing, they were abbreviated with one, two or three letters. Such abbreviations were very common, and therefore it is necessary

be able to open them; here are the most used ones:

The second name - nomen (nomen) - was the name of the genus and corresponded, approximately, to our surname.

The third name - cognomen (cognomen) - was a nickname that was assigned to everyone according to some signs: red-haired - Ruf, dodger - Cato, nosy - Nason.

A family or a separate branch of a given genus was distinguished by a cognomen. For example, the families of Scipio, Rufinus, Lentulus and some others belonged to the Cornelius family.

Sometimes, for some special merit, the Roman received a fourth name or a second nickname - agnomen (agnomen). Publius Cornelius Scipio, in honor of the victory he won over Hannibal in Africa in 202 BC, became known as

solemnly African (Africanus, cf.: nicknames of Russian commanders - Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Suvorov Rymniksky, Potemkin Tauride).

Women were called by the generic name of the father in the feminine form. The daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio was called Cornelia, the daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo was called Domitia. When another daughter appeared in the family, a prenomen was added to the name of both: Elder (Major) and Younger (Minor), other sisters were called Third (Tertia), Fifth (Quintilla), etc. A married woman retained her name, but her husband's cognomen was added to it: Cornelia, daughter of Cornelius, (wife) Gracchus (Cornelia, filia Cornelii, Gracchi).

Slaves were named according to their origin: Sir (born in Syria), Gallus (born in Gaul), Frix (from Phrygia); by the names of mythical heroes: Achilles, Hector; by the names of plants or stones: Adamant, Sardonic, etc. Sometimes slaves, often called "boy" (puer), were assigned the owner's name in the genitive case: Marzipor (from Marcipuer), that is, Mark's slave.

Freedmen (that is, slaves who received freedom) acquired the generic and personal name of the former master, their own name was placed in third place as a cognomen. So, the secretary of Cicero Tyrone, freed from slavery, was called: Marcus Tullius the scapegoat of Mark Tyrone: Marcus Tullius Marci libertus Tiro.

Lesson 4 Second declension of nouns and adjectives

§ 19. Second declension of nouns

The second declension includes masculine nouns in -us, -er in Nom. sing., and neuter in -um. In Gen. sing.

they all end in -i (nervus, nervi m; aper, apri m; unguentum, unguenti m).

In addition, masculine and neuter adjectives with the same endings belong to the II declension:

The second declension also includes incompletely Latinized terms of Greek origin with the ending -os (ophthalmós, i m - eye); and ending - on

(organon, i n - organ).

Exceptions to the rule are the words of the II declension, related to the feminine:

alvus, i - stomach;

bolus, i - clay, large pill; popǔlus, i – poplar;

junipĕrus, i – juniper; periŏdus, i – period;

humus, i - soil and some others,

as well as one word of the middle gender: virus, i - poison.

						Table 4
	Endings of the II declension of nouns

Table 5

Noun declension pattern

musculus, i m - muscle, aper, i m - wild boar, remedium, i n - medicine

The noun of the II declension has the ending Dat. and Abl. match in singular and plural.

§20. Second declension of adjectives

Adjectives of the II declension are in full agreement with the corresponding noun in declension

GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES OF NOUNS In Latin, a noun has:
three kinds:
Masulīnum m, (masculine)
Femininum
f, (feminine)
n (neuter)
Neutrum
two numbers:;
singularis (singular),
pluralis (plural);

5 cases:

5 CASES:
nominatīvus (N.) (nominative)
genetivus (G.) (genitive)
datīvus (D.) (dative)
accusatīvus (Acc.) (accusative)
ablatīvus (Abl.) (creative)

Gives everything you need about him.
information.
In the dictionary, the noun is given in
following order:
On
first place, full form
nominatīvus singularis (nominative
singular case).
In second place, always after the comma
lead the ending, the last syllables
or the full form genetīvus singularis
(genitive singular
numbers).
In third place, last
a brief designation of the genus is given.
medical

DICTIONARY FORM OF THE NOUN

IN
important in latin
find the right base.
She is in shape
genitive case by
discarding the ending.
Nom. Tincture; ae; f
Gen. Tinctur-ae

General rule definition of gender

GENERAL RULE DEFINITION
KIND
The genus is determined by the end
genitive noun,
singular.
M.r. –us(er), oculus- eye
Zh.r.- a,
gutta - drop
Wed-um(en), oleum-oil
In Latin, the nouns of this or
a different kind, do not coincide with the kind of Russian
language
muscle - musculus
Zh.r.
M.r.

TYPES OF DECLINE

IN
Latin language 5 types
declination.
Declension of nouns
practically determined by
ending genetivus singularis
(genitive case
singular).
Genitive form y
each declension is individual

1st Declension of Nouns

TO
the first declension is
nouns in the nominative
case, singular,
feminine gender ending in a.
(Tinctura)
Genitive singular
number ends ae.(Tincturae)
Decline occurs through
adding case endings to
basis.

Table of case endings of the first declension

TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS
FIRST DECLINE
Singular
Cases
Plural
Nom.
Tinctura
Tincturae
Gen.
Tincturae
Tincturarum
Dat.
Tincturae
Tincturis
acc.
Tincturam
Tincturas
Abl.
Tinctura
Tincturis
f
f

10. 2nd declension of nouns

Co.
second declension are

case, singular
masculine endings us(er) and neuter having
endings -um(en).


masculine is the same -i.
Musculi-m Decocti-n

11. Exception to the rules about the gender of the second declension

EXCEPTION FROM THE RULES ON GENDER
SECOND DECLINE
1) Bolus, i, f, - clay
2) Nouns with
ending us denoting
the meaning of trees and
shrubs regardless of
inclinations are always
female.
Crataegus, i, f.
Sorbus, i, f.

12. Table of case endings of the second declension

TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS
SECOND DECLINE
Pade
zhi
Singular
m
n
Plural
m
n
Nom.
muscle
Decoctum Musculi
Gen.
Musculi
Decocti
Musculorum Decoctorum
Dat.
muscle
Decocto
muscle
Decoctis
acc.
muscle
Decoctum Musculos
Decoctos
Abl.
muscle
Decocto
Decoctis
muscle
Decocta

13. 3rd declension of nouns

Third declension nouns can be m.p.,
zh.r., cf. with different endings. In the genitive
case, singular have the ending -is
M.r.
o-homo
or-higuor
os-flos
er-aether
Es-pes
ex-cortex
Zh.r.
as sanitas
is-auris
ax-borax
ux-nux
ix-radix
rs-pars
io-solutio
Wed
en-semen
ur-sulfur
ut-caput
ma-rhizoma
l-mel
c-lac
al-animal

14. Nouns of the 3rd declension are

3RD NOUNS
DECLINES HAPPEN
Equals
complex (those in which the number
syllables in the genitive case is equal to the number
syllables in the nominative singular
numbers)
Nom. Cutis
Gen. Cutis
Not equally complex (such
nouns that have the number of syllables in
genitive singular case
more than the number of syllables in the nominative
singular.
Nom. corpus
Gen. cor-po-ris

15. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 3rd declension

DICTIONARY FORM

Equally complex
nouns 3- his
declension:
In the first place is
noun in genitive
case of the singular.
Second place ending
genitive case.
In third place is the genus.
Auris, is, f.

16. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 3rd declension

DICTIONARY FORM
Nouns of the 3rd Declension
Do not equal complex
nouns:
In the first place is
noun in
genitive case
singular.
In second place is given
genitive ending
case together with the end of the stem
Apicis, isci, m.

17. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 3rd declension

DICTIONARY FORM
Nouns of the 3rd Declension
Monosyllabic:
In the first place is
noun in
genitive case
singular.
In second place is
noun in full.
Flos, floris, m.

18. Table of case endings of the third declension

TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS OF THE THIRD
declension
Cases Singular Plural
n
Different
semen
m,f
n
Nom.
m,f
Different
Solutio
Solutions
Semina
Gen.
solutionis
Seminis
solutionum
Seminum
Dat.
Solutioni
Semini
Solutionibus Seminibus
acc.
Solutionem=Nom
semen
Solutions
Abl.
solution
Solutionibus Seminibus
Semine
Semina

19. 4th declension of nouns

TO
fourth declension are
nominative nouns
case, singular
male having endings - us and
neuter having endings -u.
Fructus, us, m
Cornu, us, n
In the genitive ending
singular middle and
masculine same - us

20. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS 4th declension

DICTIONARY FORM
NOUNS 4th
declension
On
is in the first place
noun in
nominative case
singular.
Second place ending
genitive case.
In third place with a letter
genus is indicated.

21. Table of case endings of the fourth declension

TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS OF THE FOURTH
declension
Cases
Singular
plural
number
m
n
m
n
Nom.
Fructus
Cornu
Fructus
Gen.
Fructus
Cornus
Fructuum Cornuum
acc.
Fructum
Cornu
Fructus
Abl.
Fruit
Cornu
Fructibus Cornibus
Cornua
Cornua

22. 5th declension of nouns

TO
first declension
nouns belong to
nominative case,
singular, feminine
genders ending in -s
Genitive
singular has
ending -ei
Facies, ei,
f.

23. DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS of the 5th declension

DICTIONARY FORM
NOUNS
5th
declension
On
is in the first place
noun in
nominative case
singular.
Second place ending
genitive case.
In third place with a letter
genus is indicated.

24. Table of case endings of the fifth declension

TABLE OF CASE ENDINGS
FIFTH DECLINE
Cases Singular Plural
number
number
Nom
f
Facies
f
Facies
Gen
Faciei
Facierum
acc
Faciem
Facies
Abl
Facie

Latin is (that is, it has a wide range of affixes), which belongs to the Italic group. Its feature is the free word order when constructing a sentence. Nouns are inflected for numbers and adjectives (including participles) change in number, case and gender; verbs are declined by person, number, tense, voice and mood. Thus, declension in Latin is a category that is often used. Verbal inflections (endings and suffixes) of Latin are among the most diverse among the Indo-European languages. Latin is considered a classic in linguistics.

A Brief History of the Latin Language

Latin was originally spoken in Lazio, in Italy. Thanks to the power of the Roman Republic, the Latin language became dominant, first in Italy, and then throughout the Roman Empire. Vernacular Latin was reborn in Romance languages ​​such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French brought many words into English language. Latin and ancient Greek roots and terms are used in theology, biology and medicine. By the end of the Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin developed into Classical. Vulgar Latin was the spoken form. It is attested in the inscriptions and works of Roman dramatists such as Plautus and Terence.

Late Latin writing arose and took shape around the third century AD. Medieval Latin was used from the 9th century until the Renaissance. Further, as modern Latin appeared, it began to evolve. Latin was the language of international communication, science, theology. Latin was the language of science until the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by other European languages. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Latin Rite of the entire Catholic Church.

Influence of Latin on other languages

The Latin language in its colloquial form, which is called Vulgar Latin (in the sense of “folk”), became the basis language for other national European languages, united into one language branch called Romance. With the relatedness of the origin of these languages, there are currently significant differences between them, formed as Latin developed in the conquered lands over a number of centuries. Latin, as the parent language, was greatly modified under the influence of local indigenous languages ​​and dialects.

Brief description of Latin grammar

Latin is a synthetic, inflectional language in language classification terminology. That is, a language in which word formation with the help of inflections dominates. Inflections are words or endings. Latin words include a lexical semantic element and endings indicating the grammatical use of the word. The fusion of the root, which carries the meaning of the word, and the ending creates very compact sentence elements: for example, amō, "I love", is made from the semantic element, am- "to love", and the ending -ō, indicating that it is a first person singular verb , and being a suffix.

Declension of nouns in Latin

An ordinary Latin noun belongs to one of the five main groups of declensions, that is, having the same ending forms. The declension of a Latin noun is determined by the genitive singular. That is, you need to know the genitive case of the noun. Also, each case has its own endings. Latin noun declension includes the following.

• The first includes feminine nouns, as well as masculine, naming a person's occupation or nationality. 1 Latin declension is determined in the genitive singular with the ending -ae. For example: persa - Persian; agricŏla - peasant. Basically the first declension has -a.
• 2 declension in Latin mostly ends with the letter - o. It is defined in the genitive singular with the ending -i. The second declension includes masculine nouns ending in -us, -er, neuter nouns ending in -um, and a small group of feminine lexemes ending in -us.
• 3 declension in Latin is a rather versatile group of nouns. They can be divided into three main categories.
  1. Consonant.
  2. Vowel.
  3. Mixed. Students are advised to carefully master the first three categories.
• Fourth declension, predominantly ending with -y in noun cases. It is defined by the genitive singular with the ending -ūs.
• The fifth declension in Latin mostly ends with the letter -e in cases. It is defined by the genitive singular with the ending -ei. This is a small group of nouns.

Thus, declensions in Latin are quite diverse, since, as mentioned above, Latin is a pronounced inflectional language. in Latin practically does not differ from nouns. In fact, in many ways it is similar to the Russian language, where their declensions also coincide. The most numerous group of words in Latin are nouns of the 1st declension. Latin also includes a number of words that are not inflected.

Latin noun cases

Classical Latin has seven noun cases. The declension of adjectives in Latin coincides with the declension of nouns. Consider all seven cases:

• The nominative case is used if the noun is a subject or a predicate. For example, the word amor is love, puella is a girl. That is the initial form of the noun.
• The genitive case expresses the belonging of a noun to another subject.
• The dative case is used if the noun is an indirect object of the sentence with the help of special verbs, with some prepositions.
• used if the noun is the immediate object of the subject and with a preposition showing the place of direction.
• The ablative is used when the noun shows separation or movement from a source, cause, instrument, or when the noun is used as an object with certain prepositions.
• The vocative case is used when the noun expresses an appeal to the subject. The vocative form of a noun is the same as the nominative, except for the second declension of the noun, which ends in -us.
• The local case is used to indicate the location (corresponds to the Russian preposition V or on). This case is used only in this context.

We briefly reviewed the endings (Latin language) of the declension above. For example, for 1 declension they will be as follows: -a, -ae, -ae, -am, -a, -a.

The declension of nouns in Latin is manifested in case endings.

Latin verb: conjugation category

An ordinary verb in Latin refers to one of the four main ones - this is a class of verbs that have the same endings. The conjugation is determined by the last letter of the root of the present tense verb. The root in the present tense can be found by omitting the infinitive ending -re (-ri l for depositional verbs). The infinitive of the first conjugation ends in --ā-re or --ā-ri (active and passive), for example: amāre - "to love", hortārī - "exhort", the second conjugation ends in -ē-re or -ē-rī : monēre - "to warn", verērī, - "to intimidate", the third conjugation - into -ere, -ī: dūcere - "to lead", ūtī - "to use"; in the fourth -ī-re, -ī-rī: audīre - "to hear", experīrī - "to try". Thus, the Latin verb is conjugated by persons, depending on the belonging to the conjugation.

Latin verb tenses

In Latin, there are 6 specific grammatical tenses (tempus), which are only partially available in Russian. These are the following species-temporal forms:

• Present tense.
• Imperfect.
• Past perfect tense.
• Past (long past) tense.
• Future perfect tense.
• Future imperfect tense.

Each time has its own formula and rules of education. Also, the Latin verb has the category of mood and voice.

Latin vocabulary

Since Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is also Italic, that is, of ancient Proto-Indo-Hebrew origin. However, due to close cultural interaction, the Romans not only adapted the Etruscan alphabet into Latin, but also borrowed some Etruscan words. Latin also includes vocabulary borrowed from the Oscans, another ancient Italic people. Of course, the largest category of loanwords is from Greek.

Romance languages

Romance languages ​​are a group of languages, as well as dialects, belonging to the Italic subgroup of Indo-European and having one common ancestor - Latin. Their name is romanesque - goes back to the Latin term Romanus (Roman).

The section of linguistics that studies the Romance languages, their origin, development, typology, is called romance. The peoples who speak them are called Romance-speaking. Thus, the dead language continues to exist in them. The number of speakers of Romance languages ​​at the moment is about 800 million worldwide. Spanish is the most spoken language in the group, followed by Portuguese and French. There are more than 50 Romance languages ​​in total.

Latin nouns vary in number and case, and can also be masculine (genus masculinum), feminine (genus femininum), or neuter (genus neutrum). There are nouns that are indeclinable (indeclinabilia). In this case, they belong to the middle gender. These include letter names, non-Latin names (Adam - Adam, Noe - Noah) and individual words (pondo - pound; gelu - frost). There are nouns that are used only in one of the indirect cases (monoptota) (satias - satiety; frustratui - deceit; etc.). Other nouns are known only in two cases (diptota) (suppetiae, suppetias - help). There are also those that are used only in three cases (triptota) (vis, vim, vi - strength).

Nouns denoting people and animals can take on both genders - each time the one that is meant by this word (citizen, citizen - civis). This double use of the genus is called the common genus (genus commune). The names of winds, months and rivers are masculine. The names of trees, cities, countries and islands are usually feminine. The singular is called numerus singularis, the plural is numerus pluralis.

Differing nouns (heteroclita) in the singular are, for example, feminine, and in the plural they are middle (carbasus - sail), respectively, in different numbers(=birth) they decline in different inclinations. There is also the opposite situation - the neuter in the singular and the feminine in the plural (epulum - epuli - a feast). There are masculine words in the singular, but in the plural they also acquire the neuter gender (locus - place, loci - separate places, for example, excerpts from books; and loca - places, bound friend with a friend, region, locality). There are words of the neuter gender in the singular and masculine in the plural (coelum - coeli - sky). Some words change meaning depending on the number: aedes - temple (singular), house (plural); copia (singular) - abundance, copiae (plural) - army.

Some nouns are used only in the plural, for example: gray hairs (cani), weapons (arma). This category also includes the names of Roman and Greek holidays.

Similarly to Greek, all neuter names have the accusative case the same as the nominative case. In the accusative case of the plural, such names inherited from the common Indo-European language the sign of the collective concept - the ending a.

The Greek influence on Latin was also manifested in the fact that borrowed from the Greek word (especially proper names) when declensed, they can even retain their Greek case endings. In other cases, they are declined in both variants - both with Latin and Greek endings. The reproduction of Greek forms is most often seen in poets.

As in Greek and Russian, Latin nouns can have common roots with a verb, appear as complex words with different roots or with the help of suffixes, and a little less often with the help of prefixes. This greatly enriches the vocabulary, means of expression language, allows you to convey various shades. For example, there are nouns honor - honor; honestas - respect; honestudo - respect; honestamentum - decoration; honorarium - reward; honorificentia - respectfulness; honoripeta - ambitious; Honorius - Honorius, proper name.

In the dictionary, Latin nouns are given in the nominative singular, then the ending of the genitive singular is indicated and, in short, the gender of the word (m, f, n - masculine, feminine, neuter). In this way, the type of declination can be understood. For example: animal, alis, n animal. In archaic Latin, some case endings had a different form than in classical. In particular, they were more like Greek. For example, in the dative case of the singular in Latin there was a later lost diphthong with the sound i, and in Greek the iota moved to the position of a signed letter.

The first declension refers mainly to feminine nouns.

Case endings

The vocative case, both in the singular and in the plural, has the same ending as the nominative. In the plural, such a coincidence occurs in all declensions; in the singular, in other declensions, special vocative endings appear. In the accusative case of the singular in all declensions, the last letter is m.

Nouns of the II declension are mostly masculine.

Case endings

Second declension nouns can also have the nominative singular endings -er, -ir for masculine words and -um for neuter words. As an exception, there are feminine and neuter nouns ending in –us.

The third declension is the most difficult. It includes most nouns and many adjectives. In the nominative case, nouns have different endings and come in all genders - masculine, feminine and neuter.

Case endings

In some cases, some words have endings with slight features. They are inclined according to the mixed type and according to the vowel type. The mixed type in the genitive plural has the ending -ium instead of -um. The vowel type in the genitive plural has the same ending as the mixed one, and in the prepositional singular it has the ending -i instead of -e.

TO mixed type include words in which the number of syllables in the genitive case of the singular does not change, i.e. remains the same as it was in the dictionary form - nominative singular. Such words are called equivalents. The same type includes words that have two consonants before the ending of the genitive singular.

TO vowel type include words of the middle gender, in which the dictionary form (nominative singular) ends in -e, -al, -ar. Adjectives also belong to the vowel type.

The gender of words of the III declension can be determined from the dictionary.

However, there are some rules for this, each of which has exceptions. To facilitate the memorization of these exceptions, even in the textbooks of the 19th century for classical education, special mnemonic devices were used - the exceptions were listed in the form of poems with rhyme. These rules and practices are listed below.

Words ending in -o, -or, -er, -os are usually masculine. Feminine exceptions: Feminina sunt on -o: carnis, caro, -io, -do and -go, except ordo, pugio.

There is only one word for feminine in -os - dos. Os "bone" and os "mouth" are always of the middle kind. Exceptions of the neuter: Only the word cor is important in the neuter in –or. Feminini generis only arbor, arboris. Middle gender in -er sunt: ​​cadaver, iter, ver and pluralis - verbera.

Words ending in -es are feminine when they are equally syllables. In other cases, they are masculine. Feminine in -es: quies, merces and seges.

Words ending in -ex are masculine. Only lex should be remembered for the feminine gender in -ex. Words ending in -as, -is, -aus, -s are usually feminine. Exceptions: Masculina only as, and the average only vas.

Masculina sunt on -is all words on -cis, -quis, -nis; lapis, pullis, collis, mensis, also orbis. Masculina sunt on -ns: fons, mons, pons, and also dens.

Words ending in -e, -l, -ar are usually neuter. Masculine exceptions: Masculina - sal and sol and animals in -us - lepos, leporis and mus. Feminina is only tellus.

Words in -c, -e, -n, -t, -ur are usually neuter.

Words ending in -us are feminine when they end in -utis or -udis in the genitive singular. If in the nominative singular they end in -oris or -eris, then they are neuter.

The fourth declension includes the words male, which in the nominative case have the ending -us, and the words middle genders that have the ending -u in the nominative case.

As exceptions to the feminine the words include: domus - house, porticus - portico, manus - hand.

Case endings

Neuter nouns end in the nominative singular in -u and they have the same ending in the accusative singular. In the plural in the nominative and accusative cases, they end in -a.

The fifth declension includes feminine words. As an exception, both the feminine and the masculine gender of some writers include the words: dies - day, meridies - noon.

Case endings

Many words of the V declension do not have a plural or are not used in the plural in all cases.