The earliest monument of ancient Russian writing. Ancient Russian written monuments. Monuments of ancient Russian book writing of the XI-XIII centuries

Most of the oldest monuments of the Old Slavonic language that have come down to us are not dated, that is, they do not contain a direct indication of the time of their writing. However, according to paleographic and linguistic features, the time, as well as the place of their writing, can be established quite accurately. By content ancient monuments old Slavic writing for the most part are Greek liturgical books. These include the following.

1. The gospel is a book containing stories about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. There are two types of gospels:

1) four gospels - tetras containing the stories of the four evangelists: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John;

2) service gospels - aprakos containing gospel passages arranged in the order of weekly readings during the church service.

The following Old Slavonic gospels are known.

Zograf Four Gospels. It got its name from the name of the Athos monastery Zograf, where it was found.

Monument of the late X-XI century, written within Macedonia; contains 303 leaves, of which 17 (fol. 41-57) were inserted later.

Mariinsky Four Gospels. It got its name from the Mariinsky Monastery on Athos, from where it was brought in 1845 by V. I. Grigorovich.

Monument of the 11th century, written within Macedonia, but with some features of the Serbian language; contains 172 sheets.

Assemanian Service Gospel. It got its name from Father I. Assemani, who brought it in 1736 from Jerusalem to Italy.

The monument of the 11th century, written within Macedonia, contains 158 sheets.

Savvin's book (service gospel). It got its name from the name of the scribe, the priest Savva, who left on two sheets of the manuscript (sheets 49 and 54) postscripts with his name.

The monument of the 11th century, written within Eastern Bulgaria, contains 129 sheets.

Published by V. N. Shchepkin: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 1. Issue. 2. St. Petersburg, 1903.

It is stored in the fund of the Printing Library in the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts (TsGADA) in Moscow.

Sheets of Undolsky (excerpts from the service gospel). They got their name from the name of the bibliophile V. M. Undolsky, to whom they once belonged.

Published by E. F. Karsky: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 1. Issue. 3. St. Petersburg, 1904.

Stored in the State national library in Moscow.

Ohrid Leaflets (Gospel passages). They got their name from the city of Ohrid, where they were found by V. I. Grigorovich in 1845.

Monument of the 11th century, contains 2 leaves.

Published: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 1. Issue. 2. Part 2. St. Petersburg, 1915.

Stored in the manuscript fund of the Odessa State Scientific Library.

Bonn Service Gospel. It got its name from the village of Boyana near Sofia, where it was found by V. I. Grigorovich in 1845.

Monument of the end of the XI century.

Published in Bulgarian scientist Ivan Dobrev: Glagolitic text on the Boyansky palimpsest: Old Bulgarian monument from the edge of the XI century. Sofia, 1972.

Stored in the State National Library in Moscow.

Ostromir gospel (service gospel). It got its name after the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, for whom it was copied in Rus' in 1056-1057. from the East Bulgarian original.

Published by A. Kh. Bostonov: Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. St. Petersburg, 1843, and photolithographically by I. Savinkov (St. Petersburg, 1883, 1889).

Stored in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg.

The rest of the gospel manuscripts already belong to different editions. Thus, for example, the Arkhangelsk Gospel of 1092 and the Galician Gospel of 1144, like the Ostromir Gospel, were written in Rus', but are significantly inferior to the latter in antiquity. Miroslav's Gospel of the 12th century, Vukanov's Gospel of the 13th century. and St. Nicholas Gospel of the XIV century. - monuments of the Serbian edition, and the Dobromir Gospel of the XII century. and the Dobreishevo Gospel of the 13th century. - monuments of the Bulgarian version.

2. Psalter - a book containing chants (psalms) to the glory of God, attributed to the biblical king and prophet David.

The following manuscripts of the psalter are known.

Sinai Psalter. It got its name from the Catherine's Monastery in Sinai.

Monument of the 11th century, written within Macedonia; contains 177 sheets.

The best edition is S. Severyanova: Psalter of Sinai. Pg., 1922. Kept in the Sinai Monastery of St. Catherine.

All other lists of the psalter belong to different editions, for example:

The Chudov Psalter is a monument of the Russian edition of the 11th century. Published: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 3. Issue. 1. St. Petersburg, 1910. Stored in the State Historical Museum in Moscow.

The Eugene Psalter is a monument of the Russian edition of the 11th century.

Published phototypically by V. V. Kolesov: Materials and communications on Slavic studies. VIII. Szeged, 1972.

Stored in the Russian National Library and in the Library Russian Academy sciences in St. Petersburg.

The Bologna Psalter is a monument of the Bulgarian version of the beginning of the 13th century.

Stored in the Library University of Bologna(Italy).

3. Apostle - a book containing the deeds and messages of the apostles (from the Greek "messenger") - the disciples of Jesus Christ. Until recently, the apostle was known only in later lists of various versions. Such, for example, are the Ohrid and Slepchensky apostles of the 12th century. Bulgarian edition, Shisha-tovatsky apostle of 1324 of the Serbian edition. But in the 60s of the XX century. an ancient list of the 11th century was discovered in Bulgaria:

Eninsky apostle. It got its name from the village of Enin, where it was discovered. The poorly preserved manuscript contains 39 leaves.

Published by K. Mirchev and Chr. Kodov: Eninsky apostle: Starobl-garsky monument from the 11th century. Sofia, 1966.

Stored in the People's Library. Cyril and Methodius in Sofia.

4. Menaion (from the Greek | 1Г | У "month") - a book for church reading for all days of the month, including the lives of the saints, legends about the martyrdom and asceticism of the saints, the works of the church fathers.

Suprasl manuscript (March Menaion). It got its name from the Suprasl Monastery near Bialystok, where it was found at the beginning of the 19th century.

Monument of the 11th century, painted within Eastern Bulgaria. Contains 285 sheets.

The complete edition of the monument was carried out by S. Severyanov: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 2. Issue. 1. St. Petersburg, 1904. A new two-volume edition with Greek parallels was carried out by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences: Supraslski or Retkov collection. T. 1-2. Sofia, 1982-1983.

At present, the manuscript of this monument is scattered. The first 113 sheets, which belonged to the famous Slavist V. Kopitar, are kept in the Lyceum Library in Ljubljana; the next 16 sheets are in the National Library of Russia in St. Petersburg and 151 sheets are in Warsaw.

The remaining lists of the Menaion belong to different editions.

5. Similar in content to the Menaion are collections that included homilies, homily (sermons), eulogies, and similar writings. Small fragments from these collections have come down to us.

Collection of Klotz. It is named after the owner of the library where V. Kopitar discovered it.

The monument is small in size (14 sheets), rewritten in Macedonia. Many scholars (Fr. Grivets, A. Vaillant, I. Vashitsa) consider the so-called anonymous homily from this collection to be the work of Methodius.

The manuscript is scattered, 12 sheets are kept in Trento (Trident), 2 sheets are in Innsbruck.

Hilandar leaves. The name was given to the Athos monastery Hilandar, where they were found.

Monument of the 11th century (2 sheets) of Eastern Bulgarian origin, contains an excerpt from the teachings of Cyril of Jerusalem.

Latest edition: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 1. Issue. 1. St. Petersburg, 1900.

Stored in the manuscript fund of the Odessa State Scientific Library.

Zograph sheets. They are named after the Zograf monastery. Monument of the 11th century (2 sheets) of Eastern Bulgarian origin, contains an excerpt from the "Rules" of Basil the Great.

Macedonian leaf.

Monument of the 11th century, presumably contains an excerpt from the work of John the Exarch of Bulgaria.

Published: Monuments of the Old Slavonic language. T. 1. Issue. 5. St. Petersburg, 1906. Stored in the Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

6. Trebnik, or euchology (from the Greek "prayer book") - a book containing prayers and requirements (church services for various occasions).

Sinai breviary. It got its name from the Catherine Monastery in Sinai.

The monument of the 11th century, copied from the Moravian-Pannonian original in Macedonia, contains 106 leaves. The fact that the original of the monument can be attributed to the Moravian-Pannonian period of Old Slavonic writing is evidenced by translations from German and Latin, included in this manuscript along with translations from Greek.

The latest and best edition -- R. Nachtigal:

The main part is kept in the Sinai Monastery of St. Catherine; 4 sheets are stored in the National Library of Russia in St. Petersburg: 1 sheet was taken out by acad. N.P. Kondakov and donated to the Imperial Public Library, 3 more sheets (Porfiryevsky sheets) were presented to the Rev. Porfiry.

Rylsky sheets. They got their name from the Bulgarian Rila Monastery, where they were discovered in different time by different scientists. The first sheet and clipping was discovered by V. I. Grigorovich in 1845 (Macedonian Glagolitic sheet). On the binding of manuscript No. 3/6, sheets IV, VI and VIII were discovered by K. Irechek in 1880, and the last sheets (III, V, VII) were discovered by I. Ivanov in 1936. According to I. Goshev, the Rylsky sheets containing Ephraim the Syrian's words of instruction and Lenten prayers were included either in a complete euchology or in a special collection of prayers related to the sacraments of confession and communion.

The monument contains 7 sheets and 3 clippings.

Published in full by I. Goshev: Rilski Glagolitic List. Sofia, 1956.

Stored in the Rila Monastery in Bulgaria.

All other translations of Greek books that should be associated with the activities of Cyril and Methodius have come down to us in later lists of various editions. Such are the books of the biblical prophets and the nomocanon.

For example, the nomocanon, a collection containing ecclesiastical statutes, has come down to us in a list of the thirteenth century. Russian edition.

The Kiev missal is the oldest monument of Old Slavonic writing that has come down to us. Contains an excerpt from the mass (mass) according to the Roman rite and is a translation from Latin. It got its name in connection with its discovery in Kyiv in 1874, where it was brought from Jerusalem.

A monument of the 10th century, written, apparently, within the limits of Moravia: West Slavic features clearly appear in its language. Not directly connected with the missionary activity of Cyril and Methodius, who translated Greek liturgical books, the Kiev Missal shows the desire of a certain part of the Catholic clergy to perform worship in the Slavic language.

Stored in the library of the Kyiv Theological Academy.

In addition to manuscripts, several more Old Slavonic inscriptions have come down to us. Some of them are dated. Thus, the inscription on the tombstone of the relatives of the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil is dated 993, and the inscription on the stone found during the construction of the Danube-Black Sea canal in Dobruja is dated 943. The inscriptions on the ruins of the Simeon Church in Preslav and others are not dated.

Insignificant in volume, these inscriptions are not of great interest for the study of the Old Church Slavonic language, but their readings are very important for resolving issues related to the fact that all monuments of Old Church Slavonic writing are written in two alphabets.

The inscriptions of Iv. Goshev: Old-Bolgar Glagolitic and Cyrillic inscriptions from the 9th and 10th centuries. Sofia, 1963.

Old Church Slavonic language writing alphabet

ABCs of Old Slavonic writing

The Old Slavonic alphabets, in which the monuments that have come down to us are written, are called the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets (see table on pp. 24-25). Cyrillic is the Slavic alphabet that underlies the modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Serbian and Macedonian alphabets. The Glagolitic alphabet is a very peculiar, intricate, loop-like letter, which for a long time (until the 17th century) in a slightly modified, “angular” form was used by the Croats. As a church letter, its use in Croatia is known up to the present. The Kiev missal, Zografskoe, Mariinsky, Asse-manievo and Boyansky gospels of the 11th century, the Sinai psalter, the Sinai breviary, the collection of Klots, the Ohrid and Ryl-sky leaflets were written in Glagolitic. In addition, the so-called Prague passages are written in Glagolitic - a monument of the end of the 11th - 12th centuries. with features of the Czech language and all the monuments of the Croatian version, which come from the XII century.

The rest of the Old Slavonic monuments are written in Cyrillic, but some of them contain Glagolitic letters and even individual words written in Glagolitic. (See a sample of the Cyrillic script in Fig. 2, of the Glagolitic one in Fig. 3.)

By its origin, the Cyrillic alphabet is a historically established script. It is based on the so-called statutory (uncial) Greek script, supplemented by letters for specifically Slavic sounds, which are stylized as the Greek uncial: cf. the Greek-Slavic letter v and the Slavonic k.

The question of the origin of the Glagolitic is still debatable. There is a lot different versions, linking the origin of the Glagolitic alphabet with one or another alphabet. For example, I. Taylor, A. Leskin, V. Yagich associated the Glagolitic alphabet with the Greek script, but not with the statutory one, but with italic (minuscular). P. I. Shafarik, F. F. Fortunatov, V. Vondrak, I. Weiss, A. M. Selishchev pointed to the connection of the Glagolitic script with Hebrew (Samaritan) and Coptic writing. M. Gaster and R. Abicht noted the connection of the Glagolitic alphabet with the Armenian and Georgian alphabets.

However, all attempts to consider the Glagolitic as a historically developed writing did not bring positive results. Therefore, in Lately in the works of various scientists, the idea that the Glagolitic alphabet is an alphabet artificially created for the needs of church writing, the fruit of individual invention (A. Vaian, E. Georgiev, E. E. Gran-strem, V. R. Kiparsky) is increasingly heard.

The names of Slavic letters, as well as their order in Glagolitic and Cyrillic are the same. But the composition of the letters and their numerical values ​​do not match. The Slavs, like other peoples, for example, the Greeks, did not have special signs (numbers) for transmitting numbers, but wrote them down using letters, supplying the latter with special signs:

The numerical values ​​of the Cyrillic alphabet correspond to the Greek numerals, therefore, on the one hand, the Slavic letters that are absent in the Greek alphabet, for example, b, g, do not have a numerical value, on the other hand, such Greek characters were included in the Cyrillic alphabet, which originally served among the Slavs only for transferring numbers.

The numerical values ​​of the Glagolitic alphabet correspond to the order of the letters of the Slavic alphabet, which differed from the order of the letters of the Greek alphabet.

The original number of letters in the Slavic alphabets can hardly be precisely established. Perhaps, if we trust the Legend of the Letters of the Brave, the author of the oldest argument about the creation of the alphabet by Cyril, there were 38 of them. The same number of letters in both the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets is given in the so-called Munich Abetsedaria, a Latin manuscript of the 11th century stored in the city library Munich. However, some scientists (N.N. Durnovo, N.S. Trubetskoy, A. Vaian and others) reasonably believe that there were 36 letters in the original Slavic alphabet.

In the same way, the original order of those Slavic letters that go at the end of the alphabet and do not have a numerical value is not entirely clear. The order of the Slavic letters in the alphabet can be indicated by the oldest alphabetic prayers (acrostics), but they also give different indications for the final letters of the Slavic alphabet.

The oldest monuments of writing (Church Slavonic and Old Russian languages)

The concept of "monuments of writing" should not be confused with the concept of "monuments of the literary language". Monuments of writing are books, letters, inscriptions on household items, on leather, paper, on fabric, on the walls of churches, on icons, on church utensils, on bells, on bones, on metal, on stone, etc.

Reliable evidence of the initial stages of the emergence and spread of Slavic writing is almost completely absent, so ideas about its history are full of various assumptions. For example, in academic circles there is a heated debate about the existence of pre-Cyrillic writing. Arabic writer el Massoudi in the essay "Golden Meadows" claims that he discovered in one of the "Russian temples" a prophecy inscribed on a stone. Arabic writer Abul-Faraj Mohammed ibn-abi-Yakub (Nadine) in his essay “The Book of Painting News about Scientists and the Names of the Books They Compiled” talks about Russian letters that were carved on wooden planks. (1) E Bishop Dietmar of Merseburg indicates that in pagan (2) the temple of the city of Retra on Slavic idols their names were inscribed with special signs. Khrabrov claims that the Slavs owned "features and cuts", which were intended for counting, calendar observations, and were used as signs of belonging.

IN " History of the Russian state» N.M. Karamzin , referring to the runes on the figures from the temple of Retra, writes: “ Be that as it may, but the Veneds, or the pagan Slavs who lived in the Baltic countries, knew the use of letters<…>the inscriptions are in Runes borrowed by the Wends from the Gothic peoples<…>The Bohemian, Illyric and Russian Slavs did not have any alphabet until 863". In 863 the brothers (3) Constantine (or Cyril) and Methodius carried out work on the standardization of Slavic writing.

Until recently, the oldest dated Slavic inscription was considered to be the inscription of 993, made in Cyrillic letters on the tombstone of the family members of the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil in Macedonia. But discovered in 1949 in Gnezdovo near Smolensk, (4) the inscription on a fragment of a clay vessel is younger than Samuel's gravestone by about half a century. The inscription consists of only one word, the deciphering of which is disputed. This word is read in different ways: “pea”, “pea”. They interpret it as “mustard” or “fuel”.

The oldest dated Glagolitic inscription is the entry of 982 on the Greek deed of the Iberian Monastery.

(5-7) A lot of monuments of ancient writing in Rus' have been preserved in Novgorod. These include, first of all, various trade, economic and household records on birch bark (the so-called birch bark letters). They also include: playful inscriptions found on the walls of St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (for example: “Akime, standing, ousne, but mouth and stone are not rostepe"); numerous inscriptions and stamps, digital or with the names of artisans, applied to building slabs, bricks, shoe lasts, weapons, etc.; equally numerous inscriptions with the names of girls and women found on (8) spindle whorls of the 11th-12th centuries. (Spindle - stone rings worn on a spindle to speed up rotation. All these monuments are made in Cyrillic.

Meanwhile, the use of Slavic writing for commercial and domestic purposes could develop only much later than for church and state needs.

(9-10) Church Slavonic language, as a literary and liturgical language, received in IX V. widespread use among all Slavic peoples baptized by the first teachers or their students: Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Czechs, Moravans, Russians, perhaps even Poles and Slovenes. It has been preserved in a number of monuments of Church Slavonic writing, hardly going further XI V. Church Slavonic has never been a spoken language. As a book, it was opposed to living national languages. As a literary language, it was a standardized language, and the standard was determined not only by the place where the text was rewritten, but also by the nature and purpose of the text itself.

The development of the Russian literary language proper during XVIII century, during which elements of colloquial, business and high style were streamlined in it, led to the fact that the Russian language became suitable for expressing an ever wider range of concepts, while the scope of use of the Church Slavonic language gradually narrowed, so that now Church Slavonic is used only in the church.

None of the forms of the Church Slavonic language is identical with Old Russian language(information about which is extremely fragmentary due to the small number of written monuments), although both were used in Rus' and, naturally, they could not help but influence each other. Old Russian language- the language of the Eastern Slavs in the period from about the 6th to the 13th-14th centuries, the common ancestor of the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages.

The Old Russian language included many different dialects and was the result of their convergence, which was facilitated by the unification of the Eastern Slavs as part of Kievan Rus. The Old Russian written language, as a rule, used only one of the Slavic alphabets - Cyrillic.

(11) Now more about the Ostromir gospel. The exact period of its writing is known: 1056 - 1057. The gospel is written on parchment with gold mortar and richly decorated with ornaments. The gospel includes 294 leaves. The names of the people who wrote the Ostromir gospel are known. This is the deacon Grigory and the mayor Ostromir (Stromil), who instructed him to write.

Another written monument of the 11th century is the signature of the French queen Anna Yaroslavovna, who was the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, under a Latin letter of 1063. The signature consists of two words "Anna rina", which means Anna regina (queen)

(12) The Izbornik of Svyatoslav dates back to 1073. Izbornik consists of 266 sheets. This is a translation of Greek books into Old Church Slavonic. The Izbornik contains information of a scientific nature in mathematics, astronomy, and the theory of literature.

Many written monuments belong to the 11th century: (14) The Archangel Gospel of 1092, the Novgorod Service Menaion of 1095-1097, the Explanatory Psalter of the Chudovsky Monastery, (15) Pandects of Antioch, 13 words of Gregory the Theologian, Efremov's helmsman and many others.

One of the most valuable monuments of Slavic writing is (16) “The Sermon on Law and Grace” is a solemn speech delivered by Metropolitan Hilarion, who performed the divine service in the presence of Prince Yaroslav. The text of the word was recorded between 1037-1050.

Monuments of the 12th century Monuments of the 12th century are (16) Letter of Mstislav, which was written in 1130 and Varlaam's contribution to the Khutyn Monastery, which was written presumably in 1192. The letter of Mstislav is a donation of Princes Mstislav Vladimirovich - the son of Vladimir Monomakh - and Vsevolod to the monastery of St. George. The charter was written in gold mortar, to which vegetable glue was added and certified with a gilded seal.

Monuments of the 12th century are (17) Mstislav Gospel (1117), (18) St. George's Gospel (1120), Dobrilovo Gospel (1164).

Monuments of the 13th-14th centuries This period includes the "Treaty letter of the Smolensk prince Mstislav Davidovich with Riga and the Gothic coast", several Novgorod letters: Treaty letter of Novgorod with the Germans (1262 - 1263), (19) Treaty letter of Novgorod with Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich (1264-1265).

(20) One of the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature of the 13th century is Russkaya Pravda. Russian truth is a set of laws of ancient Rus'. It began to be written as early as the 11th century during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Then Russkaya Pravda was rewritten and supplemented. The document has come down to us in later lists of the 14th and 15th centuries.

The monument of the 13th-14th centuries is (21) Synodal copy of the First Novgorod Chronicle, which is currently in the Moscow Historical Museum. The later list is (26) Laurentian Chronicle(1377), which was rewritten by the monk Lavrenty. The Laurentian Chronicle contains the famous (22) "The Tale of Bygone Years", which was written in the 12th century, but in its original version has not been preserved to this day. It has come down to us as part of a later copy of the Laurentian Chronicle.

Monuments of writing 15-17 centuries The monuments of this period include the Ipatiev Chronicle, numerous spiritual letters, (23) a list of the "Words about Igor's Campaign" of the 16th century, which was destroyed by the Moscow fire of 1812. There are fierce disputes about the time of writing "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Some scholars believe that the "Word .." was written in the 12th century. Others, analyzing the language of the "Words ...", believe that it could not have been created before the 14th century. Of the written monuments of the 16th-17th centuries, it is worth noting the "Journey beyond the three seas" of the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin, (24) Sudebnik of Tsar Ivan the Terrible (List of the 17th century), Domostroy (list of the end of the 16th century) and (25) Life of Archpriest Avvakum (mid-17th century).

Monuments of writing are an invaluable document for scientists who reconstruct the language and oral speech of a particular historical period.

slide 1

MONUMENTS OF SLAVIC WRITING

slide 2

The Slavic alphabet existed in two versions: Glagolitic - from verb - "speech" and Cyrillic (). Until now, scientists have no consensus on which of these two options was created by Konstantin (Kirill). Most modern researchers believe that he created the Glagolitic alphabet. Later (apparently, at the cathedral in Preslav, in the capital of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon in 893), the Cyrillic alphabet appeared, which eventually replaced the Glagolitic.
In Cyrillic letters have a simpler and clearer form for us. And it was the Cyrillic alphabet that became the basis of our Russian alphabet.
Sample letter in Glagolitic. Zograph Gospel, 11th century
Cyrillic writing sample Arkhangelsk Gospel, XI century.
?
?
What alphabet did Constantine create?

slide 3

One of the important sources on the history of Slavic writing is the "Legend of the Letters", written at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century by a certain Chernoriz (monk) Brave. "Tale" it was quite popular at the time medieval Rus', this is evidenced by the number of lists of "Tales" that have come down to us. Of the 73 surviving manuscript lists of the XIV-XVIII centuries, more than half are of Old Russian origin. This work of the ancient Bulgarian scribe is written in Church Slavonic and tells about the features of the Slavic alphabet, about the conditions for its occurrence. Chernorizet Khrabr wrote that Cyril relied on the experience of creating world alphabets and even began his alphabet with the same letter as the earlier Hebrew and Greek alphabets, but streamlined the Slavonic letter and thereby accomplished a scientific feat.
"Legend of letters"

slide 4

“... Saint Cyril created the first letter “Az”. That first letter "Az", given by God to the Slavic race to open the mouth to the mind, learning letters, is proclaimed by a great separation of the lips. And other letters are proclaimed and pronounced by a small parting of the mouth. Here are the Slavic letters, as they should be written and pronounced: az, beeches, lead, verb, good ... to yus. There are twenty-four in all, like Greek letters,
and fourteen - in Slavic speech ... "
This:
and this:
"Legend of letters"

slide 5

Glagolitic monuments
Zograph gospel. Glagolitic, 11th century.
How to explain the origin of the Glagolitic alphabet? Many linguists have tried to give a more or less satisfactory answer to this question, but their attempts have not been successful. Finally, scientists were forced to admit that the Glagolitic alphabet is not like any other letter and most likely was completely invented by the Thessalonica brothers Cyril and Methodius, as, however, the ancient Slavic copy of the Russian edition “Praise to Saints Cyril and Methodius” testifies: believing, not from the beginning of the writing of the image They did their work, relying not on someone else's basis, but reinvented the letters.
It was in the Glagolitic alphabet that the most ancient Slavic books were written in the 9th century.

slide 6

The characters of the Greek statutory alphabet served as a model for writing Cyrillic letters. The first books in Cyrillic were also written in the charter. A charter is such a letter when the letters are written straight and at the same distance from each other (without tilt) - they are, as it were, “lined”. The letters are strictly geometric, vertical lines are usually thicker than horizontal ones, there is no gap between words. Old Russian manuscripts of the 9th - 14th centuries were written in the charter.
From the middle of the 14th century, the semi-charter became widespread, which was less beautiful than the charter, but allowed you to write faster. There was a slope in the letters, their geometry is not so noticeable; the ratio of thick and thin lines is no longer maintained; The text has already been divided into words.
In the 15th century, semi-ustav gave way to cursive writing. Manuscripts written in the "quick custom" are distinguished by the coherent writing of neighboring letters, the sweeping of the letter. In cursive writing, each letter had many spellings. With the development of speed, signs of individual handwriting appear.
Cyrillic script

Slide 7

More than a hundred years have passed since the Slavic primary teachers Konstantin-Cyril and Methodius taught the Slavs to read and write. It took more than a century for books written in Slavonic to finally appear in Rus'. This happened simultaneously with the baptism of Rus', in 988. Rus', which adopted Christianity, could no longer do without books - liturgical and fourth, that is, intended for reading, and not for worship. Chet books usually contained the lives of the saints, various teachings, stories about Christian ascetics.
Brought along with new religion book learning gave, for example, abundant shoots in Novgorod. Biblical manuscripts of various kinds and types were brought here from the south, here they were copied and multiplied as Novgorod churches and monasteries multiplied. Correspondence of books was considered a charitable deed ...

Slide 8

Savvin's book - excerpts from the Gospel. Sheet with initial B, circa 1220
The first Slavic books brought to Rus' were quite simple. We know about this because one such book written by a South Slavic scribe has survived to our time. The book, or rather, this little book, is quite small. It is a third smaller than a school notebook, but thicker: it has 166 sheets (traditionally, in handwritten books, the number of sheets, not pages, is determined; if the book has 166 sheets, then there are twice as many pages in it - 332) . This nondescript book is considered the oldest surviving Cyrillic manuscript. It is called "Savva's book", because at the bottom of one of the sheets an entry was found: "priest Savva wrote." The scribe of this manuscript of the Gospel left us his name. Savvin's book is written in a handwriting called charter. This is a clear and even handwriting, similar to our "printed" letter; he wrote most of the parchment Slavic books.
Savvin's book

Slide 9

nee, arguing, of course, that it is easier to teach children the wisdom of books than adults. The same chronicler testifies to how new a thing book learning was, saying that "the mothers of these children wept for them ... as for the dead." A little later, the son of Prince Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, establishes schools in Novgorod. In 1030, according to the I Sophia Chronicle, Yaroslav the Wise "came to Novgorod to gather from the elders and from priestly children 300 to teach books." In ancient Russian cities, church ministers, theologians, and scribes taught literacy. The teachers of reading and writing were scribes and scribes of chronicles and books. Churches and monasteries became centers of the new Christian culture.
the initial Russian chronicle under the year 988 reports that Kyiv prince Volodimer Svyatoslavich “began to take children from noble people and give them to book studies.
This is how an unknown artist of the early 18th century depicted a lesson in an old Russian school

Slide 10

Under Yaroslav the Wise, churches were built in Novgorod, the priests of which were ordered to teach people to read and write. And it can be argued that Yaroslav introduced Rus' into the circle of European thought, giving the Russian people literacy and books - a storehouse of wisdom.
“Just as if someone plowed the land, and another sowed, and others began to reap and eat plentiful food, so Prince Vladimir plowed and softened the hearts of people, enlightening them with baptism: his son Yaroslav sowed them with book words, and we are now reaping by accepting the teaching of the book.”
Novgorod became a kind of center, supplying books to numerous churches throughout the Novgorod land. It is known that books written in Novgorod were considered standards for copyists of books in other cities.
From the chronicler's review of the activities of Vladimir and Yaroslav:
Yaroslav the Wise

slide 11

The most ancient writing material, convenient for storage and transportation, was papyrus (Greek: papuroz), made from a reed-like plant.
Papyrus was a rarity, so in many countries they soon began to use parchment (parchment) - a writing material made from animal skin. For the manufacture of parchment, very thin skins of calves, lambs and kids were used. The skins were bleached in a solution of bleach, stretched over a wooden frame, and then carefully scraped from both sides. Sheets of parchment were cut along the edges, giving them a rectangular shape. When writing, the sheets were folded in half and received four book pages.
Parchment was expensive, so you had to turn to the material that nature itself supplied. They became birch bark - the top layer of birch bark - a very convenient material for writing. On the birch bark were written (scratched with a bone rod) numerous letters of our ancestors: these are household records, and private letters, and complaints, and business assignments ...
What was written in ancient Rus'?

slide 12

Birch letter. XI century. Letter from the Public Expenditure Collector.
Novgorod, many people, not only noble and rich, were literate. Confirmation of this is a lot of birch bark letters that archaeologists found under the ancient wooden pavements of the city. With a sharp chisel, people wrote messages to each other on birch bark (leaves from the top layer of birch bark).
They sent short notes with requests: “Bow from Yakov to the godfather and friend Maxim. Buy me, I bow, Andrey's oats, if he sells. Take a letter from him and send me a good reading ... "Sometimes letters were sent with edification and reproach:" A bow from Yakov to his godfather and friend Maxim. As agreed, send me a second horse. Well, why did you put me in such danger a second time? And I, not having a second horse, abandoned my property, and lost part of it.
Birch bark

slide 13

About how people learned to write in ancient times, we are told by the old Russian school “notebooks” of the boy Onfim, found in Novgorod during archaeological excavations. Parchment was an expensive material, and, of course, it was not used for schoolwork. The “notebooks” found by archaeologists are the bottom of an old birch bark, strips and pieces of birch bark, on which letters were scratched with a sharp tool.
The letter's inscription is made on the oval bottom of the tues. Along the edges of the bottom, traces of bonding with the walls of the tuesca are visible. On the front page, the entire alphabet is carefully written out from "A" to "Z"; then warehouses follow: "ba, va, ha ..." and so on until "sha", then "be, ve, ge ..." and so on with almost all the letters of the alphabet. It can be seen that literacy was taught in warehouses.
Notebooks of the boy Onfim
Here are two funny people. They have the wrong number of fingers on their hands - 3 and 8. This is evidence that Onfim still could not count.
Notebooks of the boy Onfim

Slide 14

Later, in 1037-1039, it was revised and became part of the most ancient Kyiv code, which was maintained at the church of St. Sophia by order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. This collection was later also reworked and rewritten many times by the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, until it took its final form and became known as The Tale of Bygone Years.
CHRONICLE
Chronicle writing, as a specific literary genre, originated in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century. The first annalistic code of Ancient Rus' was the Kievan annals code of 996-997.
This chronicle that has come down to us sets out the events of Russian history up to the 10s of the XII century. Its first edition was compiled around 1113 by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery.
Vasnetsov. Chronicler Nestor.

slide 15

Monument to Nestor the Chronicler. Kyiv
"The Tale of Bygone Years" tells about the events that took place in Rus' until the XII century.
"The Tale of Bygone Years"
“... Behold the tales of bygone years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv first began to reign, and where did the land come from ...”
Nestor the Chronicler. Kyiv

slide 16

What is what?
CHRONICLES - historical works, a type of narrative literature in Russia in the 11th-17th centuries, consisted of weather records or were monuments of complex composition - chronicle vaults. The chronicles were all-Russian (for example, The Tale of Bygone Years, the Nikon Chronicle, etc.) and local (Novgorod Chronicles, etc.).
Chronicler - terminologically the same as chronicle. For example, the Radzivilov Chronicle begins with the words: “This book is a chronicler,” and Ermolinskaya: “The chronicler of Russia is all from beginning to end.” The Sofia First Chronicle also calls itself: "Chronicler of the Russian land ...". (The spelling of the word itself in handwritten originals: in the first two cases with " soft sign", in the latter - without it). TEMPORARY - used to be used as synonyms for the words "chronicle" and "chronicler" (for example, "Russian Time", "Ivan Timofeev's Time"). So, the Novgorod first chronicle of the younger edition opens with the words: “Vremennik hedgehog is called the annals of princes and the land of Ruskia ...”. CHRONOGRAPH - a medieval historical work in the Orthodox countries - Byzantium, Bulgaria, Serbia, Russia, a synonym for "chronicles". Some later Russian chronicles are also called chronographs.

Slide 17

What is what?
CHRONICLE CODE - a combination into a single narrative of various chronicle records, documents, acts, fiction stories and hagiographic works. The vast majority of chronicles that have come down to us are vaults. CHRONICLE LIST - rewritten at different times, by different persons (and also in different places) the same chronicle texts. It is clear that the same chronicle can have many lists. For example, the Ipatiev Chronicle is known in eight lists. For example, the Novgorod First and Sofia Chronicles of the older and younger editions are known, which differ from each other in terms of language features.
CHRONICLE (in Old Russian - kronika) - the meaning is the same as "chronograph" or "chronicle", but it was distributed mainly in Western European countries, as well as in Slavic countries gravitating towards the West (Poland, Czech Republic, Croatia and etc.).

Slide 18

What is what?
"TALE OF TIME YEARS" - an all-Russian annalistic code, compiled in Kyiv in the second decade of the 12th century. Nestor. Edited by Sylvester et al. The text includes chronicles from the 11th century. and other sources. The history of Rus' in The Tale of Bygone Years is connected with world history and the history of the Slavs. formed the basis of most of the surviving chronicles.
Ipatiev Monastery.
LAVRENTIEVSKAYA CHRONICLE - written by the monk Lavrenty and other scribes in 1377. Based on the Vladimir code of 1305. The Tale of Bygone Years begins (the oldest list). IPATIEVSKAYA CHRONICLE - a code of the beginning of the 15th century, goes back to the South Russian chronicle of the end of the 13th century. Includes "The Tale of Bygone Years" with a continuation until 1117, Kiev collection of the end of the XII century, Galician-
Volyn Chronicle. It was kept in the Ipatiev Monastery (near Kostroma). VOSKRESENSKAYA CHRONICLE - an all-Russian collection of the 16th century, distinguished by the completeness of the use of sources. One of the lists was kept in the New Jerusalem (Resurrection) Monastery (modern city of Istra, Moscow Region).

Slide 19

NIKONOVSKAYA CHRONICLE - an all-Russian collection of the 16th century. Compilation of many sources on the history of Russia. Compiled around 1539-42. In the 40-60s. XVI century, on the basis of the Nikon Chronicle, the Front Chronicle Code was compiled. One of the copies of the Nikon chronicle (mid-17th century) belonged to Patriarch Nikon. "KAZAN CHRONICLE" is a Russian historical story about the Kazan Khanate ("kingdom") from ancient times to 1552. Compiled around 1564-1566. by an unknown author according to Tatar legends, written sources, etc.
What is what?
NOVGOROD CHRONICLES - lists of chronicles dedicated to the history of Novgorod and other Russian lands from the 11th to the 17th centuries. Published Novgorod chronicles are designated No. I-V. The composition of the Novgorod First Chronicle includes a Brief Edition of the Russian Truth, part of the annalistic code that preceded the Tale of Bygone Years, and others. PSKOV CHRONICLES - compiled in Pskov in the XIV-XVII centuries. Dedicated to the history of Pskov, the peoples of the Baltic states and other events.
Nikon chronicle

Slide 20

A miniature of the Illuminated Chronicle depicting blacksmiths at work.
Front Chronicle
Prince Dmitry comes out with an army towards Mamai. (The front annalistic code. The second Ostermanovsky volume, p. 146).
In Muscovite Rus' in the 16th century, two remarkable and unparalleled handwritten monuments were created. These are the Great Menaion-Cheti, compiled on the initiative of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, and the Front Chronicle, which was created by order of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible.
In 1568, in Alexander Sloboda, where the court of Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich was then located, work began on compiling a grandiose illustrated chronicle (“from the creation of the world” to 1567). 10 volumes have survived to our time, about twenty thousand pages, decorated with sixteen thousand (can you imagine!) miniatures, or facial images (why the chronicle itself was called the Facial). The work on the chronicle remained unfinished, some miniatures did not even have time to color ...

slide 21

CHRONICLE
Officially, chronicle writing in Rus' lasted a little over six centuries. The first chronicles, modeled on Byzantine chronographs, were created in the 11th century, and by the end of the 17th century, everything ended by itself: the time of the Petrine reforms began, and printed books replaced handwritten creations. Over the course of six centuries, thousands and thousands of chronicle lists were created, but about one and a half thousand of them have survived to this day. The rest - including the very first ones - died as a result of pogroms and fires. There are not so many independent chronicles: the vast majority of lists are handwritten replication of the same primary sources. The oldest surviving chronicles are considered: the Synodal list of the Novgorod First (XIII-XIV centuries), Lavrentievskaya (1377), Ipatievskaya (XV century), illustrated Radzivilovskaya (XV century).
(continuation)
Tambov chronicle, XVII century

slide 22

A large state required a huge amount of official papers. Decrees and orders, treaties and sentences, reports and denunciations were written on paper ... Paper sheets of one case were glued together like sheets of papyrus once - into scrolls, which in Rus' were called columns. (By the way, the European name for paper - paper, as in English, or paper, as in French - comes precisely from the name of the ancient Egyptian writing material.) It was necessary to write quickly. For this, over time, a special type of writing is developed - cursive. Note that the works of secular literature were created not in strict Church Slavonic, but in a simplified, close to spoken or command language. The command language is the direct successor of the language of birch bark letters, princely agreements, contributions and spiritual letters - this is the language of state office work, the language of officials. Orders in the Muscovite kingdom were what we now call ministries.
How cursive appeared
Contribution letter. 1592

slide 23

"Light, you are ours!"
A long time ago, when the history of the great Russian state was just beginning, "she" was very expensive. Her one could be exchanged for a herd of horses, a herd of cows, for sable coats. And the point here is not in the decorations in which the beautiful and clever girl was dressed up. And she walked only in embossed leather, pearls and precious stones! Gold and silver clasps adorned her outfit! Admiring her, people said: “Light, you are ours!” … What kind of curiosity is this? This is HER Majesty - THE BOOK. She has preserved to us the Word of God and the traditions of distant years.

slide 24

The most ancient Russian book that has come down to us, with exact dating, is the Gospel, made by the deacon Gregory by order of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, started by correspondence on October 21, 1056 and completed on May 12, 1057. The manuscript is written in large handwriting on parchment of excellent quality with an abundance of artistically designed capital letters (initials) and three miniatures depicting the evangelists.
The first of the handwritten Gospels known today, intended for monastic worship, were also created in Novgorod. This is the sumptuous Mstistlav Gospel, written between 1095 and 1117. commissioned by Prince Mstislav of Novgorod and the St. George's Gospel, which served as the contribution of the "sinful Theodore" to the St. George's monastery in Novgorod shortly after its foundation by abbot Kiriyak in 1119.
Title page of the Mstislav Gospel. Beginning XII century."
Fragment of the text of the Ostromir Gospel. 1056-1057.

Slide 25

The new strong Orthodox state needed more and more spiritual and secular books - to learn the laws, to send services, to correspond, to teach children to read and write.
The copyist creaks with a goose feather, hurries, makes mistakes, omissions - still has little time. Tsar Ivan the Terrible angrily said: "Scribes write from faulty translations, but, on the contrary, they do not correct, inventory to inventory (error to error) arrives." They began to create entire workshops of copyists. Things went faster, but there were still not enough books. How to be? At that time, the learned monk Maxim Grek arrived in Muscovy. He said that books were printed in Venice in many languages, including Slavonic.
Why shouldn't Moscow also order printed books from Venice? But they figured - far away, and it’s difficult, inconvenient to carry. Shouldn't we set up a printing press in Moscow itself? Thus begins another story - about the first Russian typographer ....
How it all began...

slide 26

"A craftsman that you can't find in foreign lands"
That's what the people of Moscow used to say about deacon Ivan Fedorov. Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow also distinguished him: - Dyak Ivan Fedorov, like a warrior with weapons, is adorned with pre-wisdom. What hands Ivan had - fast, strong, agile - you can’t stop admiring! Ivan could intricately draw any letter on paper, cut images on the boards - engravings. There was no such work that Ivan Fedorov could not do.
When Tsar Ivan the Terrible decided to start a Printing House in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and his friends were entrusted with a new and difficult task.

Slide 27

Printing press from the time of Ivan Fedorov
First printing house
The year was 1564. Ivan cut boards for engravings and drawings, cast typefaces (letters) from metal, and made a printing press from wood. A lot of work went into making headpieces and drawings. And that day has come. Ivan Fedorov took the page, imprinted a pattern and text on it. Here is the first page! Before he could stop admiring the work of his hands, there was a noise in the yard. Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself and Metropolitan Macarius entered the printing house. Ivan the Terrible picked up a print smelling of paint and held it before his eyes for a long time ...
Ivan the Terrible in the printing house of Ivan Fedorov. G. Lissner

Slide 28

Trademark of Ivan Fedorov's printing house
First book
The first book was called "The Apostle", looked impressive and beautiful.
Frontispiece of Ivan Fedorov's first printed book "The Apostle", 1564.

Slide 29

In 1565 Ivan Fedorov published The Clockwork, the main educational book in Rus', preserved in 7 copies. For unclear reasons, after leaving Moscow, Fedorov continued publishing in Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine. In 1573 - 1574 Fedorov published the first dated Ukrainian book - "The Apostle". In 1574 he published "Azbuka" - the first printed Russian textbook (the only copy is at Harvard University in the USA). In 1580 - 1581 he published the first complete Slavic Bible ("Ostrog Bible"). In 1581 he published Andrei Rymsha's "Chronology" - the first printed calendar.
In addition to printing, he also owned other crafts. In 1583 he traveled to Vienna, where he demonstrated at the court the multi-barrel gun he had invented. Died in poverty.
Life's work

slide 30

“I have art, tools for work, I must sow spiritual seeds throughout the universe ...” Ivan Fedorov
Master's word

Slide 31

GLAGOLIC AND CYRILLIC CHARTER

slide 32

GLAGOLIC AND CYRILLIC CHARTER (continued)

Monuments of writing are an invaluable document for scientists who reconstruct the language and oral speech of a particular historical period. Monuments of writing help answer the question of how the oral speech of the Slavs sounded? The entire history of the development of the Russian language is divided into two periods: prehistoric (pre-written) and historical, which has written evidence. In Rus', it originates in the 10th century.

The oldest monument of Slavic writing is the Gnezdovo inscription, discovered in 1949 in Gnezdovo near Smolensk. This is an inscription on a clay vessel, made in Cyrillic. The inscription dates back to the 10th century and indicates that the Cyrillic alphabet was widespread in Rus' even before the adoption of Christianity in 988. The inscription consists of only one word, the deciphering of which is disputed. This word is read in different ways: "pea", "pea". It is supposed to be a short neuter adjective. plural, which was combined with the noun "grain".

One of the earliest monuments of ancient Slavic writing are birch bark letters found in 1951 in Novgorod. Birch bark letters are pieces of birch bark, on inside which marks were scratched with a sharp object (presumably a bone rod). Birch bark documents date back to the 10th-11th centuries. Letters were also found that were written in the 17th, 18th and even 19th centuries. Ink was already used to write on such letters. Novgorod charters were scrolls that were either thrown away or lost. The content of the texts of letters is in the nature of private correspondence, in which economic, trade and domestic issues are discussed. Scientists suggest that some letters were written by women. During excavations in Novgorod, more than 500 letters were found, most of which are written in Cyrillic and date back to the 11th century.

The monument of writing of the 11th century is the Ostromir Gospel. The exact period of its writing is known: 1056 - 1057. The gospel is written on parchment with gold mortar and richly decorated with ornaments. The gospel includes 294 leaves. The names of the people who wrote the Ostromir gospel are known. This is the deacon Grigory and the mayor Ostromir (Stromil), who instructed him to write. The gospel is written by hand in a large charter. The charter is a type of writing letters that were of the correct form, of the same height and were written without an inclination. The Ostromir Gospel is not only a monument of ancient Russian literature, but also a monument of ancient Russian art. It is stored in St. Petersburg in the library named after M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Another written monument of the 11th century is the signature of the French queen Anna Yaroslavovna, who was the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, under a Latin letter of 1063. The signature consists of two words "Anna rina", which means Anna regina (queen).

Archaeological sites of the ancient Slavs

Doctor historical sciences V.E. Larichev writes that in 1982 in the north of Khakassia, in the valley of Bely Iyus, sanctuaries of the Bronze Age were discovered, which are a stone observatory similar to the famous Stonehenge. After studying the Bely Iyus observatory, the conclusion was made: "... people of the Bronze Age of Siberia had a well-developed luni-solar calendar and were able to record time extremely accurately ...".

The most ancient lunar-solar calendar was found by archaeologists in Siberia during excavations of the Achinsk settlement of the ancient stone age. He is 18 thousand years old. It is a small wand carved from mammoth tusk, on which a spiral pattern of 1065 holes of various outlines is applied with jeweler's precision.

Thus, the Slavs who lived in Siberia 18 thousand years ago, long before the formation of the Sumerian, Egyptian, Persian, Hindu and Chinese civilizations, had the most perfect lunisolar calendar.

Russian sorcerers and rare devices for astronomical observations possessed. So, for example, the ruins of stone complexes of solar-stellar observatories were found both on the Kulikovo field, and near Epifan, and near Ostryakovo.

After studying the stone complex of the Kulikovo field observatory, created by Russian sorcerers more than 10 thousand years ago, it became obvious that the glory of the well-known Stonehenge is fading before it.

The Indian magi told the famous French astronomer Delisle (1688-1768) about the Aryan ancestral home in the north, from where the Aryan culture spread throughout the northern hemisphere. They pointed out to him the location of the ancient Aryan city-temple, which served as an observatory at the same time.

Although Delil himself did not find this city, in 1987, in the place indicated by Delil in the Southern Urals, the Slavic-Aryan proto-city ARKAIM was found. Arkaim in its appearance is an exact reproduction of the Zodiac. Around Arkaim, 21 ancient Slavic-Aryan cities were found, which speaks of the "Country of cities" between upstream the Ural and Tobol rivers. From all that has been said, it is clear that there can be no talk of any influence of the eastern Mediterranean on the culture of the north of Eurasia, because the culture of the northern Aryans appeared incomparably earlier. The mound Arzhan, known among archaeologists, lies in Altai, in the upper reaches of the Yenisei. Its age is determined by the 8th century BC, it was built according to the same rules as Arkaim and Stonehenge.

In Ukraine, a little south of Kyiv is the Neolithic settlement Maidanskoe-1, belonging to the Trypillia culture of the 4th millennium BC. It has a sewerage system, a harmonious layout of streets and squares.

IN last years in the Southern Cis-Urals, Slavic-Aryan settlements of 7-6 millennia BC were discovered. - Mulino-2, Davlekanovo-2, where many bones of domestic animals (goats, horses, cows, sheep) were found.

In the "noble plan" of the development of virgin lands dark forces, who do not want to disclose the truth about the Russian Slavic-Aryan Heritage, included the task of razing the first city to the ground. It did not work out to the end, although the rings of Arkaim were partially destroyed.

Then, so that the discovery of Arkaim would not receive world recognition, Arkaim was surrounded by an information blockade, and excavations there were carried out carelessly and hastily.

And Veles said:
Open the song box!
Unroll the ball!
For the time of silence is over
And it's time for words!
Songs of the bird Gamayun.

The most ancient monuments of writing, called by scientists "Slavic runic", were discovered in 1961 in the village of Terteria on the land of modern Romania and are represented by three clay tablets dating back to the 5th millennium BC. At the same time, it turned out that the tablets of Sumer (considered the most ancient) are a whole millennium younger than the Terterian ones. Similar writings were also found in the village of Turdashi Vinca in Yugoslavia. On the basis of these findings, scientists concluded that “the writing of Terteria did not arise from scratch, but is an integral part of the widespread in the middle of the 6th - beginning of the 5th millennium BC. Written Balkan Culture Vinca.

Soon, the Yugoslav scientist R. Pesic, on the basis of archaeological finds on the right bank of the Danube (near the Iron Gates), dating back to the 7th-5th millennium BC, made the first ordering of the Vinca script. Pesic considered it with the help of the Etruscan-Pelasgic alphabet and the Slavic-Aryan way of reading this writing, according to which the old Slavic-Aryan language has its roots in Etruscan soil.

The same point of view was held by Doctor of Philosophy E.I. Klassen, the Polish researcher Fadey Volansky, and others. At the end of the 20th century, V.I. Shcherbakov and G.S. Belyakova, Slovenian scientist Matej Bor and Russian-Ukrainian writer A.S. Ivanchenko. A huge work to familiarize the general public with the runic signs and inscriptions of the Western Slavic-Aryans of Crete, the Etruscans and ancient india did the Russian linguist G.S. Grinevich. He also compiled a summary table of signs of Proto-Slavic writing.

“Runic inscriptions similar to those of Vincha were found in Tripoli, in the layers of the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, and later in Troy and Crete, in Etruria and Parthia, on the Yenisei and in Scandinavia. The same letter existed in the Caucasus. This writing also came to other continents - to North Africa and America. In the end, it served as the basis for the well-known alphabets: Phoenician and Ancient Greek, Proto-Indian and Latin, Glagolitic and Cyrillic,” writes G.S. Belyakova.

The Slavic-Aryan runic was a syllabic script that used a stable set of syllabic signs, and these signs conveyed syllables of only one type, namely, open ones, consisting of combinations of “consonant plus vowel” or a pure vowel. Such a system of writing did not allow double consonants.

But since the sound structure of the language of the ancient Slavs was still somewhat more complicated, a special sign was used - an oblique stroke - "viram" (still existing in the Indian syllabic writing Devanagari - "the language of the gods"), which was usually placed at the bottom of the line, on the right from a written sign. Viram was called upon to remove vowels by creating syllables of the "consonant-consonant-vowel" type, formed as follows: sg + sg \u003d ssg.

G.S. Grinevich, relying on the results of deciphering, proves that ancient on earth are the monuments Proto-Slavic writing. He emphasizes that among the monuments discovered in our century, the most interesting are the inscriptions filled with "features and cuts", that is, runes.

In such a letter, for example, on the whorls found by archaeologists, it is written:

The inscription, laid out in stone on the floor of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople, orders (translation): "Rot to the floor of the lower back." On the Mikorzhinsky stone, found in the Poznan region (Poland), a man is depicted with his left hand raised up, in which a triangular object is clamped, representing the constellation Taurus - 4 points-stars: three form a triangle, the fourth in the center of this triangle. The accompanying caption reads:

ROSIYA MOYA MESHEN JUNE - “My Russia became the target of the attack (target) of June,” i.e. Taurus. The hidden meaning of this image is that Taurus is a sign of the elements of the earth and the base, aggressive, demonic beginning of creatures (remember the worship of the golden calf). The alpha of the constellation Taurus - Aldebaran (the eye of Taurus) is associated with Antares - the alpha of Scorpio, since it is on the same line laid through the "center of the universe" - the North Star. When the Sun is in the constellation, and not in the sign of Taurus (it used to be in June: due to the precessional movement, the Sun moves along the ecliptic by 50.24 seconds per year) and connects with Aldebaran, the Earth falls under the influence of Antares, which is the projection of the intersection point of all layers galactic bottoms - demonic worlds (abodes of creatures). The very appearance of the depicted person means the constellation of Orion (the image of Russia), fighting with Taurus.

MOYA MESH NAZIGINAMEN YA ZAZOKOYALA.

Its hidden meaning is: "My enemy is from the constellation Scorpio." On the hand holding a triangle (the sign of the constellation Taurus), it is written: "I will destroy this evil."

According to archaeologists, at the beginning of the III millennium BC. in the lower Dnieper-Danavian region, a large (Slavic-speaking - according to A.Ya. Bryusov) ethnic unity developed, which created the Trypillia culture. According to scientists, Trypillians were culturally significantly superior to their neighbors. They also had a script, very similar to the signs of writing "devils and cuts."

Moreover, the forerunner of the Trypillian culture in the Danube region was the Vinca-Turdashi culture, with which, as we already know, the oldest written monuments on Earth are associated.

At the beginning of the II millennium BC. there was a sudden stop in the development of Trypillian culture, which was catastrophic: Trypillians left their homes, leaving property and even statues of their household deities. The time of the exodus of Trypillians exactly coincides with the time of appearance in the Balkans, in prehistoric Greece, on the islands Aegean Sea and in Crete the Pelasgians, whose name is usually associated with the heyday and power of the Cretan state. The Pelasgians also owned a written language related to the writing of "devils and cuts." But the main thing is that the overwhelming number of linear signs of the Cretan inscriptions in the inscription turned out to be similar to the signs of the Slavic-Aryan runic. Taking into account this circumstance, with the help of the etymological method of decoding, the phonetic meanings of the latter were assigned to the Cretan signs, and the Cretan texts “spoke” in a language very close to the Slavic-Aryan:

TOCHCHA RYZHA BE IN YOU POWER REJUVENATED MA DORA TOYE E TA NIVT FOR NZHI - “The rust (“rust” - separation) sharpens the strength that was in you. And this is the thread that binds us.” “The thread that binds us”, in a secret sense, is an energy channel connecting a person with the Family, with its egregore - an information-force field created by the national and spiritual aspirations of a certain people.

This channel, called in Sanskrit “aharat (i.e., not central) column”, goes from the egregor to the head of a person, to the place where the fontanel is located. Therefore, worshipers of the Highest - the Most High God - shaving off their hair on their heads, leave a bunch of hair in this place, called in Sanskrit "shikha"; the same chubrina - “settler” (that is, located about the middle of the head) was also worn by the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks.

Thus, as early as 5 thousand years ago, the sorcerers who lived in Crete explained that the division of the single body of Russia into separate (even for a while) powerful states, according to by and large robs her of spiritual strength.

In the past, the island of Crete was covered with evergreen forests, which were inhabited by bulls, cows, lions and even pygmy species of elephant and hippopotamus. The people who settled ancient Crete created a culture that later became the cradle of modern European civilization. The magnificent art of the inhabitants of Crete was the first in Europe to rise to the heights of realism: it was on its basis that the art of Ancient Greece grew and flourished.

Homer in the XIX song of the Odyssey wrote: The island is Crete in the middle of the wine-colored sea, beautiful, fat, surrounded by waters from everywhere, abundant with people.

Crete was a mighty maritime power, and the Cretan fleet had no equal in the entire ancient world. His rowing and sailing ships, light galleys and powerful cargo ships plowed the waves of the Mediterranean Sea; they reached the shores of Egypt and Spain, the Bosphorus and Gibraltar, and even went out into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Egyptian chronicle of Medinet-Khabu testifies: “Not a single country has resisted their right hand, starting from Hatti ...” (a tribe of non-Aryan origin that settled the northeast of Asia Minor). The people of Crete had close trade ties with Egypt (Keftiu - Crete is very often mentioned in Egyptian papyri), with the Two Rivers (typical Mesopotamian cylinder seals were found in Crete) and many other countries.

The Cretan state was at the height of its power when disaster dealt her a devastating blow. The explosion of a volcano on the island of Santorini, lying 110 km north of Crete, which occurred around 1450 BC, caused a strong earthquake. A powerful blast wave reached Crete, causing great destruction. Following it, huge tsunamis hit the northern coast, the wave height reached several tens of meters. And, finally, the island was covered by a huge ash cloud caused by the eruption. Cities and villages were turned into ruins, numerous ships of Crete were destroyed, fertile fields in the most inhabited part of the island (in its east and in the center) were covered with a thick layer of volcanic ash destructive to vegetation, and the previously flowering land was on long years turned into a lifeless desert.

The general loss of livestock caused by the death of pastures and the contamination of the surviving grass cover with poisonous fluorine contained in products volcanic eruptions, completed the terrible disaster that befell the Cretan culture.

The economy of Crete and its power suffered irreparable damage. Now completely deprived of protection from attack from the sea, the island soon became an easy prey for the Achaean Greeks, who freely crossed from the mainland and took possession of it. The unified Cretan state with its capital at Knossos continued to exist, but numerous newcomers seized the dominant position in it. Around 1400 BC, after another invasion from the mainland, the palace of Knossos was finally destroyed, and a long period of decline began.

The outstanding English archaeologist Arthur Evans (1851-1948), who began excavations of the city of Knossos in 1900, managed to open a vast palace - the mysterious labyrinth of King Minos, built at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. and completely rebuilt around 1700 BC. The astonished archaeologists saw a magnificent building with a throne room, a complex arrangement of corridors, bathrooms, exquisite murals and luxurious ceramics - a monument of ancient culture. But a more important discovery was the archive of the Palace of Knossos - hundreds of clay tablets covered with unknown writings.

Later, in other parts of Crete and on the lands of mainland Greece, in the palace of Nestor in Pylos, a total of over 5 thousand clay tablets with inscriptions were discovered.

G.S. Grinevich reports that Arthur Evans was the first who made an attempt to decipher the Cretan writings, but he could not move beyond a simple analysis and limited himself to ordering, highlighting: Cretan hieroglyphic writing of class A (XVII-XV centuries BC) and linear class B letter (XV-XIII centuries BC) - defining in the linear script "the syllabic character of a significant part of the signs used." Arthur Evans was the first to point out "the genetic connection of Cretan hieroglyphics and Linear A and B with other Mediterranean scripts...".

By 1963, about 220 short Linear A inscriptions had been found, made on a wide variety of objects: stone monuments, wine jugs, libation vessels, bowls, ax handles. Most of the inscriptions were discovered in the Ayia Triada region of Crete, then archaeologists managed to find a clay tablet written with this letter on the Greek mainland. In 1964, in the excavated Minoan palace at Zakro (East Crete), 12 new Linear A tablets were found, similar in appearance with tablets from Ayia Triada.

There are about 5,000 known Linear B inscriptions. According to their content, all inscriptions are divided into economic and spiritual.

An important date in the study of the heritage of the people, who stood at the origins of European civilization, was 1908. The Italian archaeological expedition, working in the southern part of the island of Crete, this year led the excavations of the royal palace in the acropolis ancient city Festa. On July 3, archaeologist Luige Pernier, examining the cultural layer in one of the outbuildings of the palace, discovered a remarkable example of hitherto unknown writing.

It was a small disk made of well-fired clay with a diameter of 15.8-16.5 cm and a thickness of 1.6-2.1 cm. the surface of signs is the oldest stamped inscription and the first printed product, except for the Achinsk wand-calendar. Signs were combined into groups separated by vertical lines. In some groups, at the bottom of the line, to the right of the sign, there was an oblique stroke similar to "viram" - as already mentioned, a special sign of the Slavic runic and Indian Devanagari syllabary

Many scholars have tried unsuccessfully to read the Phaistos Disc and interpret it from Greek, Hittite, Lycian, Carian, Hebrew, and other Semitic languages. But, having convinced themselves of the uselessness of the means used, they decided, in the words of the English connoisseur of archeology of Crete J. Pendlebury (1904-1941), that this find “is better to pass over in silence” (another link in the chain of information blockade).

And finally, our compatriot G.S. Grinevich, relying on modern methods of deciphering, the theory of communication in secret systems by Claude Shannon and the method of acrophony in combination with the etymological method, proved that the text of the Phaistos disc was made in the Proto-Slavic language.

Translated into the modern language of the text, it follows that the Slavic tribe of the Rysichi (Rusich) was forced to leave their homeland - RYSIYUNIA (Russia):

YOU CAN'T COUNT YOUR PAST SORRY
HOWEVER, CURRENT SORRIES ARE BITTER.
IN THE NEW PLACE YOU WILL FEEL THEM.
GOD SENT YOU ANOTHER PLACE IN GOD'S WORLD.
DIFFERENCES PAST DO NOT COUNT.
WHAT GOD SENT TO YOU, SURROUND
CLOSE ROWS.
PROTECT IT DAY AND NIGHT.
NOT A PLACE - WILL.
SHARE FOR HIS POWER.
HER CHILDREN ARE STILL ALIVE, KNOWING WHOSE THEY ARE
IN THIS WORLD OF GOD.

On the other side of the disc it says:

WE WILL LIVE AGAIN, THERE WILL BE THE SERVICE OF GOD,
EVERYTHING WILL BE IN THE PAST - LET'S FORGET WHO WE ARE.
WHERE YOU WILL BE, THE CHILDREN WILL BE, THE FIELDS WILL BE,
THE GOOD LIFE - LET'S FORGET WHO WE ARE.
THE CHILD IS - THE TIES ARE - LET'S FORGET WHO IS.
WHAT TO COUNT, LORD! LYNXION ENCHANTS EYES.
YOU CAN'T GET ANYWHERE FROM HER,
DON'T GET RID OF IT.
NOT ONCE WILL BE, WE WILL HEAR:
YOU WILL BE, LYSICHI, WHAT IS HONOR FOR YOU;
IN CURLS HELMETS; TALK ABOUT YOU.
THERE IS NOT YET, WE WILL BE,
IN THIS WORLD OF GOD.

The Russians found a new homeland in Crete. “The tragedy of the events experienced by the Rysichs,” writes G.S. Grinevich, echoes the fate of the Tripoltsy, and this gives us reason to believe that the Rysichi-Pelasgi (as the Greeks called them) is a Slavic tribe that lived in the Dnieper region in the III-II millennium BC.

After the catastrophe that befell Arctida, the Rusichi only partially recovered from the terrible losses, but retained their language. In their Phoenician, Cretan, Malaysian, Aegean villages they spoke the same Slavic-Aryan language. Later they were called Pelasgi.

At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. a storm came up. The Achaean Greeks came from the mainland. They, like genuine pagans, seized the lands of present-day Greece, destroying the cities of the Pelasgians, their fortresses, leveling the Pelasgikon, on the site of which the Parthenon was built only one and a half thousand years later.

Many of the Pelasgians, fleeing the invasion, crossed over to Crete, where the cities of the Pelasgians-Minoans still flourished.

In the middle of the II millennium BC. The Greeks also reached Crete. The full-blooded art of the Pelasgi-Minoans gave way to a dry and lifeless stylization. The usual motifs for Minoan painting - flowers, starfish, octopuses, dolphins, depicted on palace frescoes and vases - disappear or are reborn into abstract graphic schemes.

Yet the Achaean culture of the Greeks was able to borrow a lot from the Minoans, including linear syllabics, spiritual rites and deities, plumbing, fresco painting, tailoring of clothes, and much more.

Approximately 700 years later, the Achaean-Mycenaean culture flourished, but the second invasion of the Greeks, known as the Dorians, hit the land of Greece and the surrounding areas. After it began new time Greek heritage - Homeric, named after the blind singer Homer. The Doric conquest set Greece back several centuries.

Subsequently, the Romans, who intended to prove their origin from the gods, tried to destroy the traces of the Pelasgians from the memory of mankind. That is why the scientific world now considers it generally accepted that the ancient Romans are the teachers of Western Europe.

However, the ancient researchers knew perfectly well that the teachers of these "teachers" were Etruscans. So, for example, the Greek writer Hellanicus (5th century BC) claims that the offshoot of the Aegean Pelasgians are the Etruscans, who, being expelled by the Greeks, settled in the area called Tirrenia.

"Etruscans" they were called by the Romans-Latins; The Greeks called them "Tyrrenae"; the Etruscans themselves, according to the ancient Greek author of the "Roman Antiquities" Dionysius of Halicarnassus (I century BC), called themselves "Rasena". In the Geographical Dictionary of Stephen of Byzantium, the Etruscans are completely unconditionally called the Slavic people. In addition to these researchers, the Slavs of the Etruscans are confirmed by Livius Titus (I century BC), the ancient Greek geographer Strabo (I century BC), the ancient Greek scientist Ptolemy (II-I centuries), Diodorus Siculus (I century BC), the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) and many other pre-Christian authors. The Etruscans gave the Romans: musical instruments, a rostrum (the bow of a ship) and an anchor, a theater, mining, ceramics and metalworking, herbal medicine, the art of irrigation (reclamation) of lands, cities in Italy, the art of divination, a Capitoline she-wolf (symbolically: the Romans slipped under the Slavic she-wolf "suckers" of the legendary founders of Rome). The first kings of Rome were the Etruscans: Tarquius Prisk, Servius (Serbius) Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud. Etruscan fist fighters participated in Roman festivities. Almost everything that the Etruscans built in Rome, the Romans subsequently prefaced the definition of "greatest." Yes and Rome, in fact, founded by the Etruscans, and their underground canal system is still part of the urban economy of the "eternal city". The Etruscan shield, spear and armor were also adopted by the Romans. The Etruscans also belong to the oldest written monuments on the Apennine Peninsula, and it is precisely their letter lay down in basis contemporary Latin alphabet, which is used by a significant part of mankind. But the cunning Latins, in order to hide the truth about their teachers from the world, slyly declare: “Etruscan non legatur” - Etruscan is not readable ...

In modern official science, it is believed that the Etruscans allegedly borrowed their alphabet from the Greeks, and the Romans, in turn, borrowed the alphabet from the Etruscans, and therefore it will not be difficult for scientists who know Greek and Roman writing to learn how to read Etruscan texts. Already in 1789, L. Lanz, who is considered the "father of Etruscology", knew the entire Etruscan alphabet, with the exception of two letters, the meaning of which was determined later. But, freely reading the Etruscan texts, the shabesgoi scientists (servants of creatures) could not understand their content. Russian linguist V.V. Ivanov defines the state of affairs in the interpretation of Etruscan texts today: “The situation that has developed in the field of research of Etruscan texts seems paradoxical. Their study and probable phonetic interpretation does not cause difficulties due to the sufficient clarity of the Etruscan graphics system.., nevertheless, the understanding of the Etruscan texts has advanced extremely little, if we do not take into account very small funerary inscriptions, standard in their content and usually consisting of sequences of proper names indicating the relationship between their carriers. Increasingly complex texts are still completely untranslatable.”

Certainly so, because creatures and cannot understand the speech of the Russian; but Russian researchers, both modern and pre-revolutionary, freely read and explain Etruscan inscriptions even without a dictionary.

No wonder our ancestors back in the 1st millennium BC. made an inscription in Slavic runic on one of the Medvinsky pillars:

UNITY SCHIRIS TREBETE GLASI GREZIALE LBO VELERETSI BELOPEVIA NAMIA KIA LISII KUSKALE LBO GURTSE LOETI NASIA KIO KOBILIA RASHIVIA TREBETE NIKIIA SAKRA SVIA NIA PORES NIA YEITI PAMIATKOKHSHENIA – “The single truth requires saying: Greeks or melody they sound sweetly to us, like tempting foxes, or they bark from the hills like males - they extort offerings. They don't keep their oaths or promises. Resentful."

As evidenced by E.I. Klassen, back in the 18th century it was proved that "the Greeks and Romans borrowed all their education and learned literacy from the Slavs." Further, he writes: “... that all the ancient tribes of the Slavs had their own runic writings, there is already now an undoubted matter, realized even by the Germans, who dispute every step of Slavic enlightenment.

And Schlozer himself - this rejecter of everything that elevates the Slavs above other peoples, did not dare to disagree, due to the testimony of Herodotus and other Greek writers, that many Scythian tribes knew the letter and that they themselves The Greeks adopted the alphabet from Pelasgians- also the Scythian people, or, whatever, Slavic Russian origin.

From everything that has been deduced here, it is clear that the Slavs had a letter not only first of all Western nations Europe, but also before the Romans and even the Greeks themselves, and that the outcome of enlightenment was from the Russes to the west, and not from there to them.

Veles book.

The monument of the Slavic-Aryan writing requires special attention - “ Veles book", written in the VIII - IX centuries AD. But the Soviet "specialists" declared the Veles book a fake "due to the inconsistency of the language of this book with the norms of the Old Russian language."

Such an attitude of official science to the ancient Russian book is not surprising. The writer-researcher Yu.P. Mirolyubov, who transliterated the text of the Book of Veles, when he warned: “It is clear that such texts as Isenbek’s Tablets should have been “diabolical”, “black book” and subject to indispensable destruction in the eyes of the Greek Christianizers of Rus'.

Nevertheless, the participants of the Fifth International Congress of Slavists, held in 1963 in Sofia, became interested in the Book of Veles. In the reports of the congress, a special article was devoted to it, which caused a lively, sharp response in the circles of lovers of antiquity and a whole series of articles in the public press.

In defense of the Book of Veles, A.V. Artsikhovsky, a famous archaeologist and scientist who discovered Novgorod birch bark letters. True, only orally. Candidate of Historical Sciences V.E. Vilinbakhov called for a comprehensive study of the Book of Veles. Doctor of Historical Sciences S.A. Vysotsky said that this is “an interesting monument and not a fake.” The chairman of the Russian Historical Society, paleographer I.V. Levochkin, as well as Doctor of Philology Yu.K. Runners.

The texts of the Veles book tell about the ancient Slavs and cover the time from the 5th century BC. to the seventh century of the present reckoning. So, one of the tablets of the Book of Veles says that 1300 years before Germanaric (the leader of the Goths, who conquered vast expanses in the middle of the 4th century A.D. of Eastern Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the Volga to the Danube and defeated by the Huns in 376), the ancestors of the Slavs lived in Central Asia, in the "green land". Further, the departure of part of our ancestors from Semirechie through the mountains to the south, to India, is described in detail, while the other part went west, "to the Carpathian Mountains."

The content of the Veles book is not limited to this. It also speaks of philanthropy Slavic-Aryans, their high culture, oh veneration of the forefathers, O love to native earth. In her completely rejected fabrications of enemies of Russia about human sacrifice Slavic-Aryan. Here is how, for example, Yu.P. Mirolyubov translates the text of tablet No. 4: “The gods of the Rus do not take human sacrifices and not animals, only fruits, vegetables, flowers, grains, milk, hearty drink (whey), herbal infusion and honey, and never a live bird or fish, but the Varangians and Alans the gods are given a different sacrifice - a terrible, human, this we don't have to do, because we are Dazhbog's grandchildren and we cannot follow in the footsteps of others...”.

It has already been said above that the Etruscans are the former Trypillians, who in turn are the heirs of the Vinca-Turdashi culture. The oldest written monuments known to modern scientists are associated with this culture, and, in particular, a clay tablet found in the 60s near the Romanian village of Terteria. The age of the monument, according to the radiocarbon method, is 7 thousand years.

In descriptive terms, the Terterian signs are completely similar to the signs of the Slavic-Aryan runic, the sound meaning of which was established when reading the inscriptions filled with “features and cuts”, and are also similar to the Etruscan, Cretan and Proto-Indian inscriptions; and therefore reading the Terterian text is not difficult.

The general conclusion after getting acquainted with the Proto-Slavic writing in general and reading the Terterian inscription, in particular, is simple and understandable:
SLAVIC-ARIAN WRITING IS THE MOST ANCIENT ON THIS PLANET.

... but the most beautiful and necessary for the Race
they recognized the set of Commandments of the Light,
they inscribed them with runes in Santia ...
Life source
Slavic-Aryan Vedas