Tropes and figures of speech table with examples. Artistic tropes in literature
Phrasal components, which are called figures of speech, differ. These are usually phrases or sentences.
They are expressive syntactic constructions that convey the expression of the text.
If a trope is a word with a figurative meaning (it is related to vocabulary), then the figure is the part of the sentence that plays certain function in it (this is where syntax comes into its own).
Consider examples various figures of speech.
paraphrase- replacement of a word or phrase with a descriptive expression, turnover.
Greetings, desert corner,
Shelter of tranquility, work and inspiration.
A.S. Pushkin
The light of day has gone out;
Fog fell on the blue evening sea.
Noise, noise, obedient sail,
Wave under me, sullen ocean.
A.S. Pushkin
Inversion- a stylistically significant change in the usual word order.
Where people's eyes break off stubby,
head of the hungry hordes,
in the crown of thorns revolutions
the sixteenth year is coming.
V. Mayakovsky
Anaphora- unity of command, repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence, poetic lines or stanzas.
I love you, Peter's creation,
I love your strict, slim look...
A.S. Pushkin
Epiphora The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a line of poetry.
Steppes and roads
The account is not over;
Stones and thresholds
Account not found.
E. Bagritsky
Antithesis- contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts.
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!
G.R. Derzhavin
When in a circle murderous worries
Everything freezes us - and life is like a pile of stones,
Lies on us - suddenly God knows where
We will breathe comfort into our souls,
The past will wrap around and hug us
And a terrible load will instantly lift.
F. Tyutchev
gradation- the arrangement of words and expressions in increasing or decreasing importance.
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry …
S. Yesenin
The earth is warmed by the breeze of spring.
More not the beginning spring, and harbinger
,
and even more not a harbinger
– hint,
What will happen,
what's next
that the time is not far off.
V. Tushnova
Oxymoron - a combination of words opposite in meaning for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept.
But their ugly beauty
I soon comprehended the mystery
And I'm bored of them incoherent
And deafening language.
M. Lermontov
Toy sad joy that I was alive.
S. Yesenin
A rhetorical question- a turn of speech in an interrogative form that does not require an answer.
What are you howling about, night wind?
What are you complaining about so madly? ..
Either deafly plaintive, then noisy?
F. Tyutchev
Familiar clouds! How do you live?
Who do you intend to threaten now?
M. Svetlov
Rhetorical address- an underlined appeal to something inanimate or to someone unfamiliar.
hello tribe.
Young, unfamiliar! Not me
I will see your mighty late age,
When you outgrow my friends...
A.S. Pushkin
Flowers, love, village, idleness,
Fields! I am devoted to you in soul.
I'm always glad to see the difference
Between Onegin and me...
A.S. Pushkin
Rhetorical exclamation- an exclamatory statement.
What a summer! What a summer!
Yes, it's just witchcraft.
F. Tyutchev
Default- a figure that provides the listener or reader with the opportunity to guess and think about what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is empty to me,
And everything is the same, and everything is one,
But if on the way - a bush
Rises, especially rowan...
M. Tsvetaeva
Parallelism- a similar construction of adjacent phrases, lines or stanzas.
I look to the future with fear
I look at the past with longing .
M. Lermontov.
I came to you with greetings
Tell what Sun is up…
Tell what the forest wakes up...
Tell what with the same passion...
Tell what from everywhere
It exudes joy for me...
Ellipsis- the omission of a word that is easily recovered from the context.
The beast needs a lair
Wanderer - the road ...
M. Tsvetaeva
The rich fell in love with the poor, man - girl
The scientist fell in love - stupid,
I fell in love with ruddy - pale,
Loved the good - the bad...
M. Tsvetaeva
Parceling- intentional division of the phrase in order to enhance expressiveness, expressiveness.
Any verses for the sake of the last line.
Which comes first.
M. Tsvetaeva
"I? To you? Did you give me a phone? What nonsense!” - not understanding, said Nikitin.
Stylistic figures and paths with examples.
ALLUSION The stylistic figure is a hint ("Glory of Herostratus").
ALOGISM Deliberate violation of logical connections in speech for the purpose of stylistic effect ("I will never forget - he was or was not, this evening").
AMPLIFICATION A stylistic figure consisting in stringing synonymous definitions, comparisons in order to enhance the expressiveness of the statement (“He takes it like a bomb, he takes it like a hedgehog, like a double-edged razor”).
ANADIPLOSIS Repeating the final consonance, word or phrase at the beginning of the next phrase or poetic line ("Oh, spring, without end and without edge, Without end and without edge dream!").
ANAKOLUF Syntactic inconsistency of parts of a sentence as an unconscious violation of the language norm or as a conscious stylistic device (“And the animals from the forests come running to see How the ocean will be and how hot it will burn”, “I am ashamed, as an honest officer”).
ANAPHORA Repetition of the initial parts of adjacent segments of speech (“The city is magnificent, the city is poor ...”, “I swear by the odd and even, I swear by the sword and the right battle”).
ANTITHESIS Comparison or opposition of contrasting concepts, positions, images (“I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god!”, “The rich fell in love with the poor, The scientist fell in love with the stupid, The ruddy fell in love with the pale, The good fell in love with the harmful” ).
ANTONOMASIA Usage own name to refer to a person endowed with the properties of a well-known bearer of this name (“Don Juan” in the meaning of “love seeker”, “I eluded the doctor (i.e., from the doctor) Thin, shaved, but alive”).
UNION (asyndeton) construction of a sentence in which homogeneous members or parts of a complex sentence are connected without the help of unions (“I came, I saw, I conquered”).
HYPERBATON A stylistic figure that consists in changing the natural order of words and separating them from each other with inserted words (“Only the languid Muses are delighted”).
HYPERBOLE A kind of trope based on exaggeration ("a sea of vodka").
GRADATION Consistent injection or, conversely, weakening the power of homogeneous expressive means of artistic speech (“I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry ...”).
IZOKOLON A stylistic figure consisting in the complete syntactic parallelism of adjacent sentences (“He listens with a habitual ear whistle, He smears the sheet with one spirit”).
INVERSION Changing the usual order of words and phrases that make up a sentence (see hyperbaton and chiasm.
IRONY A stylistic device of contrasting the visible and hidden meaning of an utterance, creating the effect of mockery.
KATACHREZA A semantically unjustified combination of words, erroneous or intentional, ("hot broom" as a combination of two expressions: "hot iron" and "new broom").
LITOTA A trope opposite to hyperbole; deliberate understatement ("man with a fingernail").
METAPHOR Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another on the basis of a feature that is common or similar for both compared members (“talk of waves”, “bronze of muscles”).
METONYMY Replacing one word with another based on the relationship of their meanings by contiguity (“the theater applauded” instead of “the audience applauded”, or “eat the plate” instead of “eat the contents of the plate”).
MULTIPLE UNION (polysyndeton) Such a construction of a sentence, when all (or almost all) homogeneous members are interconnected by the same union (“and a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger”).
OXYMORON (oxymoron) A combination of opposite words ("living corpse", "heat of cold numbers").
PARALLELISM Identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single poetic image. (“The waves are splashing in the blue sea. The stars are shining in the blue sky”).
PARONOMASIA (paronomasia) A stylistic figure based on the use of paronyms (“Forests are bald, Forests have become defoxed, Forests have defoxed”, “he is not deaf, but stupid”).
PARCELLATION literary language: the sentence is divided into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent proposals("And again. Gulliver. Standing. Stooping").
PLEONASM A stylistic device that reinforces the meaning of what was said (“sadness-longing”, “bitter grief”, “But without fear, without fear, Shingebis went to battle”
SIMPLOKA A figure of repetition: initial and final words in adjacent verses or phrases with different middles or middles with different beginnings and ends (“In the field there was a birch tree, In the field there was curly”, “And I am sitting, full of sadness, I am sitting alone on the shore”) .
SYNECDOCHE A type of metonymy, the name of a part (smaller) instead of the whole (larger) or vice versa (“my little head disappeared” instead of “I’m gone”, “hearth” instead of “house”, “tool” - to refer to a specific ax, hammer, etc. .).
SOLECISM An incorrect turn of phrase that does not violate the meaning of the statement (“What time is it?”).
CHIASM Type of parallelism: the arrangement of parts of two parallel members in reverse order (“We eat to live, not live to eat”).
ECLECTISM The mechanical combination of dissimilar, often opposing stylistic elements (“Well said, nothing to add”).
ELLIPSE The omission of a structurally necessary element of the statement, usually easily restored in a given context or situation (“It wasn’t there [it was]. The sea is not on fire”).
EPITHETE An adornment, a figurative definition that gives an additional artistic characteristic of an object (phenomenon) in the form of a hidden comparison (“clear field”, “lonely sail”).
Epiphora Opposite to anaphora: repetition of the final parts of adjacent segments of speech. Type of epiphora - rhyme ("Dear friend, and in this quiet house Fever beats me. I can not find a place in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire!").
EUPHEMISM Mitigation (words like "damn" instead of "bl%d").
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trail view |
Definition | |
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1. Comparison |
Figurative definition of an object, phenomenon, action based on its comparison with another object, phenomenon, action. Comparison is always binomial: it has a subject (what is being compared) and a predicate (what is being compared). |
Under blue skies splendid carpets, Glittering in the sun snow lies(Pushkin). Seven hills as seven bells (Tsvetaeva) |
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2. Metaphor |
The transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon or action to another based on their similarity. A metaphor is a convoluted comparison in which the subject and predicate are combined in one word. |
At seven bells- bell towers (Tsvetaeva). Lit east dawn new (Pushkin) |
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3. Metonymy |
Transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon or action to another based on their adjacency |
Only heard on the street somewhere Lonely wanders harmonic(Isakovsky) |
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Figurative (metaphorical, metonymic) definition of an object, phenomenon or action |
Through wavy fogs The moon is sneaking, On sad glades liet sadly she is the light (Pushkin) |
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5. Personification |
Such a metaphor in which inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of a living being or non-personal objects (plants, animals) with human properties |
Sea laughed(M. Gorky). |
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6. Hyperbole |
Figurative exaggeration |
Tears the mouth of a yawn wider than the Gulf of Mexico(Mayakovsky). |
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figurative understatement |
Below a thin blade We must bow our heads (Nekrasov) |
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8. Paraphrase |
Replacing a word with a figurative descriptive phrase |
With a clear smile, nature meets through a dream morning of the year(Pushkin). Morning of the year spring. |
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The use of a word in a sense opposite to the literal, for the purpose of ridicule |
breakaway, smart, are you heading? (referring to the donkey in Krylov's fable) |
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10. Allegory |
Biplanar use of a word, expression or a whole text in a literal and figurative (allegorical) sense |
"Wolves and Sheep" (the title of the play by A. N. Ostrovsky, implying the strong, those in power and their victims) |
2.3 Figure is a set of syntactic means of speech expressiveness, the most important of which are stylistic (rhetorical) figures.
Stylistic figures - these are symmetrical syntactic constructions based on various kinds of repetitions, omissions and changes in the order of words in order to create expressiveness.
The main types of figures
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Type of figure |
Definition | |
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1. Anaphora and epiphora |
Anaphora (unity) - repetition of words or expressions at the beginning of adjacent fragments of text. Epiphora (ending) - repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent fragments of text. |
Us drove youth On a saber hike Us abandoned youth On the Kronstadt ice. War horses carried away us, On a wide area Killed us(Bagritsky) |
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A syntactic construction in which the beginning of the next fragment mirrors the ending of the previous one. |
Youth is not lost Youth is alive! (Bagritsky) |
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3. Parallelism |
The same syntactic structure of adjacent fragments of text |
We have a road for young people everywhere, Old people are honored everywhere (Lebedev-Kumach). |
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4. Inversion |
Breaking the normal word order |
Discordant sounds were heard from calls (Nekrasov) |
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5. Antithesis |
Contrasting two adjacent constructions, identical in structure, but opposite in meaning |
I am a king, I am a slave I am a worm - I am God (Derzhavin). |
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6. Oxymoron |
The combination in one construction of words that contradict each other in meaning |
"The Living Corpse" (the title of the play by L. N. Tolstoy). |
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7. Gradation |
Such an arrangement of words, in which each subsequent one strengthens the meaning of the previous one (ascending gradation) or weakens it (descending gradation). |
Go, run, fly and avenge us (Pierre Corneille). |
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8. Ellipsis |
Intentional omission of any implied member of the sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech |
We sat down - in the ashes, Cities to ashes In swords - sickles and plows (Zhukovsky). |
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9. Default |
Intentional interruption of the statement, enabling the reader (listener) to independently think it out |
No, I wanted ... maybe you ... I thought It was time for the baron to die (Pushkin). |
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10. Multi-union and non-union |
Intentional use of repeated alliances (polyunion) or omission of alliances (non-union) |
And snow, and wind, and night flight of stars (Oshanin). Either the plague will pick me up, Or the frost will ossify, Or a barrier will slam into my forehead A sluggish invalid (Pushkin). Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts (Pushkin). |
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11. Rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals |
Questions, exclamations, appeals that do not require an answer, designed to draw the attention of the reader (listener) to the depicted |
Moscow! Moscow! I love you like a son (Lermontov). What is he looking for in a distant country? What did he throw in his native land? (Lermontov) |
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12. Period |
Circularly closing syntactic construction, in the center of which is anaphoric parallelism |
For everything, for everything you Thank you I: Behind secret torments of passions, Behind the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss, Behind revenge of enemies and slander Behind the heat of the soul, wasted in a desert, Behind everything that I deceive in life Stand only so that you I won't be long thanked (Lermontov). |
three styles:
High(solemn),
Average(mediocre),
Short(simple)
Cicero wrote that the ideal orator is one who can talk about the low simply, about the high - importantly and about the average - moderately.
trails
- Trope- allegory. In a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, artistic expressiveness speech.
The main types of trails:
- Metaphor
- Metonymy
- Synecdoche
- Hyperbola
- Litotes
- Comparison
- paraphrase
- Allegory
- personification
- Irony
- Sarcasm
Metaphor
Metaphor- a trope that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is in essence almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The extended metaphor has spawned many genres.
An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using comparison.
A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs the function, and
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
Metonymy
- Metonymy- a kind of trail, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and the metaphor is "by likeness". Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.
Example: "All flags are visiting us", where the flags replace the countries (the part replaces the whole).
Synecdoche
- Synecdoche- a trope consisting in naming the whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.
Synecdoche is a technique that consists in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of quantitative similarity between them.
Examples:
- "The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.
- "The stern moored to the shore."
The ship is meant.
Hyperbola
- Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said, for example, “I said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.”
Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose like mountains”)
Litotes
- Litotes , lithotes- a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.
Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, therefore it is called differently inverse hyperbole. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two heterogeneous phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.
Here is an example of a lita
Comparison
- Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of comparison is to reveal in the object of comparison new properties that are important for the subject of the statement.
Night is a well without a bottom
In comparison, they distinguish: the compared object (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place. One of the distinguishing features of the comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned.
paraphrase
- Paraphrase , paraphrase , paraphrase- in the style and poetics of tropes, descriptively expressing one concept with the help of several.
Paraphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter's creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).
In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine", "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle. There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls”) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).
Allegory
- Allegory- conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
As a trope, allegory is used in fables, parables, morality; in the visual arts it is expressed by certain attributes. Allegory arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore, and was developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire a figurative meaning
Example: the allegory of "justice" - Themis (a woman with scales).
Allegory of time controlled by wisdom (W. Titian 1565)
The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, the seasons - by means of the flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by means of scales and blindfolds, death through clepsydra and scythes.
personification
- personification- a type of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features, for example:
And woe, woe, grief!
And the bast of grief was girded
,
Feet are entangled with bast.
Or: the personification of the church =>
Irony
- Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems.
According to Aristotle, irony is “a statement containing mockery of those who really think so.”
- Irony- the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart-smart ...”. Here positive statements have a negative connotation.
Sarcasm
- Sarcasm- one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic mockery, highest degree irony, based not only on the heightened contrast between the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied.
Sarcasm is a harsh mockery that can open with a positive judgment, but in general it always contains a negative connotation and indicates a lack of a person, object or phenomenon, that is, in relation to what it is happening.
Like satire, sarcasm involves the fight against hostile phenomena of reality through ridiculing them. Ruthlessness, harshness of exposure - a distinctive feature of sarcasm. Unlike irony, sarcasm expresses the highest degree of indignation, hatred. Sarcasm is never characteristic technique a humorist who, revealing the funny in reality, depicts it always with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.
Example: You have a very smart question. Are you a true intellectual?
Tasks
1) Give a brief definition of the word trope .
2) What kind of allegory is shown on the left?
3) Name it as you can more species trope.
Thank you for your attention!!!
Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - the use of a word denoting an object (phenomenon, action, sign) for a figurative name of another object that is similar in some way to the first one. This is a figurative name “by similarity”, which creates an artistic image. In metaphor, the combination and interaction of various designated realities is always manifested, therefore it is multifaceted. Representing, as a rule, a comparison compressed into one word, a metaphor is usually built on a potential semantic shift, relying on language traditions and the speaker's speech experience. It "rejects the belonging of an object to the class to which it belongs, and includes it in a category to which it cannot be assigned on rational grounds" (6).
None of the writers or poets could do without the use of artistic text metaphors. Their high percentage indicates the degree of mastery of the art of the word. Aristotle rightly stated in the Poetics: “The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be adopted from another - this is a sign of talent.
I.S. was a great master of poetic metaphor. Turgenev. Here is a typical example from the story "Bezhin Meadow":
I... saw a vast plain far below me. Wide river skirted it in a semicircle leaving me; steel the reflections of the water, occasionally and vaguely flickering, indicated its course ... The dawn had not yet flushed anywhere, but it was already turning white in the east ... I had not managed to move two versts, as already poured around me ... first scarlet, then red, gold streams young, hot Sveta...
Note. The absence of metaphors “does not mean the absence of expressiveness of a work of art. A classic example is the poem “I loved you ...” by A.S. Pushkin" (52, p. 45).
Metaphor is not only single (simple), but can develop in the text, forming whole chains of figurative expressions: The golden grove dissuaded with a birch, cheerful tongue(S. Yesenin). Such a stringing of new metaphors, related in meaning to the first, is called an expanded metaphor. “Detailed metaphors attract word artists as a particularly striking stylistic device of figurative speech” (24, p. 135). An example of an individual author's detailed metaphorical likening of fire to an animal is found in A.M. Gorky, who achieves an exceptional originality of the picture of a forest fire with its elemental destructive power, evoking the idea of an invasion, dancing and games of fantastic animals:
And at night, the forest took on an indescribably eerie, fabulous look: its wall grew higher, and in the depths of it, between the black trunks, red, furry animals rushed madly, jumped. They crouched to the ground to the roots and, hugging the trunks, climbed up like agile monkeys, fought with each other, broke branches, whistled, hummed, hooted, and the forest crunched, as if thousands of dogs were gnawing bones. Infinitely various figures of fire flowed between the black trunks, and the dance of these figures was indefatigable. Here, clumsily bouncing, somersaulting, a large red bear rolls out to the edge of the forest and, losing shreds of fiery wool, climbs, as if for honey, up the trunk, and reaching the crown, embraces its branches with a shaggy embrace of crimson paws, sways on them, showering needles with rain golden sparks; here the beast easily jumped onto a neighboring tree, and where it was, on the black, bare branches, blue candles were lit in a multitude, purple mice run along the branches, and with their bright movement you can clearly see how intricately the blue smoke smokes and how along the bark of the trunk crawling, up and down, hundreds of fire ants. Sometimes the fire crawled out of the forest slowly, stealthily, like a cat hunting for a bird, and suddenly, raising its sharp muzzle, looked around - what to grab? Or suddenly a sparkling, fiery oatmeal bear appeared and crawled along the ground on its stomach, spreading its paws wide, raking the grass into its huge red mouth.
Parade unfolding
my army pages,
I am walking through
along the line front.
Poems are worth
lead-hard,
Ready for death
and immortal glory.
The poems are frozen
pressing the vent to the vent
targeted
gaping titles.
beloved family,
rush in boom,
wit cavalry,
raising rhymes
sharpened peaks.
When creating an integral artistic image, the usual use of a word, thanks to its figurative comprehension, often becomes the basis of a branched, multifaceted metaphor that can cover, as it were, permeate the entire text. The image becomes "fluctuating", mobile, and perception - creative, aesthetically experienced. That's the way it is with the verb put on and related words in the poems for children "Do not forget" by A. Voznesensky. In the first stanza, this verb is used in its main (direct) meaning ( wear shorts, T-shirt, sports uniform, jeans, jacket, coat etc.):
The man put on his underpants
blue stripe shirt,
jeans as white as snow
a person puts on.
The man put on a jacket
badge on him
under the name "GTO".
From above he put on a coat.
The process of "dressing" a person appears further as fantastic, and the verb itself put on, receiving atypical compatibility in the context, becomes the basis of metaphors. The process of “dressing” is perceived not only in the usual, but also in a figurative, figurative sense, as the fouling with things, everything created on earth, the conquest of space:
On him, shaking off the dust,
He put on the car.
From above it put on the garage
(cramped - but just right!),
on top of it allotment our yard,
like a belt put on a fence
from above our neighborhood,
region puts on He.
girded himself like a knight
state border.
And shaking my head
puts on the globe.
Black space pulled,
firmly buttoned up the stars
Milky Way - over shoulder,
above is something else...
But further from the text we learn that man forgot about time. The everyday idea of a clock left somewhere at home develops into a symbolic Time, which has a deep philosophical, civil, humanistic meaning as the embodiment of the best ideals of mankind:
The man looks around.
near the constellation Libra
he remembered that he had forgotten his watch.
(Somewhere they tick
forgotten, alone? ..)
Human removes the countries
And seas, And oceans,
And car, And coat.
He is nothing without time.
The combination of the two indicated plans - direct and figurative, allegorical - creates in the last stanza of the poem the subtext of moralizing content:
He is standing in his shorts,
holding a watch in his hands.
He stands on the balcony
and to passers-by he says:
“In the morning, putting on shorts,
DON'T FORGET THE WATCH!"
Metaphors can be unambiguous ( morning of the year[A.S. Pushkin] - spring) and allowing various interpretations, including those with abstract associations that are very distant from the subject of speech and difficult to determine: And only high, at the royal gates // Participated in secrets, the child cried // About the fact that no one will come back[A. Block], As if I'm a spring echoing early / Ride on a pink horse[WITH. Yesenin], Rus - a kiss in the cold[IN. Khlebnikov], Autumn. Ships burn in the sky[YU. Shevchuk], etc. Allegories are built on the basis of unambiguous metaphors (see below). Ambiguous metaphors are very similar in nature to a symbol (see below) because they contain an implicit comparison.
In artistically organized speech, hidden metaphors are not uncommon, which largely coincide with the concept of “internal form of the artistic word”, introduced into scientific circulation by G.O. Vinokur (see above the chapter "Language of Fiction"). A hidden metaphor is contained in the titles of many works: "Autumn" by E.A. Baratynsky, "Smoke", "Nov" I.S. Turgenev, "Cliff" by I.A. Goncharova and others (See more about this: 84, p. 118).
There are two main types: metaphors of language and metaphors of speech (style). The first to oppose them and show the universal metaphorical nature of language was the French linguist C. Bally (see 8).
A linguistic metaphor is “a secondary indirect nomination with the obligatory preservation of semantic duality and a figurative element” (46, p. 325): the flow of information, a dispute broke out, thoughts scatter, the clouds dispersed, iron discipline, frozen deposits etc. Language metaphor is inherent in the very nature of language, we reproduce and perceive it automatically. It reflects subject-logical connections objectively existing in the minds of all native speakers. The following types of metaphorical transfer of linguistic meanings can be distinguished: by quality ( cold wind- cold heart, sharp knife - sharp word), by color ( emerald brooch - emerald grass), according to the form ( hair comb - mountain comb), local ( the nose of a man is the bow of a ship), by function ( the horse rushes - time rushes), by various associations ( sunbeam - sunny mood, yesterday - yesterday's soup, obtuse angle - stupid person). As you can see, in many cases, metaphorical meanings have become so common ( yesterday's soup, the crest of a mountain, the prow of a ship etc.), that their figurativeness is already practically erased, since it is not felt by the listeners or speakers. It should also be noted that the same word, depending on the accentuation of its various features, can act in different metaphorical meanings: golden ring - golden hair(transfer by color) – skillful fingers(transfer by quality); black pencil - black lake(transfer by color) – black soul(associative transfer). It is possible to combine several figurative meanings: lead clouds(transfer by color and quality).
If the language metaphor is anonymous, has a systemic character and performs nominative and communicative function, then the speech metaphor reflects an individual view of the world, i.e. subjective, occasional, extra-systemic and unique. It has a pronounced aesthetic orientation. The most studied today is the artistic speech metaphor, which was first described and classified in Aristotle's Poetics. Almost all researchers still rely on this typology. With all the diversity and originality of artistic metaphors, they, like linguistic metaphors, are carried out according to certain models. HE. Emelyanova identifies the following types of metaphorical transfers in a generalized and schematized form:
item > item ( a waterfall of tears, an avalanche of letters, a shock of hair, a scattering of stars);
object > person ( bowler hat"head", mitten"mouth", a flood of visitors, a sea of demonstrators);
object > physical world ( a cascade of sounds, a hail of impacts, a wave of light, a wall of fire, a fan of rays);
subject > mental world ( the star of happiness, the abyss of grief, the swamp of ignorance, the granite of science, the stone on the soul, the cloud of sadness);
subject > abstraction ( a pearl of poetry, a wagon of time, a fragment of the past, a grain of benefit);
animal > human ( ram- clueless bug- roguish bear- clumsy snake- insidious puppy- inexperienced)
person > person ( master- about being lazy actor- about a pretender angel- about a pure, bright person);
physical world > mental world (airplane takeoff - the rise of creative thought, fantasy; fire spark - spark of love, talent; train wreck - the collapse of hopes, plans);
animal > object ( scales of the water surface, frost feathers, fluffs of snow);
animal > animal ( Oh, and a hippopotamus about the cat eagle- about the horse fox- about a cat and so on.);
· animal > mental world ( claws of longing, fear; a flock of memories; swarm of impressions);
human > animal ( barin, nobleman- about the animal);
physical world > human world ( burst of applause, an outbreak of illness, a flurry of applause);
physical world > human ( fire- about a hot person, slush- about the characterless). [Cm. 46, p.326.]
Different eras and different literary movements put forward their own requirements for metaphor. So, for poetic texts by V.A. Zhukovsky is characterized by metaphors with an abstract meaning that cannot be precisely defined ( The color of life was torn off, the soul withered), which is primarily due to the tasks of romanticism: to express in poetry the subjective feeling of the author, his "arrogant dreams". In the works of A.S. Pushkin and E.A. Baratynsky's metaphors already have a more specific life-affirming content: There is an awakening in the soul; In them modest graces triumph, Star of captivating happiness and so on. In the metaphors of poets and prose writers 2nd half of XIX century, the degree of separation of the figurative meaning of the word from the normative is less than that of its predecessors. Author's metaphors N.A. Nekrasov, A.V. Koltsova, A.A. Feta are deeply motivated and at the same time individual and original. In the poetry of the 20th century, the use of extended metaphors is being revived and the nature of single metaphors is significantly changing: the diversity of both themselves and the epithets that contact with them is increasing, which together contributes to the creation of an integral figurative impression, similar to the perception of an artist’s painting.
Metaphor has become the style-forming basis of many phraseological units ( open your mouth, mix the cards, the trace is cold) and such small folklore genres as proverbs, sayings, riddles. One of the chapters of the book by S.G. Lazutin's "Poetics of Russian Folklore" is called "Metaphor is the soul of a riddle", since this genre concentrates the figurative thinking of the people and very accurately noticed similarities between objects and phenomena are expressed with a subtle witty hint: ... passed through the earth - he found a little red cap; The grandfather is sitting in a hundred fur coats, who undresses him - he sheds tears; Multi-colored yoke hung over the river and etc.
To what has been said about the metaphor, it should be added that its figurative halo is very unsteady and short-lived, since it can be preserved only under the condition of rare individual authorial use. In all cases of mass use, the metaphor as a trope sooner or later disappears (the phenomenon of an erased or “dead” metaphor). So, imagery in combinations has long gone out back(or leg) chair(or beds) sole(or crest) mountains,eyeball, river arm, piano veil and so on. The figurative element and aesthetic potential in the so-called rhetorical metaphors, which are used by many authors and have become literary clichés, have been half-erased and weakened: the web of lies, the sunset of life, the dawn of youth, the flight of fantasy, the idol of the public, the flowers of eloquence, the soul of society, rising star a gem of poetry etc. (although devoid of pretentiousness, the least bright cliches are to a certain extent acceptable and convenient as running turns of speech bordering on phraseology). The sophisticated reader today will no longer be impressed by the metaphor Golden autumn (or gold of leaves, gold of trees), which was once so fresh and successful with A.S. Pushkin: forests clad in crimson and gold. Consequently, the indispensable companions of true metaphor and signs of a truly poetic work are the unusualness and novelty of the artistic image. Stylistic metaphors are designed to create a vivid, unique imagery of the depicted and at the same time express the author's assessment, they should be a kind of discovery that can reveal the similarities between objects hidden from a superficial glance and cause a variety of additional ideas, secondary associations, accompanied by high emotions.
As subspecies of metaphor, it is customary to single out catachresis and symphora.
catahresis(from the Greek katachrēsis - abuse, misuse of a word) - a metaphor that is not felt as a stylistic device, i.e. or too familiar (“table leg”, “red ink”), or, more often, too unusual, felt as a disadvantage (usually with a multi-stage metaphor: “a wave passes through the tentacles of world imperialism like a red thread ...” - parodic catachresis by V.V. Mayakovsky (see 49, p. 152).
Symphora(from the Greek symphora - correlation, combination) is the highest form metaphorical transfer, when direct comparison is omitted and only the most striking signs of the signified are given: This rain charged for a long time, // All in pins gray Volga(L. Ozerov). Compare: Not blinking, teary from the wind // Hopeless hazel cherries (A. Voznesensky).
personification considered a special kind of metaphor. This is such an image of inanimate objects, plants or animals, when they speak, think and feel like a person:
fanned a thing of drowsiness.
The half-naked forest is sad...
Is it the hundredth of summer leaves,
Shining with autumn gilding,
Still rustling on branches.
(F.I. Tyutchev)
Paths hidden, deaf,
In the forest thickets twilight go.
bombarded dry leaves,
Forests are silent- autumn night are waiting.
(I.A. Bunin)
Steamboat through the rustle of rain at night shouted four times... Steam hoarsely torn from the steamer pipe ... In the morning from sleepy and endless waters rose inflamed the sun, and the glass of the captain's cabin lit up gloomily under it.
(K.G. Paustovsky)
Personification- a more complex kind of personification, consisting in the complete assimilation of an inanimate object to a person, which can become the leitmotif of the entire text if it is a short story, poem, essay, newspaper article. An example from a journalistic note on the development of sports:
Muscles are getting stronger"Athlete" he sets new records. But he can handle not only victory in competitions, but also hardening of young residents of the microdistrict. For this, the club came into being.
Allegory(from the Greek allēgoria - allegory) - a common metaphor in which the figurative transfer of meaning is not limited to one word, but extends to the whole thought or to a series of thoughts united common theme. This is the expression of an abstract concept or idea with the help of a specific image placed in a specific plot. Here in the foreground resemblance, but the conceptual proximity of concepts. The purpose of an allegory is to show some complex, abstract phenomenon on simple example and thereby expose its essence, make it available for general understanding. Examples of brief allegories are proverbs: You can't ask for snow in winter(about stinginess); cf. with stylization under the folklore of N.A. Nekrasov: Wouldn't the blind notice them... If it passes, it's like the sun shines, if it looks, it will give you a ruble(about female beauty).
A more complex type of allegories are fables and parables. In them, the main idea given in morality is illustrated by a plot in which characters (most often animals) act as carriers of certain qualities of a human character: a hare usually becomes an allegory of cowardice (sometimes - dexterity and ingenuity), a wolf - greed, a fox - cunning, a snake - evil and deceit (sometimes - wisdom), etc. For example, in the fable of I.A. Krylov’s morality “The strong is always to blame for the weak” is confirmed by the plot, where the Wolf, his speech and actions allegorically express the greed and lawlessness of the rulers, and the Lamb - the defenselessness and lack of rights of the people.
The allegorical character is inherent in individual works of other genres. For example, in the poem "Prophet" A.S. Pushkin creates an allegory of the power of influence of the poetic word.
metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) - this is the use of a word denoting an object for a figurative name of another object related to the first one by adjacency, i.e. by location, time, cause and effect relationships. Unlike metaphor, metonymy does not imply any similarity between the designated objects, phenomena or signs. Metonymy is, as it were, a concise description of an object, phenomenon, event, in which one or another characteristic feature is artistically distinguished from the content of thought. The designated object is endowed here with the property of its “neighbor”, with which it is closely connected. Example:
I love your cruel winters
Still air and frost
Sledge running along the wide Neva,
Girlish faces brighter than roses
AND shine, And noise, And ball talk,
And at an hour revelry idle
The hiss of foamy glasses
And punch flame blue.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Here we see the metonymic use of words that denote the brilliance, noise and speech of the highest light (people) at balls, a feast of single young of people, hiss of foaming guilt in glasses (underlined words are omitted, but are implied).
An object, a tool can become a carrier of human qualities, feelings and actions:
And the boyar writes all night long,
Feather breathes his vengeance.
(A.K. Tolstoy)
Linguistic figurativeness noticeably thickens when direct and figurative metonymic meanings clash in the text punning. For example, in the conversation of the characters of "Undergrowth" D.I. Fonvizin discussing Mitrofan's "successes":
Mrs. P r o s t a k o v a. What is it, my father?
P r o s t a k o v. What is it, my father?
P a in d i n. It can't be better. He is strong in grammar.
M i l o n. I think no less stories.
Mrs. P r o s t a k o v a. Then, my father, he is still young stories hunter.
C o t i n i n. Mitrofan for me. I myself won’t take my eyes off that, so that the elected one doesn’t tell me stories. Master, son of a dog, where does everything come from.
Noun story appears here in two different meanings - "the science of the development of human society" and "story, narration; incident." The comedy of the situation arises when they collide.
The following types of metonymic transfer of the meaning of a word can be distinguished:
sign - its carriers: cheek brings success; If youth knew, if old age could;
effect instead of cause: live to gray hair;
tool instead of action: what a beautiful brush! "Their villages and fields for a violent raid / He doomed him to swords and fires"(A.S. Pushkin).
owner - property: The neighbor is on fire!;
a person - his mental state, a significant part of the body, organism or attribute of clothing: "Fear screams from the heart" (V. Mayakovsky); The heart asks for peace; “And the damp overcoat shouted: We will return again - understand”(O. Mandelstam);
material - products from it: “Not on silver, - on gold I ate”(A.S. Griboyedov) ; “He began to crush noble crystal on the floor”(V. Vysotsky);
place - residents: Bryansk welcomed the liberators; “About the surrendered Port Arthur / Neighbor got down on the shoulder”(S. Yesenin).
process - result: throw it in a landfill, the fourth dimension, board game for sale.
Metonymy, like metaphor, can be individual-author's, speech (for example, in F.I. Tyutchev: Where peppy sickle walked and the ear fell; at F.M. Dostoevsky: Reaching the turn in yesterday's street, he looked into it with agonizing anxiety, at that house ... and immediately averted his eyes) and general language, with long-extinguished figurativeness: ate a plate, underground passage, I read Pushkin and so on.
HE. Emelyanova states: “There is no doubt that the mechanism of metonymy is quite complicated, but its study has so far received immeasurably less attention than the study of metaphor” (46, p. 328).
Synecdoche(from the Greek synekdoche - correlation) - a kind of metonymy, which is based on the relationship of part to the whole. In other words, the figurative transfer of the name is connected here with the quantitative relations between the designated objects. Synecdoche expresses one of the characteristic features of an object in some respect. Only a part of the object is designated, and the whole is implied; those. the part is creatively complemented to the whole, the whole is, as it were, “thought out”, perceived against the background of some characteristic detail. Masterfully used the synecdoche of A.S. Pushkin in the poem "The Bronze Horseman":
And he thought:
From here we will threaten to the Swede:
Here the city will be founded
To spite the arrogant neighbor.
Nature here is destined for us
Cut a window to Europe
foot stand firm by the sea.
Here on their new waves
All flags will visit us
And let's hang out in the open.
The most striking synecdoche in this example is "All flags will visit us": flags used here as a designation of ships, flotillas sailing under a certain flag. More broadly flag- designation of the whole country, a certain state. In other cases, the synecdoche is manifested in the use of the singular instead of the plural: to the Swede(to the Swedes) neighbor(neighbors) foot(feet). Compare: first glove, first racket- descriptive designations of the champion in boxing, tennis. Here synecdoche closely interacts with periphrase (see below).
Much less often, the whole is used instead of a part (i.e., a general, generic concept instead of a particular, specific one). For example: "You are called to the carpet superiors(we are talking about one boss). In the poem by V.V. Mayakovsky "An Extraordinary Adventure ..." in the poet's fantastic meeting with the sun, which turns into a real, earthly conversation about high appointment art, the sun is named luminary(this is a generic concept in relation to the species one):
A tear from the eyes of the most -
the heat drove me crazy
but I to him
for a samovar:
"Well,
sit down light!"
Paraphrase(s) or paraphrase(s), periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis, peri - around and phrasis - expression) - the replacement of a word or expression with a descriptive phrase, in which the most significant features of the signified are named. For example: desert ships(camels), black gold(oil; compare: White gold - cotton, soft gold- furs, etc.); Eve's daughter(woman), our little brothers(animals), etc.
In the above examples, the periphrase has become common language, since the imagery in them from frequent everyday use is almost not felt, as in journalistic or official business clichés. people in white coats, law enforcement officers, the Land of the Rising Sun, take a well-deserved rest(to retire), dismiss(dismiss) etc.
The imagery of periphrase is most clearly manifested in occasional use in artistic speech and journalism. Here are a few typical for the style of A.S. Pushkin's paraphrases written out by N.M. Shansky (see 100, pp. 484-489).
Pets of the windy Fate,
Tyrants of the world! Tremble!
(Liberty)
Idle thought's friend,
My inkwell...
(to my inkwell)
He loved thick groves,
solitude, silence,
And the night, and the stars, and the moon,
the moon heavenly lamp…
(Eugene Onegin)
thoughtfulness, her friend
From the most lullaby days,
Current rural leisure
Decorated her with dreams.
After all, it is finally lair dweller,
Bear, get bored.
Here you can add a couplet with a double paraphrase
bee from wax cells
flies for field tribute.
(Eugene Onegin)
In these examples, the meaning of paraphrases is quite clear. But the same author has periphrastic phrases that require a broader erudition to understand them. For example, in verse. "Memories in Tsarskoye Selo" read:
And pale shadows of the dead Chad of Bellona,
In the air regiments united,
Into the dark grave descend unceasingly...
Here is a paraphrase child(children) Bellona(goddess of war) replaces the word warriors. We meet next:
Where are you, beloved son of happiness and Bellona,
The voice that despised the truth, and faith, and the law ...
So A.S. Pushkin calls Napoleon. Compare: in verse. "Licinia" the poet uses a paraphrase in a rhetorical address Romulian people(= Romans):
ABOUT Romulus people, Tell me, how long have you fallen?
At the same time, in Pushkin's paraphrases, we often find excellent examples of humorous rethinking of reality. Yes, in verse. "Krivtsov" death is jokingly named coffin housewarming:
Don't scare us, dear friend,
coffin close housewarming…
In the message "N. N." (V.V. Engelhardt) verb recovered no less successfully and witty replaced by a paraphrase eluded Esculapius(i.e. doctor):
I eluded Esculapius
Thin, shaved - but alive;
His painful paw
Doesn't weigh on me.
As a rule, the paraphrase is combined with other tropes: a metaphor ( black gold, red cock- fire, fire), metonymy ( blue berets- paratroopers; White collars- office workers), irony (for example, in the novel by Ilf and Petrov "The Twelve Chairs" Bender calls Vorobyaninov either a "giant of thought", or "the father of Russian democracy", or "special, close to the emperor", or "secular lion, conqueror women"), antonomasia (see below), etc.
Euphemism or euphemism (from the Greek. euphēmismos) - a special kind of periphrase (however, it can be considered a special kind of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and other tropes), consisting in replacing a word or expression that the speaker or writer considers rude, inappropriate and obscene, more semantically neutral and expressive coloring expression. For example, woman in an interesting position(instead of pregnant), unclean in hand(instead of prone to steal); in socio-political phraseology: stakeholders, credible sources, destructive forces and p. N.V. Gogol, ridiculing affectation, hypocrisy and hypocrisy, very successfully uses euphemism in the speech of the ladies of the city N:
They never said: “I blew my nose, I sweated, I spat,” but they said: “I relieved my nose, I got by with a handkerchief.” On no account could one say, "This glass or this plate stinks," and one could not even say anything that hinted at it, but instead said, "This glass is not behaving well," or something like that. .
(Dead Souls)
Euphemisms should also include individual authorial contextual replacements of some words by others in order to distort or mask the true essence of the signified. For example, in a newspaper article: The apotheosis of the action was the demonstration of that part of the body, for which there is a word that rhymes with the word Europe.
Dysphemism or kakofemism (from the Greek dyphēmia - curse, reproach, censure, kakophēmia - the same) - a word or phrase that is opposite in function to euphemism. This is the deliberate use of slang, vulgar and obscene words or phrases for the purpose of insulting, expressing a negative assessment or creating reduced expression in cases where stylistically and emotionally neutral word usage is possible. Typical examples from colloquial everyday speech: drag in, cut in or give in the face(instead of hit), stare, stare or spread the zenks(instead of look), close one's eyes, die, or drop one's hooves(instead of die) etc.
In journalism and artistic speech, dysphemism is very often used as an effective means of negative characterization:
Now you understand why I'm the saddest of all bastards G? Why am I the lightest of all idiots but darker than any shit? Why am I and fool and demon , and empty together? (V. Erofeev).
Antonomasia(from Greek antonomasia - renaming) - also special kind synecdoche (and paraphrases), consisting in replacing a common noun with one's own: We all look at Napoleons(A.S. Pushkin). Or, for example, the statement He is real can be continued: Cicero(i.e. speaker), Socrates or Spinoza(i.e. philosopher), Croesus(i.e. rich man), Hercules(i.e. strongman), etc.
Symbol(from the Greek. symbolon - a sign, a sign) is a multi-valued and deep in meaning image that correlates different planes of the depicted reality. This is not a visual display, but an explanation of abstract content through a specific object, which designates an idea allegorically, expresses it by way of a hint, creating a certain mood. For example, pine M.Yu. Lermontova, standing alone “in the wild north” and dreaming about a palm tree in a dream, is a symbolic expression of the mood of a lonely person, his thoughts and innermost feelings.
The word-symbol, denoting a specific object, is at the same time in a state of great intellectual and emotional comparison with its deep meaning in a different, allegorical plan, which (unlike metaphor) is not given directly, but must be unraveled like a hieroglyph, to a greater extent experienced. When we see the ship white, we call it white boat, and there is nothing special about it. In the story of the same name by Ch. Aitmatov, this is a symbol. This is the embodiment of the purity of the child's soul, protesting against injustice, the dream of happiness, the hope of a small and already adult hero in his thoughts:
When he first saw one day from the Guard Hill white steamer on the blue Issyk-Kul, his heart throbbed so much from such beauty that he immediately decided that his father, an Issyk-Kul sailor, was sailing on this white boat. And the boy believed it because he really wanted it. He did not remember either his father or mother ... It was a long time to see how the ship was sailing, and the boy thought for a long time about how he would turn into a fish and swim along the river to him, to white boat... And Issyk-Kul is a whole sea. He will swim along the waves of Issyk-Kul, from wave to wave, - and then towards white boat."Hello, white boat, It's me! he says to the ship. - It was I who always looked at you through binoculars ... ”And then he will say to his father, a sailor:
"Hi dad, I'm your son. I swam to you."
Associated with a variety of associations with the text, with its composition, characters, the idea of the work, the symbol becomes unusually capacious, containing, in essence, the meaning of the whole work, bright and impressive:
You sailed away, my boy, into your fairy tale. Did you know that you will never turn into a fish, that you will not swim to Issyk-Kul, you will not see white steamer and do not tell him: "Hello, white boat, It's me!"
You swam away.
I can only say now - you rejected what your childish soul did not put up with. And this is my consolation. You lived like lightning, once flashed and died out. And lightning strikes the sky. And the sky is eternal. And this is my consolation. And also in the fact that a child's conscience is in a person, like a germ in a grain - without a germ, the grain does not germinate. And no matter what awaits us in the world, the truth will remain forever, while people are born and die...
Saying goodbye to you, I repeat your words, boy:
"Hello, white boat, It's me!"
Hyperbola(from the Greek. hyperbole - exaggeration) - this is a figurative word usage that exaggerates some object, feature, quality or action in order to enhance the artistic impression. Hyperbole can be a purely quantitative exaggeration, giving expression to speech:
Kh l e s t a k o v. Just don't speak. On the table, for example, a watermelon - seven hundred rubles watermelon ... And at that very moment couriers, couriers, couriers ... you can imagine thirty five thousands one couriers! (N.V. Gogol).
In most cases, however, hyperbole not only enhances, but also enriches the thought with new content, approaching metaphor. This is a figurative hyperbole:
Damask steel sounded, buckshot screeched,
The hand of the fighters is tired of stabbing,
And cores prevented me from flying
Mountain bloody bodies.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)
thousands varieties of hats, dresses, scarves - colorful, light, to which their owners sometimes remain attached for two whole days, will blind anyone on Nevsky Prospekt. It seems as though a whole sea of moths rose suddenly from the stems and worries shining cloud over male black beetles (N.V. Gogol).
Hyperbole can become the stylistic basis of the entire work. For example, the text of the popular "Song of the First Grader" performed by A. Pugacheva is a chain of logically interconnected hyperbolas: Today at school the first class is like an institute; Candidate of Sciences - and he is crying over the task; Leo Tolstoy did not write such things at his age; I am engaged in work with a synchrophasotron and etc.
Like other trope names, the term hyperbola It is also used in ancient poetics and rhetoric. Aristotle considered hyperbole to be a kind of metaphor.
Litotes(from the Greek litotes - simplicity, smallness, moderation; the term has several meanings, but as a trope it coincides with meiosis) - an artistic understatement of the magnitude, the value depicted for the purpose of emotional impact. Examples:
Here you will find such waists that you have never even dreamed of: thin, narrow waists, no thicker than a bottle neck, meeting with whom, you respectfully step aside, so as not to somehow inadvertently push with an impolite elbow; timidity and fear will take possession of your heart, so that somehow from even your careless breath the most charming work of nature and art did not break (N.V. Gogol).
Stroller light as a feather(N.V. Gogol).
And marching importantly, in serenity,
A man is leading a horse by the bridle
In big boots, in a sheepskin coat,
In big mittens ... and himself with a fingernail!
(N.A. Nekrasov)
Some scientists call litotes (as tropes) reverse hyperbole, others oppose these techniques according to the principle: hyperbole is an exorbitant exaggeration, and litotes is an exorbitant underestimation of any quality of an object or process, phenomenon. It is with this understanding that litote coincides with the concept meiosis(from Greek meiōsis - reduction).
Litote (or meiosis) also usually includes euphemistic words and expressions, i.e. those that soften, make the designation of some quality or property less categorical: difficult(instead of difficult), not bad(instead of Fine), stupid(instead of stupid), come down, wow, decent(about good), etc. For example:
Anger is even more stupid stupid his face (L.M. Leonov).
With the help of litotes, in many cases a positive or negative assessment of the subject of speech is expressed: money, little thought, liaison, stigma in a cannon etc. As can be seen from the examples, subjective assessment suffixes are actively used for this purpose.
Note. According to O.N. Emelyanova, litote (meiosis) “takes place only if an objectively significant or normal property, quality is underestimated. The underestimation of the objectively small is not a weakening of the “intensity”, but, on the contrary, its strengthening and, consequently, hyperbolization” (46, p. 320).
Emphasis(from Greek emphasis - image, reflection; appearance, appearance) - a trope (in one of 3 definitions), consisting in the use of a word in a narrowed (in comparison with the usual) meaning. Examples:
You have to be human to do it.(i.e. a hero);
It needs a hero, but he's just a man(i.e. coward).
(See 49, p. 509.)
Irony(from the Greek eirōnia, lit. - feigned ignorance, feigned self-abasement) is a two-valued term that coincides in the first stylistic meaning with the concept of antiphrasis (see the chapter “The stylistic use of antonyms”) and only in this sense can be considered the name of the path. For example, in the novel by Ilf and Petrov "The Twelve Chairs" Vorobyaninov is derisively called and nimble boy, And stool hunter, And county leader of the Comanches. Here irony is closely related to paraphrase and becomes obvious from the general context. The same lexical unit can be used both in its direct nominative function and with ironic contextual coloring. For example, the obsolete word mansions may call the boyar chambers in a historical and artistic work, but can also become an ironic appraisal name for a modern small cramped apartment, "Khrushchev".
In literary criticism and aesthetics, irony is considered more widely - as "a kind of comic, in which a critical attitude towards the object of ridicule is of a judgmental nature and is expressed in a somewhat veiled form" (46, p. 227). In this second meaning, irony can be expressed through various tropes and rhetorical figures: synecdoche, hyperbole, paraphrase, reminiscence, rhetorical question, etc. Example:
My poems will come to readers
Already a stack of waste paper,
Why do cave dwellers
Traces of a lost culture?
(I. Guberman // Lit. newspaper. No. 12. 2001)
The caustic irony of this text is created with the help of an evaluative paraphrase (“cave dwellers”) and a rhetorical question.
Asteism(from the Greek asteios - witty, subtle, apt) - a kind of irony (or antiphrase), in which the use of a language unit in the opposite sense differs from the actual antiphrase in that it is positive, i.e. is a praise, a compliment in the form of a playful reprimand or an imaginary reproach. Asteism is defined by the general context and the characteristic deliberately rude intonation of speech. Example:
- The devil will not play like him, damn, played the double bass, used to lead, rogue, such equivocals as Rubinstein or Beethoven, for example, will not display on the violin. The master was robber.
(A.P. Chekhov)
Compare: A girl with feigned severity addresses her beloved kitten:
Oh, you rascal, why did you hide from me?
Asteism can also be used by the speaker in relation to himself as a third person:
Ah yes Pushkin, ah yes Son of a bitch! (A.S. Pushkin).
Oxymoron or oxymoron - see the chapter "The stylistic use of antonyms" - p.98.
Epithet(from the Greek epitheton - application) is a poetic definition, usually expressed by an adjective. Such a definition repeats the feature contained in the defined itself, draws attention to it, emphasizes it, expressing the emotional attitude of the speaker to the subject of speech. Semantic "atoms" that are repeated in the defined and defining words become tangible, focusing our attention on certain properties, qualities or features of the designated.
Analyzing the historical and artistic significance of this trail, the famous philologist A.N. Veselovsky in the book "Historical Poetics" expresses a very precise and profound idea that "the history of the epithet is the history of the poetic style in an abridged edition<…>Behind a different epithet ... lies a distant historical and psychological perspective, the accumulation of metaphors, comparisons and abstractions, a whole history of taste and style in its evolution from the ideas of the useful and desirable to the identification of the concept of beauty ”(16, p. 73).
In folk poetry, constant epithets are widely used: Kind Well done , red girl , blue sky , blue sea , clean field , red suns and n. These are traditional definitions, the figurativeness of which is largely weakened.
The epithet, which can be the most ordinary word, emphasizes the characteristic feature of the designated, as if highlighting it from other similar ones. Example:
He carried his hat in his hand, and therefore he was clearly visible big sloping forehead (K.G. Paustovsky).
However, figurative (metaphorical, metonymic) epithets are the most expressive, which gives reason to bring the epithet closer to tropes. For example, in the fragment “The hostess fixed her gaze for a longer time on thin Natasha ... Looking at her, the hostess remembered, perhaps, her golden, irrevocable girlish time and her first ball "(L.N. Tolstoy) the first of the selected epithets participates in the formation of figurative and metaphorical meaning" great time youth", the second has the usual meaning, but subtly emphasizing the uniqueness of this time. Compare:
She has such velvet eyes...: upper and lower eyelashes are so long that the rays of the sun are not reflected in her pupils. I love these eyes without shine: they are so soft, they seem to be stroking you (M.Yu. Lermontov).
The metaphorical character of the epithet is supported here by the implied simile: eyes without shine, soft, as if they were stroking you(like velvet). Compare with the figurative picture of a summer rain:
And then there was a slight noise
Hasty, joyful And wet.
(S.Ya. Marshak)
Along with the metaphorical, one can also find a figurative metonymic epithet here: wet noise- the sound of raindrops. Rain is depicted here as a joyful noise.
The same word can act in different contexts both as a characteristic feature devoid of imagery and as a metaphorical definition: Cats have green eyes And Trouble has green eyes; amber beads And amber ears of rye.
Epithets are indispensable "companions" of the artistic description of nature and man:
It's been three days since I've been in Kislovodsk. Every day I see Vera at the well and for a walk... life-giving the mountain air restored her complexion and strength. No wonder Narzan is called the heroic key... here everything is mysterious - and thick canopies of linden alleys... and gorges full of darkness and silence... and freshness aromatic air, weighed down by the vapors of tall southern grasses and white locust - and constant, sweetly soporific noise of cold streams... (M.Yu. Lermontov).
Winter sings - calls out,
Shaggy the forest cradles
The call of a pine forest.
Around with longing deep
Float into the country distant
gray-haired clouds.
And in the yard a snowstorm
Carpet silk spreads,
But it hurts cold.
sparrows playful,
like kids forlorn,
Huddled at the window.
Chilled out birds small,
Hungry, tired,
And they huddle tighter.
A blizzard with a roar furious
Knocking on the shutters suspended
And getting more and more angry.
And the birds doze gentle
Beneath these whirlwinds snowy
At frozen window.
And they dream beautiful,
In the smiles of the sun clear
Gorgeous spring.
(S. Yesenin)
In our time, there is no longer any objection to a broad understanding of the linguistic forms of expression of the epithet. According to the fair remark of A.A. Potebny, “epithets should include all paired combinations of words depicting things, qualities, actions as their sign” (65, p. 67). Therefore, the epithet can be expressed not only by an adjective, but by a noun in the role of an application (see above: gorgeous spring; compare: Enchantress in winter // Bewitched, the forest stands; naughty monkey etc.) or adverb:
I loved you silent, hopeless,
Either timidity or jealousy languish;
I loved you so sincerely, So gently,
How God forbid you loved to be different.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Paronymic attraction- a technique based on the emergence of semantic relationships between paronyms and paronomasia, often called paronomasia in the reference literature. But paronomasia is the consonance of paronomasia, i.e. unrelated words, and not only intentional, punning, but also stylistic, including erroneous ( please accept virgin measures, five-ton harmonic, allegorical sick and p.). Paronymic attraction is a deliberate clash of similarities, which, being not connected by semantic relations in the language, enter into them in the context, united by a coordinating or subordinating syntactic link: not festivity, but idleness; not a historical approach, but a hysterical one; And now you and I are engaged, doomed to a life together; Everything is useful that got into your mouth. Only one of the members of the paropposition can be represented in the text, and the second one is suggested by the context, the situation of communication and the language experience of the speaker: If you don't have a dog, your neighbor won't boil it(jokingly "Korean folk wisdom"). As you can see, these are relations of either synomization and adjacency, or antomization and contrast. According to D.E. Rosenthal, "the tangibility of paronymic attraction and its meaning depend on the degree of sound (and letter) coincidence, on the syntactic and textual position of the conjugated words, on the subject correlation of the designated" (69, p. 191).
Comparison occupies an intermediate position between paths and figures. It underlies the tropes, is their premise, and just like them, enriches thought with new content. For example, when comparing a comparison with a metaphor, it becomes obvious that in a metaphor words appear in their figurative meaning, and in comparison they are used in a direct meaning:
Near the forest like a soft bed.
You can sleep - peace and space.
(N.A. Nekrasov)
This is, as it were, a “preparatory stage” for the formation of a metaphor, the primary type of path in which the compared objects retain their independence, do not create a new concept, a fused image. In the metaphor itself, such words appear in a figurative sense - as single image. The comparison here is “folded” into a figurative sense:
A blizzard is coming, a blizzard is coming
Explodes snow bed.
At the same time, comparison has similarities with figures: it has a certain syntactic structure - one is compared with another using certain unions and other means.
So, comparison is a figurative expression in which one object (phenomenon, feature, etc.) is compared with another that has some property to a greater extent. Professor B.V. Tomashevsky singled out three elements in comparison: 1) what is being compared, “object”, 2) what something is compared with, “image”, and 3) what is compared with another, “sign”. So, figuratively Face as white as snow"item" - face, "image" - snow, and the sign on the basis of which these concepts converge is whiteness ( white). Most often, comparisons are joined using conjunctions. as, exactly, as if, as if, as if, as if and etc.
It's close to noon. The fire is burning.
Like a plowman the battle is resting.
(A.S. Pushkin)
Here is an apt and figurative comparison: a respite in battle is a short rest in very hard work - the work of a plowman. Compare:
Everywhere, throughout the estate, like in an anthill people were busy from morning to night (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
Comparison can be expanded, branched. Then it turns into a comparison-image. “The evening of Anna Pavlovna was launched. The spindles from different sides evenly and incessantly rustled, ”we read in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". This metaphor is prepared by an extended comparison:
As the owner of a spinning shop, having put the workers in their places, walks around the establishment, noticing the immobility or the unusual, creaking, too loud sound of the spindle, hastily walks, restrains or sets it in its proper course,- so Anna Pavlovna, pacing around her drawing room, approached a mug that was silent or talked too much and with one word or movement again started a regular, decent conversational machine.
Comparison helps to penetrate into the essence of very complex things, to reveal it artistically through unexpected comparison, to create a “moving” image that affects the reader. The comparison can be expressed in the form of an address. For example, reading in the first line of a poem by V.Ya. Bryusov’s appeal to a dream, we are at first surprised that the author likens it to an ox, but, reading the context, we understand that creativity for a poet is the result of not only inspiration, but also hard, hard everyday work, similar to the hard work of a plowman:
Go ahead dream my faithful ox!
Unwittingly, if not willingly!
I am close to you, my whip is heavy,
I work myself, and you work!
Forget the morning dew
Don't think about the night's rest!
Go to the sultry lane.
My faithful ox- There are only two of us!
Another type of comparison is the negative comparison. The opposition of one object to another appears here at the same time as their figurative comparison. Such a comparison is a common technique in folk poetry, from where it passed into fiction:
The red sun does not shine in the sky,
Blue clouds do not admire them:
Then at the meal he sits in a golden crown.
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
Compare with the stanza from the text of a folk song:
It is not the wind that bends the branch,
Not an oak forest makes noise:
That my heart is groaning
How autumn leaf, trembles.
Metamorphosis- a special kind of comparison, which is named so because it has the meaning of turning similar into identical. This non-union comparison in the instrumental form is very common in the language. Typical examples: smoke in a column, rainbow with a yoke (arc), tail with a hook (pipe), nose with a snout, fly with an arrow and so on. An individual-author's metamorphosis is possible, for example:
yellow-fronted sun deer
Looks from behind every trunk
(L. Tatyanicheva)
Metamorphosis is more dynamic than metaphor and more categorical than comparison proper; it expresses the process itself, while the metaphor is its result, and the traditional comparison is the assimilation to another process or feature. Compare: eyelash arrows , fallen on the cheeks(metaphor) - eyelashes, fallen like arrows, on the cheeks(comparison) - eyelashes that have fallen arrows on the cheeks(metamorphosis). N.V. Gogol chose the latter option as the most expressive art form. Metamorphosis was one of the favorite stylistic devices of the great writer. Compare with another example:
- You go, grandma! shouted her beards immediately spade, shovel and wedge.“Look, where did you go, clumsy!”
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