thermonuclear weapon (H-bomb)- a type of nuclear weapon, the destructive power of which is based on the use of the energy of the reaction of nuclear fusion of light elements into heavier ones (for example, the fusion of one nucleus of a helium atom from two nuclei of deuterium atoms), in which energy is released.

general description [ | ]

A thermonuclear explosive device can be built using both liquid deuterium and gaseous compressed. But the advent of thermonuclear weapons was made possible only by a variety of lithium hydride, lithium-6 deuteride. This is a compound of the heavy isotope of hydrogen - deuterium and the isotope of lithium with a mass number of 6.

Lithium-6 deuteride is a solid substance that allows you to store deuterium (whose normal state is a gas under normal conditions) under normal conditions, and, in addition, its second component, lithium-6, is a raw material for obtaining the most scarce isotope of hydrogen - tritium. Actually, 6 Li is the only industrial source of tritium:

3 6 L i + 0 1 n → 1 3 H + 2 4 H e + E 1 . (\displaystyle ()_(3)^(6)\mathrm (Li) +()_(0)^(1)n\to ()_(1)^(3)\mathrm (H) +() _(2)^(4)\mathrm (He) +E_(1).)

The same reaction occurs in lithium-6 deuteride in a thermonuclear device when irradiated with fast neutrons; released energy E 1 = 4.784 MeV. The resulting tritium (3 H) then reacts with deuterium, releasing energy E 2 = 17.59 MeV:

1 3 H + 1 2 H → 2 4 H e + 0 1 n + E 2 , (\displaystyle ()_(1)^(3)\mathrm (H) +()_(1)^(2)\ mathrm (H) \to ()_(2)^(4)\mathrm (He) +()_(0)^(1)n+E_(2),)

moreover, a neutron with a kinetic energy of at least 14.1 MeV is formed, which can again initiate the first reaction on another lithium-6 nucleus, or cause fission of heavy uranium or plutonium nuclei in a shell or trigger with the emission of several more fast neutrons.

Early US thermonuclear munitions also used natural lithium deuteride, containing mainly an isotope of lithium with a mass number of 7. It also serves as a source of tritium, but for this, the neutrons participating in the reaction must have an energy of 10 MeV and higher: the reaction n+ 7 Li → 3 H + 4 He + n− 2.467 MeV is endothermic, absorbing energy.

thermonuclear bomb, operating according to the Teller-Ulam principle, consists of two stages: a trigger and a container with thermonuclear fuel.

The device tested by the US in 1952 was not actually a bomb, but was a laboratory sample, a "3-story house filled with liquid deuterium", made in the form of a special design. Soviet scientists have developed precisely the bomb - a complete device suitable for practical military use.

The largest ever detonated hydrogen bomb is the Soviet 58-megaton "Tsar bomb", detonated on October 30, 1961 at the test site of the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. Nikita Khrushchev subsequently publicly joked that the 100-megaton bomb was originally supposed to be detonated, but the charge was reduced "so as not to break all the windows in Moscow." Structurally, the bomb was indeed designed for 100 megatons, and this power could be achieved by replacing lead with uranium. The bomb was detonated at an altitude of 4,000 meters above the Novaya Zemlya test site. The shock wave after the explosion circled three times Earth. Despite a successful test, the bomb did not enter service; nevertheless, the creation and testing of the superbomb was of great political importance, demonstrating that the USSR had solved the problem of achieving practically any level of megatonnage of a nuclear arsenal.

USA [ | ]

The idea of ​​a fusion bomb initiated by an atomic charge was proposed by Enrico Fermi to his colleague Edward Teller in the autumn of 1941, at the very beginning of the Manhattan Project. Teller spent much of his work on the Manhattan Project working on the fusion bomb project, to some extent neglecting the atomic bomb itself. His focus on difficulties and his "devil's advocate" position in discussions of problems caused Oppenheimer to lead Teller and other "problem" physicists to a siding.

The first important and conceptual steps towards the implementation of the synthesis project were taken by Teller's collaborator Stanislav Ulam. For initiation thermo nuclear fusion Ulam proposed to compress the thermonuclear fuel before it starts heating, using the factors of the primary fission reaction for this, and also to place the thermonuclear charge separately from the primary nuclear component of the bomb. These proposals made it possible to translate the development of thermonuclear weapons into a practical plane. Based on this, Teller suggested that the X-ray and gamma radiation generated by the primary explosion could transfer enough energy to the secondary component, located in a common shell with the primary, to carry out sufficient implosion (compression) and initiate a thermonuclear reaction. Later, Teller, his supporters and detractors discussed Ulam's contribution to the theory behind this mechanism.

Explosion "George"

In 1951, a series of tests was carried out under the general name Operation "Greenhouse" (English Operation Greenhouse), during which the issues of miniaturization of nuclear charges were worked out with an increase in their power. One of the tests in this series was an explosion codenamed "George" (eng. George), in which an experimental device was blown up, which was a nuclear charge in the form of a torus with a small amount of liquid hydrogen placed in the center. The main part of the explosion power was obtained precisely due to hydrogen fusion, which confirmed in practice the general concept of two-stage devices.

"Evie Mike"

Soon the development of thermonuclear weapons in the United States was directed towards the miniaturization of the Teller-Ulam design, which could be equipped with intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs/ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs/SLBMs). By 1960, the W47 megaton-class warheads deployed on submarines equipped with Polaris ballistic missiles were adopted. The warheads had a mass of 320 kg and a diameter of 50 cm. Later tests showed the low reliability of the warheads installed on the Polaris missiles, and the need for their improvements. By the mid-1970s, the miniaturization of new versions of the Teller-Ulam warheads made it possible to place 10 or more warheads in the dimensions of the warhead of multiple reentry vehicle (MIRV) missiles.

USSR [ | ]

North Korea [ | ]

In December of the year, the KCNA released a statement by the leader of the DPRK, Kim Jong-un, in which he reports that Pyongyang has its own hydrogen bomb.

The hydrogen or thermonuclear bomb became the cornerstone of the arms race between the US and the USSR. The two superpowers have been arguing for several years about who will be the first owner of a new type of destructive weapon.

thermonuclear weapons project

At the beginning of the Cold War, the test of the hydrogen bomb was the most important argument for the leadership of the USSR in the fight against the United States. Moscow wanted to achieve nuclear parity with Washington and invested heavily in the arms race. However, work on the creation of a hydrogen bomb began not thanks to generous funding, but because of reports from secret agents in America. In 1945, the Kremlin learned that the United States was preparing to create a new weapon. It was a super-bomb, the project of which was called Super.

The source of valuable information was Klaus Fuchs, an employee of the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the USA. He gave the Soviet Union specific information that concerned the secret American developments of the superbomb. By 1950, the Super project was thrown into the trash, as it became clear to Western scientists that such a scheme for a new weapon could not be implemented. The head of this program was Edward Teller.

In 1946, Klaus Fuchs and John developed the ideas of the Super project and patented their own system. Fundamentally new in it was the principle of radioactive implosion. In the USSR, this scheme began to be considered a little later - in 1948. In general, we can say that at the initial stage it was completely based on American information received by intelligence. But, continuing research already on the basis of these materials, Soviet scientists were noticeably ahead of their Western counterparts, which allowed the USSR to first obtain the first, and then the most powerful thermonuclear bomb.

On December 17, 1945, at a meeting of a special committee established under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, nuclear physicists Yakov Zel'dovich, Isaac Pomeranchuk and Julius Khartion made a report on "Using the Nuclear Energy of Light Elements." This paper considered the possibility of using a deuterium bomb. This speech became the beginning of the Soviet nuclear program.

In 1946, theoretical studies of the hoist were carried out at the Institute of Chemical Physics. The first results of this work were discussed at one of the meetings of the Scientific and Technical Council in the First Main Directorate. Two years later, Lavrenty Beria instructed Kurchatov and Khariton to analyze materials about the von Neumann system, which were delivered to the Soviet Union thanks to covert agents in the west. The data from these documents gave an additional impetus to the research, thanks to which the RDS-6 project was born.

Evie Mike and Castle Bravo

On November 1, 1952, the Americans tested the world's first thermonuclear bomb. It was not yet a bomb, but already its most important component. The explosion occurred on the Enivotek Atoll, in pacific ocean. and Stanislav Ulam (each of them is actually the creator of the hydrogen bomb) shortly before developed a two-stage design, which the Americans tested. The device could not be used as a weapon, as it was produced using deuterium. In addition, it was distinguished by its enormous weight and dimensions. Such a projectile simply could not be dropped from an aircraft.

The test of the first hydrogen bomb was carried out by Soviet scientists. After the United States learned about the successful use of the RDS-6s, it became clear that it was necessary to close the gap with the Russians in the arms race as soon as possible. The American test passed on March 1, 1954. Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands was chosen as the test site. The Pacific archipelagos were not chosen by chance. There was almost no population here (and those few people who lived on nearby islands were evicted on the eve of the experiment).

The most devastating American hydrogen bomb explosion became known as "Castle Bravo". The charge power turned out to be 2.5 times higher than expected. The explosion led to radiation contamination of a large area (many islands and the Pacific Ocean), which led to a scandal and a revision of the nuclear program.

Development of RDS-6s

The project of the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb was named RDS-6s. The plan was written by the outstanding physicist Andrei Sakharov. In 1950, the Council of Ministers of the USSR decided to concentrate work on the creation of new weapons in KB-11. According to this decision, a group of scientists led by Igor Tamm went to the closed Arzamas-16.

Especially for this grandiose project, the Semipalatinsk test site was prepared. Before the test of the hydrogen bomb began, numerous measuring, filming and recording devices were installed there. In addition, on behalf of scientists, almost two thousand indicators appeared there. The area affected by the hydrogen bomb test included 190 structures.

The Semipalatinsk experiment was unique not only because of the new type of weapon. Unique intakes designed for chemical and radioactive samples were used. Only a powerful shock wave could open them. Recording and filming devices were installed in specially prepared fortified structures on the surface and in underground bunkers.

alarm clock

Back in 1946, Edward Teller, who worked in the United States, developed the RDS-6s prototype. It was called Alarm Clock. Initially, the project of this device was proposed as an alternative to Super. In April 1947, a whole series of experiments began at the Los Alamos laboratory to investigate the nature of thermonuclear principles.

From the Alarm Clock, scientists expected the greatest energy release. In the fall, Teller decided to use lithium deuteride as fuel for the device. Researchers had not yet used this substance, but they expected that it would increase efficiency. Interestingly, Teller already noted in his memos that the nuclear program depended on the further development of computers. This technique was needed by scientists for more accurate and complex calculations.

Alarm Clock and RDS-6s had much in common, but they differed in many ways. The American version was not as practical as the Soviet one due to its size. Big sizes he inherited from the Super project. In the end, the Americans had to abandon this development. The last studies took place in 1954, after which it became clear that the project was unprofitable.

Explosion of the first thermonuclear bomb

The first test of a hydrogen bomb in human history took place on August 12, 1953. In the morning, a bright flash appeared on the horizon, which blinded even through goggles. The RDS-6s explosion turned out to be 20 times more powerful than an atomic bomb. The experiment was considered successful. Scientists were able to achieve an important technological breakthrough. For the first time, lithium hydride was used as a fuel. Within a radius of 4 kilometers from the epicenter of the explosion, the wave destroyed all the buildings.

Subsequent tests of the hydrogen bomb in the USSR were based on the experience gained using the RDS-6s. This destructive weapon was not only the most powerful. An important advantage of the bomb was its compactness. The projectile was placed in the Tu-16 bomber. Success allowed Soviet scientists to get ahead of the Americans. In the USA at that time there was a thermonuclear device, the size of a house. It was non-transportable.

When Moscow announced that the USSR's hydrogen bomb was ready, Washington disputed this information. The main argument of the Americans was the fact that the thermonuclear bomb should be manufactured according to the Teller-Ulam scheme. It was based on the principle of radiation implosion. This project will be implemented in the USSR in two years, in 1955.

The physicist Andrei Sakharov made the greatest contribution to the creation of the RDS-6s. The hydrogen bomb was his brainchild - it was he who proposed the revolutionary those technical solutions, which made it possible to successfully complete tests at the Semipalatinsk test site. Young Sakharov immediately became an academician at the USSR Academy of Sciences, a Hero of Socialist Labor and a laureate of the Stalin Prize. Other scientists also received awards and medals: Yuli Khariton, Kirill Shchelkin, Yakov Zeldovich, Nikolai Dukhov, etc. In 1953, the test of the hydrogen bomb showed that Soviet science could overcome what until recently seemed fiction and fantasy. Therefore, immediately after the successful explosion of the RDS-6s, the development of even more powerful projectiles began.

RDS-37

On November 20, 1955, another test of the hydrogen bomb took place in the USSR. This time it was two-stage and corresponded to the Teller-Ulam scheme. The RDS-37 bomb was about to be dropped from an aircraft. However, when he took to the air, it became clear that the tests would have to be carried out in an emergency. Contrary to forecasts of weather forecasters, the weather deteriorated noticeably, due to which dense clouds covered the test site.

For the first time, experts were forced to land a plane with a thermonuclear bomb on board. For some time there was a discussion at the Central Command Post about what to do next. A proposal was considered to drop the bomb on the mountains nearby, but this option was rejected as too risky. Meanwhile, the plane continued to circle near the landfill, producing fuel.

Zel'dovich and Sakharov received the decisive word. A hydrogen bomb that did not explode at a test site would have led to disaster. Scientists understood the full degree of risk and their own responsibility, and yet they gave written confirmation that the landing of the aircraft would be safe. Finally, the commander of the Tu-16 crew, Fyodor Golovashko, received the command to land. The landing was very smooth. The pilots showed all their skills and did not panic in critical situation. The maneuver was perfect. The Central Command Post let out a breath of relief.

The creator of the hydrogen bomb Sakharov and his team have postponed the tests. The second attempt was scheduled for 22 November. On this day, everything went without emergency situations. The bomb was dropped from a height of 12 kilometers. While the projectile was falling, the plane managed to retire to a safe distance from the epicenter of the explosion. A few minutes later, the nuclear mushroom reached a height of 14 kilometers, and its diameter was 30 kilometers.

The explosion was not without tragic incidents. From the shock wave at a distance of 200 kilometers, glass was knocked out, because of which several people were injured. A girl who lived in a neighboring village also died, on which the ceiling collapsed. Another victim was a soldier who was in a special waiting area. The soldier fell asleep in the dugout, and he died of suffocation before his comrades could pull him out.

Development of the "Tsar bomb"

In 1954, the best nuclear physicists of the country, under the leadership, began the development of the most powerful thermonuclear bomb in the history of mankind. Andrey Sakharov, Viktor Adamsky, Yuri Babaev, Yuri Smirnov, Yuri Trutnev, etc. also took part in this project. Due to its power and size, the bomb became known as the Tsar Bomba. Project participants later recalled that this phrase appeared after famous saying Khrushchev about "Kuzka's mother" at the UN. Officially, the project was called AN602.

Over the seven years of development, the bomb has gone through several reincarnations. At first, scientists planned to use uranium components and the Jekyll-Hyde reaction, but later this idea had to be abandoned due to the danger of radioactive contamination.

Trial on New Earth

For some time, the Tsar Bomba project was frozen, since Khrushchev was going to the USA, and in cold war there was a short pause. In 1961, the conflict between the countries flared up again and in Moscow they again remembered thermonuclear weapons. Khrushchev announced the upcoming tests in October 1961 during the XXII Congress of the CPSU.

On the 30th, a Tu-95V with a bomb on board took off from Olenya and headed for Novaya Zemlya. The plane reached the target for two hours. Another Soviet hydrogen bomb was dropped at an altitude of 10.5 thousand meters above the Dry Nose nuclear test site. The shell exploded while still in the air. arose fire ball, which reached a diameter of three kilometers and almost touched the ground. According to scientists, the seismic wave from the explosion crossed the planet three times. The blow was felt a thousand kilometers away, and all living things at a distance of a hundred kilometers could receive third-degree burns (this did not happen, since the area was uninhabited).

At that time, the most powerful US thermonuclear bomb was four times less powerful than the Tsar Bomba. The Soviet leadership was pleased with the result of the experiment. In Moscow, they got what they wanted so much from the next hydrogen bomb. The test showed that the USSR has weapons much more powerful than the United States. In the future, the devastating record of the Tsar Bomba was never broken. The most powerful explosion of the hydrogen bomb was a milestone in the history of science and the Cold War.

Thermonuclear weapons of other countries

British development of the hydrogen bomb began in 1954. The project leader was William Penney, who had previously been a member of the Manhattan Project in the United States. The British had crumbs of information about the structure of thermonuclear weapons. American allies did not share this information. Washington cited the 1946 Atomic Energy Act. The only exception for the British was permission to observe the tests. In addition, they used aircraft to collect samples left after the explosions of American shells.

At first, in London, they decided to limit themselves to the creation of a very powerful atomic bomb. Thus began the testing of the Orange Herald. During them, the most powerful non-thermonuclear bomb in the history of mankind was dropped. Its disadvantage was excessive cost. On November 8, 1957, a hydrogen bomb was tested. The history of the creation of the British two-stage device is an example of successful progress in the conditions of lagging behind the two superpowers arguing with each other.

In China, the hydrogen bomb appeared in 1967, in France - in 1968. Thus, there are five states in the club of countries possessing thermonuclear weapons today. Controversial remains about the hydrogen bomb in North Korea. The head of the DPRK stated that his scientists were able to develop such a projectile. During the tests, seismologists different countries recorded seismic activity caused by a nuclear explosion. But there is still no specific information about the hydrogen bomb in the DPRK.

Atomic energy is released not only during the fission of atomic nuclei of heavy elements, but also during the combination (synthesis) of light nuclei into heavier ones.

For example, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms, when combined, form the nuclei of helium atoms, and more energy is released per unit weight of nuclear fuel than during the fission of uranium nuclei.

These nuclear fusion reactions occurring at very high temperatures, measured in tens of millions of degrees, are called thermonuclear reactions. A weapon based on the use of energy instantly released as a result of a thermonuclear reaction is called thermonuclear weapons.

Thermonuclear weapons that use hydrogen isotopes as the charge (nuclear explosive) are often referred to as hydrogen weapons.

The fusion reaction between hydrogen isotopes - deuterium and tritium - proceeds especially successfully.

Lithium deuterium (a compound of deuterium with lithium) can also be used as a charge for a hydrogen bomb.

Deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, occurs naturally in trace amounts in heavy water. Ordinary water contains about 0.02% heavy water as an impurity. To obtain 1 kg of deuterium, it is necessary to process at least 25 tons of water.

Tritium, or superheavy hydrogen, is practically never found in nature. It is obtained artificially, for example, by irradiating lithium with neutrons. For this purpose, neutrons released in nuclear reactors can be used.

Practical Device hydrogen bomb can be imagined as follows: next to a hydrogen charge containing heavy and superheavy hydrogen (i.e., deuterium and tritium), there are two hemispheres of uranium or plutonium (atomic charge) distant from each other.

For the convergence of these hemispheres, charges from a conventional explosive (TNT) are used. Exploding simultaneously, the TNT charges bring together the hemispheres of the atomic charge. At the moment of their connection, an explosion occurs, thereby creating conditions for a thermonuclear reaction, and, consequently, an explosion of a hydrogen charge will also occur. Thus, the reaction of a hydrogen bomb explosion goes through two phases: the first phase is the fission of uranium or plutonium, the second is the fusion phase, in which helium nuclei and free neutrons of high energy are formed. At present, there are schemes for constructing a three-phase thermonuclear bomb.

In a three-phase bomb, the shell is made from uranium-238 (natural uranium). In this case, the reaction goes through three phases: the first phase of fission (uranium or plutonium for detonation), the second - a thermonuclear reaction in lithium hydrite and the third phase - the fission reaction of uranium-238. The fission of uranium nuclei is caused by neutrons, which are released in the form of a powerful stream during the fusion reaction.

The fabrication of the shell from uranium-238 makes it possible to increase the power of the bomb at the expense of the most accessible nuclear raw materials. According to the foreign press, bombs with a capacity of 10-14 million tons or more have already been tested. It becomes obvious that this is not the limit. Further improvement of nuclear weapons goes both along the line of creating bombs of especially high power, and along the line of developing new designs that make it possible to reduce the weight and caliber of bombs. In particular, they are working on creating a bomb based entirely on synthesis. There are, for example, reports in the foreign press about the possibility of using a new method of detonating thermonuclear bombs based on the use of shock waves of conventional explosives.

The energy released by the explosion of a hydrogen bomb can be thousands of times greater than the energy of an atomic bomb explosion. However, the radius of destruction cannot be as many times greater than the radius of destruction caused by the explosion of an atomic bomb.

The radius of action of the shock wave during an air explosion of a hydrogen bomb with a TNT equivalent of 10 million tons is more than the radius of action of a shock wave formed during the explosion of an atomic bomb with a TNT equivalent of 20,000 tons by about 8 times, while the power of the bomb is 500 times greater, t i.e., by the cube root of 500. Correspondingly, the destruction area also increases by about 64 times, i.e., in proportion to the cube root of the bomb power increase factor squared.

According to foreign authors, nuclear explosion with a capacity of 20 million tons, the area of ​​complete destruction of conventional ground structures, according to American experts, can reach 200 km 2, the zone of significant destruction - 500 km 2 and partial - up to 2580 km 2.

This means, foreign experts conclude, that the explosion of one bomb of such power is enough to destroy the modern big city. As you know, the area occupied by Paris is 104 km2, London - 300 km2, Chicago - 550 km2, Berlin - 880 km2.

The scale of damage and destruction from a nuclear explosion with a capacity of 20 million tons can be represented schematically, in the following form:

The area of ​​lethal doses of initial radiation within a radius of up to 8 km (on an area up to 200 km 2);

The area affected by light radiation (burns)] within a radius of up to 32 km (over an area of ​​about 3000 km 2).

Damage to residential buildings (broken glass, crumbled plaster, etc.) can be observed even at a distance of up to 120 km from the explosion site.

The given data from open foreign sources are indicative, they were obtained during testing of nuclear weapons of lower power and by calculations. Deviations from these data in one direction or another will depend on various factors, and primarily on the terrain, the nature of development, meteorological conditions, vegetation cover, etc.

To a large extent, it is possible to change the radius of damage by artificially creating certain conditions that reduce the effect of exposure damaging factors explosion. So, for example, it is possible to reduce the damaging effect of light radiation, reduce the area where people can burn and objects can ignite, by creating a smoke screen.

Conducted experiments in the United States on the creation of smoke screens during nuclear explosions in 1954-1955. showed that at the density of the curtain (oil fog) obtained at a consumption of 440-620 l of oil per 1 km 2, the effect of light radiation from a nuclear explosion, depending on the distance to the epicenter, can be weakened by 65-90%.

Other smokes also weaken the damaging effect of light radiation, which are not only not inferior, but in some cases surpass oil fogs. In particular, industrial smoke, which reduces atmospheric visibility, can reduce the effects of light radiation to the same extent as oil fogs.

The damaging effect of nuclear explosions can be greatly reduced by dispersed construction of settlements, the creation of forest plantations, etc.

Of particular note is the sharp decrease in the radius of damage to people, depending on the use of certain means of protection. It is known, for example, that even at a comparatively small distance from the epicenter of the explosion, a safe shelter from the effects of light radiation and penetrating radiation is a shelter with a 1.6 m thick earth cover layer or a 1 m concrete layer.

A light-type shelter reduces the radius of the affected area by six times compared to an open location, and the affected area is reduced tenfold. When using covered slots, the radius of possible damage is reduced by 2 times.

Consequently, with the maximum use of all available methods and means of protection, it is possible to achieve a significant reduction in the impact of the damaging factors of nuclear weapons and, thereby, a reduction in human and material losses during their use.

Speaking about the scale of destruction that can be caused by explosions of high-power nuclear weapons, it must be borne in mind that the damage will be inflicted not only by the action of a shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation, but also by the action of radioactive substances that fall along the path of the cloud formed during the explosion , which includes not only gaseous explosion products, but also solid particles of various sizes, both in weight and in size. A particularly large amount of radioactive dust is formed during ground explosions.

The height of the rise of the cloud and its size largely depend on the power of the explosion. According to the foreign press, when testing nuclear charges with a capacity of several million tons of TNT, which were carried out by the United States in the Pacific Ocean in 1952-1954, the top of the cloud reached a height of 30-40 km.

In the first minutes after the explosion, the cloud has the shape of a ball and, over time, stretches in the direction of the wind, reaching a huge size (about 60-70 km).

Approximately an hour after the explosion of a bomb with a TNT equivalent of 20 thousand tons, the volume of the cloud reaches 300 km 3, and with a bomb explosion of 20 million tons, the volume can reach 10 thousand km 3.

Moving in the direction of the flow of air masses, an atomic cloud can occupy a strip with a length of several tens of kilometers.

From the cloud during its movement, after rising into the upper layers of the rarefied atmosphere, after a few minutes, radioactive dust begins to fall to the ground, contaminating an area of ​​​​several thousand square kilometers along the way.

At first, the heaviest dust particles fall out, which have time to settle within a few hours. The main mass of coarse dust falls in the first 6-8 hours after the explosion.

About 50% of the (largest) particles of radioactive dust fall out within the first 8 hours after the explosion. This fallout is often referred to as local as opposed to general, ubiquitous.

Smaller dust particles remain in the air at various altitudes and fall to the ground for about two weeks after the explosion. During this time, the cloud can go around the globe several times, capturing a wide strip parallel to the latitude at which the explosion was made.

Particles of small size (up to 1 micron) remain in the upper layers of the atmosphere, are distributed more evenly around the globe, and fall out over the next number of years. According to scientists, the fallout of fine radioactive dust continues everywhere for about ten years.

The greatest danger to the population is radioactive dust that falls in the first hours after the explosion, since the level of radioactive contamination is so high that it can cause fatal injuries to people and animals that find themselves in the territory along the path of the radioactive cloud.

The size of the area and the degree of contamination of the area as a result of fallout of radioactive dust largely depend on meteorological conditions, the terrain, the height of the explosion, the size of the bomb charge, the nature of the soil, etc. The most important factor determining the size of the area of ​​contamination, its configuration, is the direction and the strength of the winds prevailing in the explosion area at various heights.

To determine the possible direction of cloud movement, it is necessary to know in which direction and with what speed the wind blows at different heights, starting from a height of about 1 km and ending with 25-30 km. To do this, the meteorological service must conduct continuous observations and measurements of the wind using radiosondes at various heights; based on the data obtained, determine in which direction the radioactive cloud is most likely to move.

During the explosion of a hydrogen bomb, produced by the United States in 1954 in the central part of the Pacific Ocean (on Bikini Atoll), the contaminated area had the shape of an elongated ellipse, which extended 350 km downwind and 30 km against the wind. The maximum width of the strip was about 65 km. total area dangerous infection reached about 8 thousand km 2.

As is known, as a result of this explosion, the Japanese fishing vessel Fukuryumaru, which was at that time at a distance of about 145 km, was contaminated with radioactive dust. The 23 fishermen who were on this vessel were injured, and one of them was fatal.

The fallout of radioactive dust after the explosion on March 1, 1954 also affected 29 American employees and 239 residents of the Marshall Islands, all of whom were injured at a distance of more than 300 km from the explosion site. Other ships that were in the Pacific Ocean at a distance of up to 1,500 km from Bikini, and some fish near the Japanese coast, also turned out to be infected.

The pollution of the atmosphere by the products of the explosion was indicated by the rains that fell on the Pacific coast and Japan in May, in which greatly increased radioactivity was detected. The areas in which radioactive fallout was recorded during May 1954 occupy about a third of the entire territory of Japan.

The above data on the scale of damage that can be inflicted on the population in the explosion of large-caliber atomic bombs show that high-yield nuclear charges (millions of tons of TNT) can be considered a radiological weapon, that is, a weapon that affects more radioactive explosion products than impact wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation acting at the time of the explosion.

Therefore, during the preparation of settlements and facilities National economy to civil defense, it is necessary to provide everywhere for measures to protect the population, animals, food, fodder and water from contamination by explosion products of nuclear charges that may fall along the path of the radioactive cloud.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances, not only the surface of the soil and objects, but also the air, vegetation, water in open reservoirs, etc. will be contaminated. The air will be contaminated both during the period of sedimentation of radioactive particles and in the following time, especially along roads during traffic or in windy weather, when the settled dust particles will again rise into the air.

Consequently, unprotected people and animals may be affected by radioactive dust that enters the respiratory system along with the air.

Dangerous will also be food and water contaminated with radioactive dust, which, if ingested, can cause serious illness, sometimes with fatal. Thus, in the area of ​​fallout of radioactive substances formed during a nuclear explosion, people will be affected not only as a result of external radiation, but also when contaminated food, water or air enters the body. When organizing protection against damage by products of a nuclear explosion, it should be borne in mind that the degree of infection along the trail of cloud movement decreases with distance from the explosion site.

Therefore, the danger to which the population located in the area of ​​​​the infection zone is exposed is different distance from the place of explosion is not the same. The most dangerous will be the areas close to the place of the explosion, and the areas located along the axis of the cloud movement (the middle part of the strip along the trail of the cloud movement).

The unevenness of radioactive contamination along the path of cloud movement is to a certain extent natural. This circumstance must be taken into account when organizing and carrying out activities for antiradiation protection of the population.

It should also be taken into account that some time elapses from the moment of explosion to the moment of falling out of the cloud of radioactive substances. This time is longer the farther from the place of explosion, and can be calculated in several hours. The population of areas remote from the site of the explosion will have sufficient time to take appropriate protective measures.

In particular, subject to the timely preparation of warning means and the accurate work of the relevant civil defense units, the population can be notified of the danger in about 2-3 hours.

During this time, with advance preparation of the population and high organization, it is possible to carry out a number of measures that provide sufficiently reliable protection against radioactive damage to people and animals. The choice of certain measures and methods of protection will be determined by the specific conditions of the situation. However general principles must be determined, and in accordance with this, civil defense plans are developed in advance.

It can be considered that, under certain conditions, it should be recognized as the most rational to take first of all protective measures on the spot, using all means and. methods that protect both from the ingress of radioactive substances into the body and from external radiation.

As is known, the most effective means of protection against external radiation are shelters (adapted to the requirements of anti-nuclear protection, as well as buildings with massive walls built of dense materials (brick, cement, reinforced concrete, etc.), including basements, dugouts , cellars, covered slots and ordinary residential buildings.

When evaluating the protective properties of buildings and structures, one can be guided by the following approximate data: a wooden house weakens the effect of radioactive radiation depending on the thickness of the walls by 4-10 times, a stone house - by 10-50 times, cellars and basements in wooden houses - by 50-100 times times, a gap with an overlap of a layer of earth 60-90 cm - 200-300 times.

Consequently, civil defense plans should provide for the use, if necessary, in the first place of structures with more powerful protective equipment; upon receipt of a signal of danger of injury, the population should immediately take refuge in these premises and remain there until further action is announced.

The length of time people spend in sheltered areas will depend mainly on the extent to which the area in which the population is located becomes contaminated and the rate at which radiation levels decrease over time.

So, for example, in settlements located at a considerable distance from the explosion site, where the total radiation doses that unprotected people will receive can become safe in a short time, it is advisable for the population to wait out this time in shelters.

In areas of high radioactive contamination, where the total dose that unprotected people can receive will be high and the reduction will be prolonged under these conditions, long stay people in shelters will become difficult. Therefore, it should be considered most rational in such areas to first shelter the population on the spot, and then evacuate them to uncharged areas. The beginning of the evacuation and its duration will depend on local conditions: the level of radioactive contamination, the availability of vehicles, means of communication, the time of year, the remoteness of the places of accommodation of the evacuees, etc.

Thus, the territory of radioactive contamination according to the trace of a radioactive cloud can be conditionally divided into two zones with different principles of protecting the population.

The first zone includes the territory where radiation levels after 5-6 days after the explosion remain high and decrease slowly (by about 10-20% daily). The evacuation of the population from such areas can begin only after the radiation level drops to such levels that during the time of collection and movement in the contaminated zone people will not receive a total dose of more than 50 r.

The second zone includes areas in which radiation levels decrease during the first 3-5 days after the explosion to 0.1 roentgen/hour.

The evacuation of the population from this zone is not advisable, since this time can be waited out in shelters.

The successful implementation of measures to protect the population in all cases is unthinkable without careful radiation reconnaissance and observation and constant monitoring of the radiation level.

Speaking about the protection of the population from radioactive damage in the wake of the movement of a cloud formed during a nuclear explosion, it should be remembered that it is possible to avoid damage or achieve its reduction only with a clear organization of a set of measures, which include:

  • organization of a warning system that provides timely warning of the population about the most probable direction of movement of the radioactive cloud and the danger of injury. For these purposes, all available means of communication must be used - telephone, radio stations, telegraph, radio broadcasting, etc.;
  • preparation of civil defense formations for reconnaissance both in cities and in rural areas;
  • shelter of people in shelters or other premises that protect against radioactive radiation (basements, cellars, crevices, etc.);
  • carrying out the evacuation of the population and animals from the area of ​​stable contamination with radioactive dust;
  • preparation of formations and institutions of the medical service of the Civil Defense for actions to provide assistance to the affected, mainly treatment, sanitization, examination of water and food products for contamination with radioactive substances by you;
  • early implementation of measures to protect food products in warehouses, in the distribution network, at public catering establishments, as well as water supply sources from contamination with radioactive dust (sealing storage facilities, preparing containers, improvised materials for sheltering products, preparing means for decontaminating food and containers, equipping dosimetric devices);
  • carrying out measures to protect animals and providing assistance to animals in case of damage.

To ensure the reliable protection of animals, it is necessary to provide for their keeping in collective farms, state farms, if possible, in small groups according to brigades, farms or settlements with places of shelter.

It should also provide for the creation of additional reservoirs or wells, which can become backup sources of water supply in case of contamination of the water of permanent sources.

Are gaining importance warehouses where fodder is stored, as well as livestock buildings, which, if possible, should be sealed.

To protect valuable breeding animals, it is necessary to have individual protective equipment, which can be made from improvised materials on the spot (eyebands, sacks, blankets, etc.), as well as gas masks (if available).

For decontamination of premises and veterinary treatment of animals, it is necessary to take into account in advance the disinfection units, sprayers, sprinklers, liquid spreaders and other mechanisms and containers available on the farm, with the help of which disinfection and veterinary treatment can be carried out;

Organization and preparation of formations and institutions for carrying out work on the decontamination of structures, terrain, vehicles, clothing, equipment and other property of the civil defense, for which measures are taken in advance to adapt municipal equipment, agricultural machines, mechanisms and devices for these purposes. Depending on the availability of equipment, appropriate formations must be created and trained - detachments, teams, groups, units, etc.

During the construction of the site for nuclear testing On August 12, 1953, at the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, I had to survive the explosion of the first hydrogen bomb on the globe with a capacity of 400 kilotons, the explosion occurred suddenly. The ground shook beneath us like water. Wave earth's surface passed and lifted us to a height of more than a meter. And we were at a distance of about 30 kilometers from the epicenter of the explosion. A flurry of air waves threw us to the ground. I rolled it for several meters, like chips. There was a wild roar. Lightning flashed blindingly. They instilled animal terror.

When we, the observers of this nightmare, rose, a nuclear mushroom hung over us. Warmth emanated from him and crackling was heard. I looked at the leg as if enchanted giant mushroom. Suddenly, a plane flew up to him and began to make monstrous turns. I thought it was a hero pilot taking samples of radioactive air. Then the plane dived into the stem of the mushroom and disappeared... It was amazing and scary.

There really were planes, tanks and other equipment on the field of the training ground. But later inquiries showed that not a single aircraft took air samples from the mushroom cloud. Was it a hallucination? The mystery was solved later. I realized that it was a chimney effect of gigantic proportions. There were no planes or tanks on the field after the explosion. But experts believed that they evaporated from the high temperature. I believe that they were simply drawn into the fiery mushroom. My observations and impressions were confirmed by other evidence.

On November 22, 1955, an even more powerful explosion was made. The charge of the hydrogen bomb was 600 kilotons. We prepared a site for this new explosion 2.5 kilometers from the epicenter of the previous nuclear explosion. The melted radioactive crust of the earth was immediately buried in trenches dug by bulldozers; they were preparing a new batch of equipment that was supposed to burn in the flame of a hydrogen bomb. The head of the construction of the Semipalatinsk test site was R. E. Ruzanov. He left an expressive description of this second explosion.

Residents of the "Bereg" (residential campus of testers), now the city of Kurchatov, were raised at 5 o'clock in the morning. It was cold -15°C. Everyone was taken to the stadium. The windows and doors of the houses were left open.

At the appointed hour, a giant plane appeared, accompanied by fighters.

The outbreak of the explosion arose unexpectedly and frighteningly. She was brighter than the sun. The sun has faded. It has disappeared. The clouds are gone. The sky turned black and blue. There was a blow of terrible force. He reached the stadium with the testers. The stadium was 60 kilometers from the epicenter. Despite this, the air wave knocked people to the ground and threw them tens of meters towards the stands. Thousands of people were knocked down. There was a wild cry from these crowds. Women and children were screaming. The whole stadium was filled with groans from injuries and pain that instantly startled people. The stadium with testers and residents of the town drowned in dust. The city was also invisible from the dust. The horizon, where the landfill was, boiled in clubs of flame. The leg of the atomic mushroom also seemed to be boiling. She was moving. It seemed that a boiling cloud was about to approach the stadium and cover us all. It was clearly seen how tanks, aircraft, parts of destroyed structures specially built on the field of the training ground began to be drawn into the cloud from the ground and disappear in it. The thought drilled into my head: we will also be drawn into this cloud! Everyone was seized with numbness and horror.

Suddenly, the stem of the nuclear fungus broke away from the boiling cloud above. The cloud rose higher, and the leg settled to the ground. Only then did people come to their senses. Everyone rushed to the houses. There were no windows and doors, roofs, belongings in them. Everything was scattered around. Those injured during the tests were hastily collected and sent to the hospital ...

A week later, officers who arrived from the Semipalatinsk test site whispered about this monstrous spectacle. About the suffering that people endured. About tanks flying in the air. Comparing these stories with my observations, I realized that I was witnessing a phenomenon that can be called the chimney effect. Only on a gigantic scale.

Huge thermal masses during the hydrogen explosion broke away from the surface of the earth and moved towards the center of the fungus. This effect arose due to the monstrous temperatures that a nuclear explosion gave. IN initial stage the temperature of the explosion was 30 thousand degrees Celsius. In the stem of a nuclear mushroom, it was at least 8 thousand. A huge, monstrous suction force arose, drawing into the epicenter of the explosion any objects that were on the site. Therefore, the plane that I observed during the first nuclear explosion was not a hallucination. He was simply pulled into the leg of the mushroom, and he made incredible turns there ...

The process that I observed in the explosion of the hydrogen bomb is very dangerous. Not only by its high temperature, but also by the effect of the absorption of gigantic masses, which I understood, whether it be the air or water shell of the Earth.

My calculation in 1962 showed that if a nuclear fungus penetrated the atmosphere to a great height, it could cause a planetary catastrophe. When the mushroom rises to a height of 30 kilometers, the process of suction of the Earth's water-air masses into space will begin. The vacuum will start to work like a pump. The earth will lose its air and water shells along with the biosphere. Humanity will perish.

I calculated that for this apocalyptic process, an atomic bomb of only 2 thousand kilotons is enough, that is, only three times the power of the second hydrogen explosion. This is the simplest man-made scenario for the death of mankind.

At one time, I was forbidden to talk about it. Today I consider it my duty to speak directly and openly about the threat to humanity.

The Earth has accumulated huge stocks of nuclear weapons. Reactors are working nuclear power plants Worldwide. They can become prey for terrorists. The explosion of these objects can reach capacities greater than 2,000 kilotons. Potentially, the scenario of the death of civilization has already been prepared.

What follows from here? It is necessary to protect nuclear facilities from possible terrorism so carefully that they are completely inaccessible to him. Otherwise, a planetary catastrophe is inevitable.

Sergey Alekseenko

construction participant

Semipolatinsk nuclear

The content of the article

H-BOMB, a weapon of great destructive power (of the order of megatons in TNT equivalent), the principle of operation of which is based on the thermonuclear fusion reaction of light nuclei. The energy source of the explosion are processes similar to those occurring on the Sun and other stars.

thermonuclear reactions.

The interior of the Sun contains a gigantic amount of hydrogen, which is in a state of superhigh compression at a temperature of approx. 15,000,000 K. At such a high temperature and plasma density, hydrogen nuclei experience constant collisions with each other, some of which end in their merger and, ultimately, the formation of heavier helium nuclei. Such reactions, called thermonuclear fusion, are accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy. According to the laws of physics, the energy release during thermonuclear fusion is due to the fact that when a heavier nucleus is formed, part of the mass of the light nuclei included in its composition is converted into a colossal amount of energy. That is why the Sun, having a gigantic mass, loses approx. 100 billion tons of matter and releases energy, thanks to which life on Earth became possible.

Isotopes of hydrogen.

The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all existing atoms. It consists of one proton, which is its nucleus, around which a single electron revolves. Careful studies of water (H 2 O) have shown that it contains negligible amounts of "heavy" water containing the "heavy isotope" of hydrogen - deuterium (2 H). The deuterium nucleus consists of a proton and a neutron, a neutral particle with a mass close to that of a proton.

There is a third isotope of hydrogen, tritium, which contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. Tritium is unstable and undergoes spontaneous radioactive decay, turning into an isotope of helium. Traces of tritium have been found in the Earth's atmosphere, where it is formed as a result of the interaction of cosmic rays with gas molecules that make up the air. Tritium is obtained artificially in a nuclear reactor by irradiating the lithium-6 isotope with a neutron flux.

Development of the hydrogen bomb.

A preliminary theoretical analysis showed that thermonuclear fusion is most easily carried out in a mixture of deuterium and tritium. Taking this as a basis, US scientists in early 1950, they began to implement a project to create a hydrogen bomb (HB). The first tests of a model nuclear device were carried out at the Eniwetok test site in the spring of 1951; thermonuclear fusion was only partial. Significant success was achieved on November 1, 1951, in the testing of a massive nuclear device, the explosion power of which was 4 x 8 Mt in TNT equivalent.

The first hydrogen aerial bomb was detonated in the USSR on August 12, 1953, and on March 1, 1954, the Americans detonated a more powerful (about 15 Mt) aerial bomb on Bikini Atoll. Since then, both powers have been detonating advanced megaton weapons.

The explosion at Bikini Atoll was accompanied by an ejection a large number radioactive substances. Some of them fell hundreds of kilometers from the site of the explosion onto the Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon, while others covered the island of Rongelap. Since thermonuclear fusion produces stable helium, the radioactivity in the explosion of a purely hydrogen bomb should be no more than that of an atomic detonator of a thermonuclear reaction. However, in the case under consideration, the predicted and actual radioactive fallout differed significantly in quantity and composition.

The mechanism of action of the hydrogen bomb.

The sequence of processes occurring during the explosion of a hydrogen bomb can be represented as follows. First, the charge-initiator of a thermonuclear reaction (a small atomic bomb) located inside the HB shell explodes, resulting in a neutron flash and creating heat required to initiate thermonuclear fusion. Neutrons bombard an insert made of lithium deuteride, a compound of deuterium with lithium (a lithium isotope with a mass number of 6 is used). Lithium-6 is split by neutrons into helium and tritium. Thus, the atomic fuse creates the materials necessary for synthesis directly in the bomb itself.

Then a thermonuclear reaction begins in a mixture of deuterium and tritium, the temperature inside the bomb rises rapidly, involving more and more large quantity hydrogen. With a further increase in temperature, a reaction between deuterium nuclei could begin, which is characteristic of a purely hydrogen bomb. All reactions, of course, proceed so quickly that they are perceived as instantaneous.

Division, synthesis, division (superbomb).

In fact, in the bomb, the sequence of processes described above ends at the stage of the reaction of deuterium with tritium. Further, the bomb designers preferred to use not the fusion of nuclei, but their fission. Fusion of deuterium and tritium nuclei produces helium and fast neutrons, the energy of which is large enough to cause the fission of uranium-238 nuclei (the main isotope of uranium, much cheaper than the uranium-235 used in conventional atomic bombs). Fast neutrons split the atoms of the superbomb's uranium shell. The fission of one ton of uranium creates an energy equivalent to 18 Mt. Energy goes not only to the explosion and the release of heat. Each uranium nucleus is split into two highly radioactive "fragments". Fission products include 36 different chemical elements and nearly 200 radioactive isotopes. All this makes up the radioactive fallout that accompanies the explosions of superbombs.

Due to the unique design and the described mechanism of action, weapons of this type can be made as powerful as desired. It is much cheaper than atomic bombs of the same power.

Consequences of the explosion.

Shock wave and thermal effect.

The direct (primary) impact of a superbomb explosion is threefold. The most obvious of the direct effects is a shock wave of tremendous intensity. The strength of its impact, depending on the power of the bomb, the height of the explosion above the ground and the nature of the terrain, decreases with distance from the epicenter of the explosion. The thermal effect of an explosion is determined by the same factors, but, in addition, it also depends on the transparency of the air - fog sharply reduces the distance at which a thermal flash can cause serious burns.

According to calculations, in the event of an explosion in the atmosphere of a 20-megaton bomb, people will remain alive in 50% of cases if they 1) take refuge in an underground reinforced concrete shelter at a distance of about 8 km from the epicenter of the explosion (EW), 2) are in ordinary urban buildings at a distance of approx. . 15 km from the EW, 3) were in the open at a distance of approx. 20 km from EV. In conditions of poor visibility and at a distance of at least 25 km, if the atmosphere is clear, for people in open areas, the probability of surviving increases rapidly with distance from the epicenter; at a distance of 32 km calculated value is more than 90%. The area in which the penetrating radiation that occurs during the explosion causes a lethal outcome is relatively small, even in the case of a high-yield superbomb.

Fire ball.

Depending on the composition and mass of the combustible material involved in the fireball, gigantic self-sustaining firestorms can form, raging for many hours. However, the most dangerous (albeit secondary) consequence of the explosion is radioactive contamination of the environment.

Fallout.

How they are formed.

When a bomb explodes, the resulting fireball is filled with a huge amount of radioactive particles. Usually, these particles are so small that once they get into the upper atmosphere, they can remain there for a long time. But if the fireball comes into contact with the surface of the Earth, everything that is on it, it turns into red-hot dust and ash and draws them into fiery tornado. In the vortex of flame, they mix and bind with radioactive particles. Radioactive dust, except for the largest, does not settle immediately. Finer dust is carried away by the resulting explosion cloud and gradually falls out as it moves downwind. Directly at the site of the explosion, radioactive fallout can be extremely intense - mainly coarse dust settling on the ground. Hundreds of kilometers from the site of the explosion and at longer distances, small, but still visible ash particles fall to the ground. Often they form a snow-like cover, deadly to anyone who happens to be nearby. Even smaller and invisible particles, before they settle on the ground, can wander in the atmosphere for months and even years, going around the globe many times. By the time they fall out, their radioactivity is significantly weakened. The most dangerous is the radiation of strontium-90 with a half-life of 28 years. Its fall is clearly observed throughout the world. Settling on foliage and grass, he falls into food chains, including humans. As a consequence of this, noticeable, although not yet dangerous, amounts of strontium-90 have been found in the bones of the inhabitants of most countries. The accumulation of strontium-90 in human bones is very dangerous in the long term, as it leads to the formation of malignant bone tumors.

Prolonged contamination of the area with radioactive fallout.

In the event of hostilities, the use of a hydrogen bomb will lead to immediate radioactive contamination of the territory within a radius of approx. 100 km from the epicenter of the explosion. In the event of a superbomb explosion, an area of ​​tens of thousands of square kilometers will be contaminated. Such a huge area of ​​\u200b\u200bdestruction with a single bomb makes it a completely new type of weapon. Even if the super bomb does not hit the target, i.e. will not hit the object with shock-thermal effects, penetrating radiation and radioactive fallout accompanying the explosion will make the surrounding area unsuitable for habitation. Such precipitation can continue for many days, weeks and even months. Depending on their number, the intensity of radiation can reach deadly levels. A relatively small number of superbombs is enough to completely cover major country a layer of deadly radioactive dust for all living things. Thus, the creation of the superbomb marked the beginning of an era when it became possible to render entire continents uninhabitable. Even long after direct exposure to radioactive fallout has ceased, there will still be a danger due to the high radiotoxicity of isotopes such as strontium-90. With food grown on soils contaminated with this isotope, radioactivity will enter the human body.