Defining history.

History is the science of the past of human society and its present, of the laws governing the development of social life in specific forms, in spatio-temporal dimensions. The content of history in general is the historical process that reveals itself in the phenomena of human life, information about which has been preserved in historical monuments and sources. These phenomena are extremely diverse, relate to the development of the economy, the external and internal social life of the country, international relations, the activities of historical figures. Accordingly, history is a diversified science, it is composed of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: the history of economic, political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion and others.

History methodology.

The methodology of history is a system of principles and methods of historical knowledge. Until recently, the most widespread were positivist and Marxist orientations in historical knowledge. The first is based on positive (positive) knowledge based on experience. The second is based on materialistic dialectics.

Theories of the historical process.

A theory is a logical framework that explains historical facts. Theories of the historical process are determined by the subject of history. A theory is a logical framework that explains historical facts. One theory of the historical process differs from another in the subject of study and in the system of views on the historical process. Each of the theories offers its own version of the vision of the historical process. According to the subjects of study, there are three theories of the historical process:

Religious and Historical;

World Historical;

Local Historical.

The subject of the study of religious-historical theory is the relationship between man and God. From the point of view of this theory, the meaning of history lies in the movement of a person to God as to the Highest mind, the Creator, in the process of which the formation of a free personality takes place.

The subject of the study of world-historical theory is the global progress of mankind. All peoples go through the same stages, only for some it happens earlier, for others later. There are several directions in this theory:

Materialistic (the development of society is driven by the struggle between different classes, which ultimately leads to the construction of a classless society);

Liberal (in history there is always a choice of the path of development, which depends on a strong person);

Technological (changes in society occur as a result of technological development).

Local historical theory studies local civilizations: their origin, formation, flourishing, decline and death.

The subject of history.

The history of Russia is a scientific discipline that studies the development of our Fatherland, its multinational people, the formation of the main state and public institutions. Domestic history is an integral part of world history. This approach is based on the philosophical categories of the general and the special. The use of these categories allows us to show the peculiarities of the development of Russia as a multinational, multiconfessional state, which has developed over many centuries of traditions, its own life principles. Scientific disputes about its belonging to any type of civilization do not stop today. It is easy to see that in the past and present of Russia, the features of various civilizations are intricately intertwined. Not without reason, a number of scientists declare the existence of a special type of civilization - the Eurasian one, to which our country belongs.

Therefore, when studying the course, it is necessary to combine a civilizational approach with formational characteristics. Russia is a civilizational region, the original development of which is determined by natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional (religious), sociopolitical and other factors. The originality of Russia and its role in the world cultural and historical process was significantly influenced by its border position between Europe and Asia, which led to a contradictory impact on Russia of the West and the East. At the same time, the recognition of originality does not mean the isolation of Russia from the general historical development; the history of Russia is considered within the framework of the formation of world civilization.

The past of each nation is unique and unrepeatable. In the historical development of the Russian state, a number of determining factors should be highlighted, which include geographic location, the influence of natural and climatic conditions, the geopolitical factor, the specificity of the spread of religious teachings (polyconfessionalism), religious tolerance, the multinational composition of the population, which has absorbed various traditions of both the East and and the West. Finally, a significant role in the history of Russia is played by the peculiarities of the national consciousness of Russians and the specificity of their mentality (perception of the world), as well as the traditions of social organization - the absence of a rigid structured society and the indivisibility, in contrast to the West, of the interests of society, the state and the individual - conciliarity. At the same time, this does not mean the absence of corporate interests of certain groups and strata of the population, especially those closely related to servicing the institutions of state power and management. On the other hand, the vast expanses of the Russian state, sparsely populated by tribes of different languages ​​and customs, poorly connected to each other, could be governed only with the help of a strong centralized power. Without this, the disintegration of the unique ethnocultural community would have been a foregone conclusion.

Historical schools.

Historical research includes historiographic analysis. Historiography is an analysis of concepts that already exist in scientific and autobiographical literature. Studying the works of historians allows you to determine your own research topic, not to repeat the paths already traversed, not to waste time developing refuted hypotheses.

Historical research can only be recognized as scientific when it has a clearly defined subject, poses a problem, puts forward a hypothesis, uses appropriate scientific methods, verifies the reliability of sources, relies on the historiography of the issue and, finally, argues the author's concept. Historical knowledge exists in the form of facts and concepts.

The historical school is a concept of the 18th - 19th centuries, since from that time scientists began to create scientifically based theories. Ancient historians explained the events by the personal qualities of outstanding rulers and commanders, the customs and traditions of the country, an irresistible fate, fate, fate. Medieval historians looked for the causes of events in God's will, drew analogies with biblical stories. Under the influence of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, history began to be viewed from the point of view of the moral improvement of mankind, the ascent from barbaric customs to civilization. Since the XIX century. social, economic, biological and other theories are used to interpret the facts.

Public School. The greatest contribution to the Russian historical science of the 19th century was made by N.M. Karamzin, SM. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky.

The main work of N.M. Karamzin - "History of the Russian State". The main idea of ​​the author is that Russia perished from anarchy and was saved by wise autocracy. The state was declared the highest value, and the enlightened noble monarchy with the patriarchal pre-Petrine way of life was declared the ideal form of government. The historian gave preference to Ivan III and Alexei Mikhailovich, who strengthened the state with gradual transformations, and not the bloody reigns of Ivan the Terrible and Peter.

The most prominent representative of the state historical school was S.M. Soloviev, who wrote "The History of Russia since Ancient Times" in 29 books. He considered the nature of the country, the character of the people and the course of external events to be the main factors of history. State - higher form historical development, since only in the state does the people acquire the possibility of progressive development.

IN. Klyuchevsky, who had developed as a scholar in the state historical school, believed that history was influenced by various factors: natural, economic, ethnic, and personal. He noted the important role of the process of colonization of new lands in Russian history, which led to an extensive path of economic development. From the point of view of the historian, the temperate continental climate and forest-steppe landscape had a significant impact on the character of the Russian people, adaptation to which developed the habit of intense but short-term work, patience, a desire to change places, and everyday unpretentiousness. Considerable attention of V.O. Klyuchevsky devoted himself to the psychology of the behavior of rulers and social groups.

In modern Russian historical science, there are several influential scientific schools that base their analysis of the past on various factors. None of the schools can claim to possess the absolute truth, each has strengths and weaknesses, successes and failures.

Marxist direction. Representatives of the direction are based on the position that the material living conditions of people determine their conscious activity. Social structure, politics, law, morality, ideology, and partly art and science depend on the method of production of goods. K. Marx called the dominant mode of production in combination with its characteristic superstructure a socio-economic formation. Humanity is progressing from lower to higher formations: from primitive, slave, feudal, capitalist to communist. For the countries of the East, Marxism proposed a parallel formation - the Asian mode of production, which is based on community, collective and state ownership of land.

In the slaveholding, feudal, capitalist formations, society is divided into classes. A class is a large group of people occupying a certain place in the production and distribution of goods, and this place depends on the ownership of the means of production. In the formation there are classes of exploiters (property owners) and exploited. The transition from one formation to another is associated with the improvement of technology, which creates new sources of wealth, appropriated by new classes. Having become economically dominant, the new class takes over political dominance. Karl Marx illustrated this scheme with examples of bourgeois revolutions in Europe.

Domestic historians of the Soviet period made a significant contribution to the development of Russian historical science. Their works, created within the framework of the Marxist trend, have largely not lost their significance in our time.

The strong side of the Marxist historical school is in the materialist explanation of the past, the priority study of economic relations, social structure, and state policy. The weak side is Eurocentrism (transferring the experience of the development of Western European countries to the whole world). The forecast about the inevitable transition of the most developed bourgeois countries to communism, which was considered as the pinnacle of technical, scientific progress, the liberation of the individual from exploitation, turned out to be erroneous.

Civilization school. The founders of this school were N.Ya. Danilevsky and A. Toynbee. The history of the world is viewed as a process of development of local civilizations. A. Toynbee considered the place of origin and religion to be the constant criteria of civilization. Civilization goes through several stages: birth, growth, flowering, breakdown, decay, death. It develops due to the work of the "Call - Answer" system. Any problem in life can be viewed as a Challenge - the attack of the enemy, unfavorable nature and climate, fear of death. The solution to the problem is the Answer - the reflection of aggression, forms of economic management, religion. The progress of civilization is associated with the development of spiritual and material culture, which is carried out by creative individuals. The popular masses imitate the creative minority and are unable to create anything new. A breakdown in civilization is characterized by the emergence of hostile groups within the elite. The collapse of civilization is associated with the degradation of the ruling class, which is no longer interested in state affairs, and is engaged in personal enrichment and intrigue. The old elite is being replaced by a new elite formed from the underprivileged strata. In the phase of the collapse of civilization, great empires are created, which take as a model either their past (archaism), or the utopian idea of ​​a new system (futurism). The death of a civilization is associated with its conquest by another civilization and the spread of another culture.

The strength of the civilizational school is that it explains the development of all regions of the world, and history is recognized as a multifactorial process, so that at different stages various factors can dominate: economic, political, religious. The weakness of the civilizational approach lies in the vagueness of the "Challenge - Response" criterion, which states rather than explains. In addition, this approach practically does not take into account the role of the masses in history.

The theory of ethnogenesis. Developed in detail in the works of L.N. Gumilyov. The history of mankind is presented as the history of ethnic groups. Ethnicity is a group of people with their own stereotype of behavior, which is assimilated by offspring through conditioned reflex imitation. Ethnicity has existed for no more than 1500 years, passing through the following stages in its development: passionary impulse, akmatic phase, breakdown, inertial phase, obscuration, homeostasis, memorial phase, degeneration.

Each stage has its own stereotype of behavior - during the drive and in the akmatic phase, the ideals of sacrifice and victory prevail. Breakdown is characterized by striving for success, knowledge, beauty. The inertial phase is dominated by the desire for improvement without risk to life. Obscuration is marked by the predominance of the ideal of a quiet philistine life, adapted to the landscape. In the last phases, the ethnos turns out to be unable to run a productive economy, create a culture, and gradually degrades.

The historical age of an ethnos depends on the amount of passionate - the biochemical energy of living matter, which gives the ability to superstress forces. Passionarity comes from space in the form of radiation, affects the genes of people and is inherited. In the first stages, energy is in abundance - ethnic groups are waging wars, colonization. Over time, the amount of energy decreases, and ethnic groups create culture. All great empires were created by passionate ethnic groups, but after a certain number of generations the energy decreased and the empires perished. The reason could be either a conquest from the outside, or a collapse from the inside.

The strength of the school of ethnogenesis lies in the explanation of the events of world history on the basis of a measurable value - passionarity. The theory makes it possible to predict the future of ethnic groups. The weak side of the school of ethnogenesis is the lack of proof of the very concept of "passionarity". History takes on the features of biology, when all problems can be reduced to an excess or lack of energy.

Most modern Russian historians do not directly link their research with one or another school. However, when creating concepts, the influence of one of these schools can be traced. At present, researchers quite rarely rise to the level of generalizations within the framework of world history, preferring to deal with the history of individual regions and periods, in a new quality level deepen the existing understanding of the past of Russia.

The principles of historical science.

What do we mean by the principles and methods of historical science, historical research?

It seems that the principles are the main, fundamental provisions of science. They proceed from the study of the objective laws of history, are the result of this study, and in this sense correspond to the laws. However, there is an essential difference between laws and principles: laws act objectively, and principles are a logical category, they exist not in nature, but in the minds of people.

In modern historical science, the following basic principles of scientific historical research are applied: objectivity, historicism, a social approach to the study of history, a comprehensive study of the problem.

The principle of objectivity is one of the principles that obliges us to consider historical reality as a whole, regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. To consider history from the standpoint of this principle means that it is necessary, first of all, to study the objective laws that determine the processes of social and political development; that it is necessary to rely on facts in their true content; that it is necessary, finally, to consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency, to study all the facts in their totality.

The principle of historicism is one of the most significant for any historical discipline, including the history of Russia. Any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when, due to what reasons (political, ideological) this phenomenon arose, what it was in the beginning, how it was evaluated then, how it then developed in connection with a change in the general situation and internal content, how it was replaced its role, what path has passed, what assessments were given to it at a particular stage of development, what it has become now, what can be said about the prospects of its development. The principle of historicism requires that any person who studies history should not fall into the role of a judge in assessing certain historical and political events. The principle of historicism obliges soberly to take into account the real forces at the disposal of certain political forces, implementing their ideas, programs and slogans in specific historical periods.

An important principle in the study of the history of Russia is the principle of the social approach. In this regard, the point of view of the outstanding Russian scientist and thinker GV Plekhanov is interesting, who wrote: “Where the historian has to depict the struggle of opposing forces, he will inevitably sympathize with one or the other ... In this respect, he will be subjective ... But such subjectivism will not prevent him from being a completely objective historian, unless he distorts the real economic relations on the basis of which social forces have grown "(Plekhanov G. V. Selected philosophical works. Vol. 1. M., 1956, p. 671 ). In modern conditions, Russian historians began to call the principle of partisanship the principle of the social approach, implying by it the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social-class relations: in political struggle, in the economic field, in the contradictions of social and class psychology and traditions, in interclass and extra-class contradictions. The principle of the social approach provides for the simultaneous observance of the principles of subjectivity and historicism. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to political history is especially necessary and essential in the study and assessment of programs and real political activities of political parties and movements, their leaders and figures. A few words should be said about the principle of comprehensiveness.

The principle of comprehensive study of history implies not only the need for completeness and reliability of information, but also that it is necessary to bear in mind and take into account all aspects and all interrelationships that affect the political sphere of society.

Thus, the principles of objectivity, historicism, social approach, comprehensiveness of study are based on the dialectical-materialist methodology of studying historical processes.

Historical knowledge.

Historical knowledge is the result of the process of historical cognition of reality, tested by practice and justified by logic, its adequate reflection in the human mind in the form of ideas, concepts, judgments, theories.

Historical knowledge can be conditionally divided (according to the methods of cognition) into three levels.

1) reconstructive knowledge - the fixation of historical facts in chronological sequence, - formed in the process of the historian's reconstructive activity. In the course of this activity (as a rule, using special historical methods - textual, diplomatic, source study, historiographic, etc.), the historian establishes historical facts. Reconstructive knowledge, a reconstructive picture of the past is created in the form of a narrative (story, narration) or in the form of tables, diagrams.

2) empirical historical knowledge - knowledge about the regularities and relationships between various facts, phenomena, processes - is the result of reconstructive processing. Its purpose is to clarify the recurrence in the process of historical development. In the course of such research, the historian establishes facts of a higher level - empirical (open regularities - similar signs of processes, a typology of phenomena, etc.).

3) theoretical historical knowledge - knowledge about typology and repetition, regularity of facts, phenomena, processes, structures - explains empirical facts in the course of theoretical knowledge. The task of theoretical knowledge is to formulate a theory, i.e. identification of the laws of historical development (but not functioning. So, for example, political science studies the laws of the functioning of state institutions, and history - the laws of their development. Economics studies the laws of the functioning of economic systems, and history - the laws of their development. Etc.). The function of historical theory is to explain the regularities of the historical process, to model its development.

Sometimes the place of theory can be taken by an ideological structure, but this has nothing to do with science.

Since historical cognition and knowledge are forms of social consciousness, their functions (i.e. tasks, methods and results) are socially conditioned. The functions of historical knowledge include:

The need for the formation of social consciousness,

Meeting the need for social education,

Needs for political activity and politics itself,

Needs to explain, predict and predict the future.

Functions of historical knowledge.

Cognitive - identifying patterns of historical development.

Predictive - foreseeing the future.

Educational - the formation of civic, moral values ​​and qualities.

Social memory is a way of identification and orientation of society and personality.

Requirements for graduating specialists.

According to the new Gosstandart, the Higher School must train highly qualified specialists who are able to solve professional problems at the level of the latest achievements of world science and technology and at the same time become cultural, spiritually rich people professionally engaged in creative mental labor, the development and dissemination of culture.

A 21st century specialist must:

1. have a good general scientific (general theoretical) training in the natural profile, which he receives in the course of studying mathematics, physics and other disciplines.

2. have deep theoretical and practical knowledge directly in their specialty - veterinary medicine.

3. have good humanitarian, including historical, training, a high level of general culture, high qualities of a civic personality, a sense of patriotism, industriousness, etc. The specialist must get a fairly complete understanding of philosophy, economic theory, sociology, political science, psychology, cultural studies.

Historical consciousness and its levels.

Humanitarian training in Russian universities begins with the history of the Fatherland. In the course of studying history, historical consciousness is formed, which is one of the important aspects of social consciousness. Historical consciousness is a set of ideas of society as a whole and its social groups separately, about its past and the past of all mankind.

Like any other form of social consciousness, historical consciousness has a complex structure. Four levels can be distinguished.

The first (lowest) level of historical consciousness is formed in the same ways as the ordinary, based on the accumulation of direct life experience, when a person observes some events throughout his life, or even is a participant in them. The broad masses of the population, as bearers of everyday consciousness at the lowest stage of historical consciousness, are not able to bring it into a system, to evaluate it from the point of view of the entire course of the historical process.

The second stage of historical consciousness can be formed under the influence of fiction, cinema, radio, television, theater, painting, under the influence of acquaintance with historical monuments. At this level, historical consciousness also does not yet turn into systematic knowledge. The ideas that form him are still fragmentary, chaotic, not chronologically ordered.

The third stage of historical consciousness is formed on the basis of historical knowledge itself, acquired in history lessons at school, where students for the first time receive ideas about the past in a systematic form.

At the fourth (highest) stage, the formation of historical consciousness occurs on the basis of a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the past, at the level of identifying trends in historical development. On the basis of knowledge accumulated by history about the past, generalized historical experience, a scientific worldview is formed, attempts are made to get a more or less clear idea of ​​the nature and driving forces of the development of human society, its periodization, the meaning of history, typology, and models of social development.

The significance of the formation of historical consciousness:

1. It ensures the awareness of a certain community of people of the fact that they constitute a single people, united by a common historical destiny, traditions, culture, language, a common psychological traits.

2. National-historical consciousness is a defensive factor that ensures the self-preservation of the people. If it is destroyed, then this people will be left not only without a past, without their historical roots, but also without a future. This is a fact established long ago from historical experience.

3. It contributes to the selection and formation of socially significant norms, moral and ethical values; traditions and customs, the way of thinking and behavior inherent in a given nation are formed.

Title page


Introduction ………………………………………………………………… ..... 3

1.What is history? ............................................ .........................................5

2.The subject of history as a science: the goal, objectives of the study, socially significant functions …………………………………………………… .. …… ... 8

3. Periodization of world history ……………………………………… .13

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… ... 14

List of used literature ……………………………………… .16


Introduction

Interest in the past has existed since the beginning of the human race. This interest is difficult to explain by human curiosity alone. The point is that man himself is a historical being. It grows, changes, develops over time, is a product of this development.

The original meaning of the word "history" goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". History was identified with the establishment of authenticity, the truth of events and facts. In Roman historiography (Historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to denote not a way of recognition, but a story about past events... Soon, any story about any case, incident, real or fictional, began to be called "history" in general. Currently, we use the word "history" in two senses: firstly, to refer to a story about the past, and secondly, when it comes about science studying the past.

The subject of history is defined ambiguously. The subject of history can be social, political, economic, demographic history, history of a city, village, family, private life. The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the worldview of the historian. Historians who hold materialist positions believe that history as a science studies the laws of the development of society, which ultimately depend on the method of production of material goods. This approach prioritizes economics, society - not people - when explaining causality. Historians adhering to liberal positions are convinced that the subject of the study of history is a person (personality) in the self-realization of natural rights granted by nature. The famous French historian Mark Blok defined history "as the science of people in time."


1. What is history?

History is one of the oldest sciences, it is about 2500 years old. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC) is considered its founder. The ancients appreciated history very much and called it "magistra vitae" (teacher of life).

Usually, history is defined as the sciences of about the past - of the past reality, about what once happened to a person, people, society as a whole. Thus, history is reduced to a simple analysis of events, processes, states, one way or another sunk into oblivion. This understanding of history is inaccurate and incomplete, moreover, internally contradictory. In fact, history does not allow people to forget "their past life." History, as it were, resurrects the past, the past, rediscovering and reconstructing it for the present. Thanks to history, historical knowledge, the past does not die, but continues to live in the present, serves the present.

It is noteworthy that in ancient Greece, the patroness of history was Cleo - the goddess who glorifies. The scroll and the slate stick in her hands are a symbol and a guarantee that nothing should disappear without a trace.

History is the collective memory of the people, the memory of the past. But the memory of the past is no longer the past in the proper sense of the word. This is the past, restored and restored according to the norms of modernity, with an orientation towards the values ​​and ideals of people's life in the present, for the past exists for us through the present and thanks to it. K. Jaspers expressed this idea in his own way: "History directly concerns us ... And everything that concerns us, thereby constitutes the problem of the present for man."

Initial meaning of the word "history" goes back to the Greek "ioropia", which means "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". Thus, initially "history" identified with a way of recognizing, establishing true events and facts. However, in Roman historiography, it already acquired the second meaning (a story about the events of the past), that is, the center of gravity was shifted from the study of the past to the story of it. During the Renaissance there is third the meaning of the concept "history". History began to be understood kind of literature, special function which was establishing and fixing the truth.

However, as an independent area of ​​knowledge, especially scientific, history has not been considered for a long time. She did not have her own subject during the period of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and even during the Enlightenment. How is this fact consistent with the rather high prestige and widespread prevalence of historical knowledge? How to connect it with a huge amount of containing historical information works, from Herodotus and Thucydides, through countless medieval chronicles, chronicles and "lives", to the historical research of the beginning of modern times? This is explained by the fact that history has been integrated into the general system of knowledge for a long time. In the era of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, it existed and developed in combination with mythology, religion, theology, literature and, to some extent, with geography. During the Renaissance, it was given a powerful impetus by geographical discoveries, the flourishing of art, and political theories. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the story was related to political theory, geography, literature, philosophy, culture.

The need to isolate scientific knowledge proper began to be felt from the time of the natural science revolution (17th century). However, even at the beginning of the 19th century, the "indivisibility" of the "philosophical" and scientific knowledge, on the one hand, and discipline science itself, on the other.

One of the first attempts to define the place of history as a scientific discipline with its own subject was undertaken by the German philosopher V. Krug in his work "Experience of a systematic encyclopedia of knowledge." The circle divided the sciences into philological and real, real - into positive (legal and theological) and natural, natural - into historical and rational, etc. In turn, the "historical" sciences were subdivided into geographical (place) and historical (time) disciplines proper.

V late XIX v. French philosopher A. Naville divided all sciences into three groups:

1. "Theorematics" - "sciences about the limits of possibilities or about laws" (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology).

2. "History" - "the sciences of realized opportunities or facts" (astronomy, geology, botany, zoology, mineralogy, human history).

3. "Canon" - "the science of possibilities, the realization of which would be a blessing, or about ideal rules of behavior" (morality, art theory, law, medicine, pedagogy).


2. The subject of history as a science: purpose, objectives of the study, socially significant functions.

The study of any science begins with the definition of the concepts with which it operates in the process of cognition, both of nature and society. From this point of view, the question arises: what is history as a science? What is the subject of her study? Answering this question, first of all, it is necessary to distinguish between history as any process of development of nature and society, closely related to each other, and history as

1.1 Concept, object and subject of history.

1.2 Historical sources and facts.

1.3 Methods and principles of historical research.

1.4 History functions.

1.5 Approaches to the study of history.

1.1 Concept, object and subject of history

Translated from ancient Greek, "history" is a story about the past, about the learned. There are several meanings of the concept history ... The main ones are the following: 1) story - story, narration; 2) history is the process of development of nature and society in time; 3) history is a science that studies the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity.

The object of historical science (that is, what it studies) is the whole set of facts, events, phenomena that characterize the life of society in the past. Since the past of mankind is very diverse, it is studied not only by historians. To define the boundaries of research for various social sciences, there is the subject of science. The subject of historical science is the laws of the development of human society. Thus, the main goal of history becomes the knowledge of the laws of social development in the past in order to explain the present.

History includes the history of the world as a whole (general history), the history of a continent, region (history of Europe, African studies, Balkan studies, etc.) and the history of individual countries, peoples, civilizations (Russian history, Slavic studies, etc.) ...

Historical science chronologically divides the past into the history of primitive society, ancient history, medieval history, new story and recent history.

Historical science has many branches: economic, political, social, military, religion, culture, historical geography, historiography, etc.

History is a complex of sciences, which includes special historical sciences, archeology (studies the history of the origin of man and society from material sources of antiquity) and ethnography (studies the way of life and customs of peoples).

1.2 Historical sources and facts

To establish the laws of historical development, it is necessary to investigate many facts, events and processes on the basis of a comprehensive study of historical sources. Historical source - this is evidence of the past that has come to the attention of the researcher, which is used as the basis for any statement about the past.

The following types of sources are distinguished:

a) written (chronicles, laws, decrees, etc.);

b) material (tools, clothing, dwellings, etc.);

c) ethnographic (traditions of various peoples of the world);

d) linguistic;

e) oral;

f) audiovisual (photo, film, video documents, sound recordings).

Source studies (a separate branch of historical science) and a number of auxiliary historical disciplines are engaged in the study of various kinds of sources, the subject of which is a comprehensive study of any one source or individual aspects, for example:

Numismatics (the science of coins).

Genealogy (the science of the origin and family ties of people).

Heraldry (the science of coats of arms).

Historical metrology (the science that studies the systems of measures and weights used in the past).

Paleography (the science that studies various writing systems in their development).

Sphragistics (the science of seals).

Chronology (the science that studies chronological systems and calendars of different peoples), etc.

Extracted from historical sources historical facts - statements about the past, which are introduced into scientific circulation.

The following types of facts are distinguished:

a) absolute, i.e. statements about events that actually took place. For example: "On June 22, 1941, the Great Patriotic War began."

b) probabilistic, i.e. statements about alleged events, the reality of which has not been established, but the very possibility of them has not been completely refuted. For example: "Alexander I ended his life in Siberia under the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich in 1846".

c) false, i.e. statements about events that never happened. Examples of this kind can easily be found in the mass press. For example: “When I.V. 40 million people were repressed to Stalin ”.

Interpretation (i.e., interpretation) of facts must be distinguished from facts. Even professional historians can evaluate the same facts in different ways. You can imagine and evaluate the historical situation in different ways, but this will not undo the events that happened.

Historia est magistra vitae - "History is the mentor of life".

The subject of history as a science is the need for knowledge of historical reality. The need to know the past, in order not to repeat the mistakes of the past. And here scientists - historians come to the fore, who try to cognize the historical reality.

The task of the historian, like any other scientist, is the search for truth. The process of comprehending the truth is extremely complex and difficult. On this path, the scientist may face failure. Due to the complexity of the problem, lack of facts, etc. he, desiring to come to the truth, without noticing it himself, can fall into error. But in addition to purely cognitive difficulties, other dangers await the scientist, the sources of which are outside of science.

To know the history of few facts, you need information about them. The historical past is recreated by scientists on the subjects of material culture, according to written sources or some other reason.

History methods

Basics of the historical method

Modern historians ask themselves the following questions:

  1. When was the historical source written?
  2. Where was it created?
  3. What pre-existing material was the author based on?
  4. What was the original shape of the source?
  5. How trustworthy is the source?

The historical method consists in following the principles and rules of working with primary sources and other evidence found in the course of research and then used in writing a historical work.

Among other historians who influenced the formation of the methodology of historical research, one can mention Ranke, Trevelyan, Braudel, Blok, Febvre, Vogel. The use of scientific methodology in history was opposed by such authors as H. Trevor-Roper. They argued that understanding history requires imagination, so history should not be considered science but art. The equally controversial author Ernst Nolte, following the classical German philosophical tradition, viewed history as a movement of ideas. Marxist historiography, represented in the West, in particular by the works of Hobsbawm and Deutscher, aims to confirm the philosophical ideas of Karl Marx. Their opponents, representing anti-communist historiography, such as Pipes and Conquest, offer a counter-Marxist interpretation of history. There is also an extensive historiography from a feminist perspective. A number of postmodern philosophers generally deny the possibility of an unbiased interpretation of history and the existence of scientific methodology in it. Recently, cliodynamics, the mathematical modeling of historical processes, has begun to gain more and more strength.

Essence, forms and functions of historical knowledge and cognition.
Methods for studying history.

Historical science (history) can be considered 1) as a form of social consciousness, 2) as a social institution.

From the point of view of the form of social consciousness, historical science is, firstly, one of the ways knowledge the world, which is characterized by specific methods, and secondly, the field of scientific knowledge about the processes and patterns of development.

Among other forms of social consciousness, there is also historical consciousness, i.e. a set of ideas, views, perceptions, feelings, moods, reflecting the perception and assessment of the past in all its diversity.

When considering historical science as a social institution, its other components come to the fore: the institutes of historical science (historical public organizations, the Academy of Sciences), groups of scientists (orientalists, medievalists, scientists of the Leningrad school), the system of history education (secondary school - the history department of the university - graduate school), etc.

Historical knowledge- a form of reflection of historical reality. There are different levels of cognition - thinking, empirical, theoretical.

At the first level (stage) of knowledge, the historian studies various sources to identify facts in them.

Reconstructive cognition techniques are diverse and include both methods of specific problem (special historical) research and methods of general scientific historical research.

The main task of historical knowledge is to obtain knowledge that is recorded in the source, as well as to obtain new knowledge that is not directly recorded in it.

TO special historical methods relate:

— conditional documentary and grammatical and diplomatic methods, i.e. methods of dividing the text into constituent elements are used to study office work and office documents.

— methods of textual criticism... So, for example, the logical analysis of the text allows you to interpret various "dark" places, to reveal contradictions in the document, existing gaps, etc. The use of these methods makes it possible to identify missing (destroyed) documents, to reconstruct various events.

- historical and political analysis allows you to compare information from various sources, to recreate the circumstances of the political struggle that gave rise to documents, to specify the composition of the participants who adopted this or that act.

There are other special methods of historical analysis and synthesis.

To methods general historical scientific research includes:

- Historical and genetic (retrospective) method allows you to show causal relationships and patterns of development of a historical event (phenomenon, structure). It consists in consistent penetration into the past in order to identify the causes of any facts, events, phenomena. The historical-genetic method is also used to identify the relationship between the subjective, personal factor in historical development and objective factors (the logic of political struggle, economic development, etc.).

— problem-chronological method involves breaking down broad topics into a number of narrow problems, each of which is considered in chronological order. This method is used both in the study of the material (at the first stage of analysis, together with the methods of systematization and classification), and in its arrangement and presentation within the text of a work on history.

Methods of empirical historical knowledge relate to the methods of general historical research:

— historical comparative method(in combination with the method of identification, analogy as the logical basis of this method) allows you to identify both common and special features in the development of various events, phenomena, structures.

— historical-typological method allows you to organize the subjects of study into qualitatively different types (classes) on the basis of their inherent essential features. Typologization by form is a kind of classification, but it allows you to identify the essential features of the subject. The method is based on understanding the relationship between the individual, the particular, the general and the general in the historical process.

— periodization method allows you to identify a number of stages in the development of various social, social phenomena. Periodization criteria in each case can be put forward different.

— structural diachronic method aimed at studying historical processes at different times. The use of this method makes it possible to reveal the duration, frequency of various events, as well as the dynamics of the development of various elements of a complex system.

The concept " historical theory"Is still controversial and unsettled in the scientific and philosophical literature. And yet, historical theories are those that 1) fix differences in systems, 2) indicate transitions from a system of one quality to another (for example, the law of development of socio-historical formations), 3) theories containing the laws of historical science.

TO methods of theoretical knowledge can be attributed modeling method(although it is not strictly historical).

Historical knowledge- the result of the process of historical cognition of reality, proven by practice and justified by logic, its adequate reflection in the consciousness of a person in the form of ideas, concepts, judgments, theories.

Historical knowledge can be conditionally divided (according to the methods of cognition) into three levels.

1) reconstructive knowledge - the fixation of historical facts in chronological sequence - formed in the process of the historian's reconstructive activity. In the course of this activity (as a rule, using special historical methods - textual, diplomatic, source study, historiographic, etc.), the historian establishes historical facts. Reconstructive knowledge, a reconstructive picture of the past is created in the form of a narrative (story, narration) or in the form of tables, diagrams.

2) empirical historical knowledge- knowledge about the regularities and relationships between various facts, phenomena, processes - is the result of reconstructive processing. Its purpose is to clarify the recurrence in the process of historical development. In the course of such research, the historian establishes facts of a higher level - empirical (open regularities - similar signs of processes, a typology of phenomena, etc.).

3) theoretical historical knowledge- knowledge about typology and repetition, regularity of facts, phenomena, processes, structures - explains empirical facts in the course of theoretical knowledge. The task of theoretical knowledge is to formulate a theory, i.e. identifying the laws of historical development(but not functioning... So, for example, political science studies the laws of the functioning of state institutions, and history - the laws of their development. Economics studies the laws of the functioning of economic systems, and history - the laws of their development. Etc.). The function of historical theory is to explain the regularities of the historical process, to model its development.

Sometimes the place of theory can be taken by an ideological structure, but this has nothing to do with science.

Since historical cognition and knowledge are forms of social consciousness, their functions (i.e. tasks, methods and results) are socially conditioned. The functions of historical knowledge include:

- the need for the formation of social consciousness,

- meeting the need for social education,

- the need for political activity and politics itself,

- the needs of explanation, foresight and prediction of the future.

Historical research methodology is the object of attention of both historians and philosophers. The word methodology denotes a doctrine (concept) about a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities.

Russian historiography has developed an understanding of methodology as

- a description of the object and objects (various aspects of the object) of historical research,

- clarification of the purpose of the study,

- statement of problems and tasks,

- disclosure of the sources of the assigned tasks,

- historiographic substantiation of research tasks,

- a description of the tools (methods, procedures for establishing knowledge),

- a description of the knowledge itself, i.e. definitions used in the study.

It should be noted that in modern Western historiography the concept of "methodology" is closed either on the "technical" application of methods, or on the "philosophy of history."

The concept of a historical source, their classification.

Historical source called any document involved in the knowledge of reality. A document that contains information about the past, but is not used by the historian, is not a source (of information) for the latter.

Classification- the distribution of objects of any kind into interrelated classes according to the most essential characteristics inherent in objects of this kind and distinguishing them from objects of other kinds, while each class occupies a certain permanent place in the resulting system and is divided into subclasses. A correctly drawn up classification reflects the patterns of development of classified objects, deeply reveals the connections between them and serves as the basis for generalizing conclusions and forecasts.

In historical science, there are various approaches to the classification of sources.

- real

- written,

- pictorial (pictorial-art, pictorial-graphic, pictorial-natural),

- phonic.

This classification allows you to define general methods for solving problems that arise in the analysis and use of each group of sources.

2) species classification, which is based on specific function the impact of the source on certain spheres of public relations. The species classification makes it possible to identify and trace the evolution of sources.

So, the sources of the feudal period can be divided into

1) Public acts:

A) contractual type - international treaties from the 10th century, princely treaties from the 12th century. etc.

B) of a contractual legislative type - letters of honor from the XII century, letters from the XIV century, acts of zemstvo councils from 1566, etc.

C) judicial-procedural type - from the 15th century.

2) Private acts:

A) of a contractual type - acts on land from the XII century. acts on movable property from the 13th century, monetary acts from the 16th century, acts of employment from the 17th century. and so on.

B) administrative type - letters to clerks, instructions on managing the estate from the 17th century.

3) clerical documents - administrative type, report type, protocol type, report type,

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1. History as a science: stages of formation, subject, research methods, functions of historical knowledge.

History is a humanitarian science dealing with the study of a person in the past; in a narrower sense, a science that studies all kinds of sources about the past in order to establish the sequence of events, the historical process, the objectivity of the described facts and draw conclusions about the causes of events.

The development of historical science followed a long and difficult path. There are three stages in its development:

1) antiquity - the beginning of the 17th century. history was defined as a fictional story based on reliable evidence.

2) XVII - XVIII centuries. it is recognized that history should not reflect all the facts of the past life of mankind, but only the main ones that reveal its general meaning, but at the same time it was not an independent science.

3) from the beginning of the XIX century. History began to be understood as the science of the laws of the historical life of human society

The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the worldview of the historian. Some historians believe that history as a science studies the laws of the development of society, others are convinced that the subject of history is a person (personality).

The most common methods of historical research:

1) the historical and genetic method, the consistent disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the studied reality in the process of its historical movement

2) historical-comparative method, based on comparisons

3) the historical-typological method, socio-historical processes, on the one hand, are different, on the other hand, they are closely interrelated, an important task is to identify a single thing.

4) the historical-systemic method, the basis for the application of this method in history is the unity in the socio-historical development of the singular, particular and general.

Functions of historical knowledge:

1) Scientific and educational

3) educational

2. Ethnogenesis of the East Slavic tribes. Formation of Old Russian statehood. The main historiographic theories of the formation of the state.

Eastern Slavs settled on the East European Plain in the 6th-7th centuries.

Almost until the very end of the 9th century, the tribal system remained in operation among the Eastern Slavs. The clans of the Eastern Slavs were united into tribes, and the tribes into larger formations - tribal unions. The tribal communities of the Eastern Slavs were characterized by the absence of private property, all property was collective.

At the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. the Eastern Slavs have the prerequisites for the formation of a state:

1.economic: the transition to arable farming from hoe, the development of crafts and trade, the growth of cities.

2) social: the emergence of pronounced property inequality in society. Layers: wise men, princes, people, servants (dependent population).

3) political: the formation of military democracy. The formation of large tribal unions based not on clan, but on territorial ties. The tribe is headed by a military leader chosen from among the representatives of noble families. The prince relies on the squad, the tribe is taxed with regular tribute in favor of the prince (polyudye). Confederations and tribal unions also appear. The northern confederation is the center of Novgorod, the southern one is Kiev.

The emergence of the ancient Russian state is associated with the unification of political centers in Novgorod and Kiev by Prince Oleg in 882. The ancient Russian state in its structure is an early feudal monarchy: feudal relations existed with remnants of clan relations, not slaveholding. The Grand Duke of Kiev relies on the squad (the eldest is boyars (land owned), the youngest "Gridi" is the landowners (land for a while))

In historical science, there are two main versions about the origin of the ancient Russian state:

1) Norman theory;

2) anti-Norman theory.

Norman theory. The Russian state was created by the Normans (Varangians). In 862 the Slavs invited the Varangian prince Rurik with his retinue, and he became the founder of the first Russian princely dynasty. Authors: G. Bayer, G. Miller and A. Schletzer.

Anti-Norman theory. Stay of the Varangians in the IX-X centuries. on the territory of the Kiev principality does not prove that the date of the formation of the state can be considered 862. Statehood is a natural process, the result of historical development.

3. Baptism of Rus and its socio-cultural significance.

The date of the introduction of Christianity as a state religion in Russia is considered to be 988.

The choice fell on Orthodoxy, because:

1) the influence of Byzantium was great in Russia; Europe was Orthodox.

2) Christianity corresponded to the mentality of the Slavs, it was closer than Judaism or Islam.

3) In the Catholic Church, the Pope stood above the prince, services only in Latin, in Orthodoxy, services in any language, the church serves the prince.

The Russian Church had a great influence on all spheres of life of the Slavs

1) Baptism united the Eastern Slavs into a single Old Russian society, creating the spiritual foundation of Russian statehood.

2) political relations began to be covered by the church: relations of domination and subordination began to be viewed as correct and godly, while the church received the right to reconcile, be a guarantor, a judge in political sphere;

3) Christian churches became not only religious centers, but also worldly life, there were meetings of the community, the treasury and various documents were kept;

4) Writing and annals spread, the first handwritten books appear, mainly of church content. Brothers monks Cyril and Methodius compiled the Slavic alphabet. Thanks to Byzantium and Bulgaria, Russia got acquainted with the achievements of ancient culture. The adoption of Christianity led to the emergence of stone architecture, the emergence of icon painting, fresco painting. The chronicles were kept in monasteries.

5) The Christian Church, striving for stability, condemned social protests and violence from the lower classes of society. At the same time, she formed respect for power, fostered tolerance for one's neighbor.

4. Prerequisites and the essence of political fragmentation in Kievan Rus. Russian lands in the XII-first half of the XIII

Feudal fragmentation - time from XII to XV century.

Reasons (prerequisites):

1.Dominance of subsistence farming (tribal times communion)

2. Development of boyar land tenure.

3. The order of the occupation of the throne in Kievan Rus by seniority (circulation).

4. The decline in the economic importance of Kiev, the outflow of the population due to the Polovtsian raids and internecine strife of the princes.

5. Weakening of the central power of the Kiev princes.

6. Growth and strengthening of cities.

7. The fight against nomads weakened the Kiev principality.

8. Strengthening the power of local princes. The population of certain lands wanted to be at the hand of their own prince.

The strongest lands were Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn.

Vladimir-Suzdal principality:

Feudal monarchy with strong prince power. Boyars obey the prince.

The land was agriculturally rich. North - Eastern Russia did not know foreign invasions; there were no princely strife. All this ensured an influx of population, the development of trades and crafts. The prince relied on vigilantes and ordinary people. A feature of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was the despotic monarchy - the prince belonged to the legislative, executive, judicial power. Under the prince, there was a council, which included boyars, bishops, governors who governed cities, but this body was only deliberative. In some cities a veche was convened, but it decided only secondary issues. The countryside was ruled by volostels appointed by the prince.

Boyar Republic in Novgorod.
Novgorod stood at the origins of two trade routes - along the Dnieper and along the Volga. The economic prosperity of Novgorod created the preconditions for its political isolation. In 1136, the inhabitants forcibly overthrew the prince, they themselves decide the issue of calling the princes to themselves. Veche - the highest authority (meeting of owners of city estates)

Council of Lords (300 gold belts) led by Bishop

Executive power Tysyatsky prince (mayor) (head of the city administration) (military leader)

Konchansk veche gatherings

Veche passed laws, supervised the actions of the prince, performed judicial functions, appointed a tysyatsky, bishop, and mayor.

Tysyatsky is the leader of the militia. He kept order in the city, collected taxes.

The bishop was in charge of the treasury, controlled foreign policy.

The prince had no right to settle in Novgorod or buy land.

Galicia-Volyn principality: Feudal monarchy with strong oligarchic tendencies. Agriculture, trade, and crafts flourished here. The local boyars had abundant sources of livelihood. The boyars were nowhere so strong. The lot of princes is not significant. This situation was influenced by the conjunction with Poland, Hungary, where conditions were also dictated to the King.

5. The culture of Kievan Rus in the 9th-1st half of the 13th century: main features, famous monuments.

The culture of Kievan Rus inherited the culture of the East Slavic tribes, which formed the core of the state. She experienced the undoubted influence of the nomadic peoples of the Steppe and especially Byzantium, from which Christianity came to Russia. Thus, the culture of Russia was formed from the very beginning as synthetic, that is, influenced by various cultural trends, styles, traditions.

Christianity has had a profound impact on Russian culture. However, for many years a dual faith persisted in Russia: Christianity and paganism. The development of Russian culture reflected this duality in the spiritual life of society, in the life of the people.

Russia occupied a borderline, intermediate position between the agricultural civilizations of Europe and the nomadic, cattle-breeding, essentially barbaric cultures of Asia. There was no slavery in Russia.

Cultures, diverse in terms of ethnic characteristics, united, united the culture of Russia, gave them basic characteristics.

The most famous monument of pagan culture is the Zbruch idol. The idol is a large stone pillar covered with bas-reliefs. It represents a pre-Christian universe, subdivided into heaven, earth and underworld.

Chronicles are the largest monuments of the entire culture of Rus. The most significant monument of chronicle writing is considered the "Tale of Bygone Years", compiled in 1113 by the monk Nestor. However, "The Tale of Bygone Years" is not the very first chronicle work.

The most outstanding literary work of Kievan Rus is "The Lay of Igor's Host." It tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the princes led by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185.

The first stone building was the Church of the Tithes, erected in Kiev at the end of the 10th century by Greek craftsmen. The pinnacle of the South Russian architecture of the XI century. is St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev.

With the adoption of Christianity, new types of monumental painting came to Russia from Byzantium - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting).

The spread of writing, the appearance of books led to the emergence

another type of painting - book miniature. The oldest Russian miniatures

are available in the "Ostromir Gospel" (1056-1057), which contains images

three evangelists.

6. Struggle of Russia against the threat from the East and West in the XIII century. Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion for the historical and cultural development of Russia.

The 13th century in the history of Russia is a time of armed resistance to the onslaught from the east (Mongol-Tatars) and northwest (Germans, Swedes, Danes).

In 1223 the Mongols invaded the Polovtsian steppe. The Polovtsian Khan turned to the Russian princes for help. On May 31, 1223, a battle took place on the banks of the Kalki River. But there was no agreement among the Russian princes. The Mongols defeated the Russian troops and the Polovtsians.

Batu's first campaign did not lead to the final submission of Russia, although almost the entire northeastern part of Russia was captured in 1236-1238. During the second campaign against Russia, the cities of southern Russia were captured.

Simultaneously with the Mongol invasion, Russia was attacked by the western conquerors.

The lands of Veliky Novgorod, through which the trade route passed, was claimed by Swedish feudal lords. Having received news of the Mongol invasion of North-Eastern Russia, the Swedes seized the moment. Also at the end of the XII century, the Pope announced a crusade against the "pagans". German feudal lords, who dreamed of conquering new lands, responded to the pope's appeal.

In 1238, Alexander Nevsky concluded an alliance agreement with the Tatars. (yoke begins)

In 1240 Swedish ships entered the mouth of the Neva. On July 15, 1240, the Russian army suddenly attacked the Swedish camp and won.

The defeat of the Swedes did not stop the Danish and German conquerors. Alexander decided to lure the knights to the ice of Lake Peipsi. The ice impeded the movement of the heavy knightly cavalry. On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Chud. Many knights were killed and taken prisoner, some of them, under the weight of armor, went under the ice.

As a result of the invasion of the Mongol Tatars, material and cultural values ​​were severely damaged. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Russia, the construction of stone buildings is temporarily stopped. The art of a number of artistic crafts has been lost. However, through the Golden Horde, Russia adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, architectural achievements and general cultural ones. Among the direct consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion are the rupture of foreign policy and trade ties between Russia and neighboring countries as a result of foreign conquest.

7. The main stages and features of the process of the unification of Russia around Moscow. Confronting the Horde. Creation of a centralized Russian state.

Economic: as the economy, crafts and trade were restored, more and more people appeared who were interested in eliminating the fragmentation of the country. And endless strife undermined the economy of cities and villages.

Social: In northeastern Russia, patrimonial land tenure developed rapidly. But between the princes there were bans on the purchase of land on the territory of another principality. Therefore, the boyars were also interested in a unified state. In addition, the large boyars were interested in a strong princely power in order to more easily suppress the actions of the peasants. Petty boyars considered the prince to be a protector from large feudal lords. Citizens: numerous frontiers with their outposts and trade duties, the existence of various money, measures of weight and length made it difficult for trade and economic ties between the principalities. The Orthodox Church advocated the unification of the lands. Despite the fragmentation of the country, she was united and supported those princes who strove for unification.

Political reasons: the Mongol invasion showed that numerous principalities did not have the ability to resist the enemy.

Stages of the formation of the Russian centralized state:

Stage 1: 1301-1389 - the struggle between the strongest principalities.

The reasons for the rise of Moscow: In the struggle for primacy, the possibilities of the Moscow and Tver princedoms were approximately equal: both were at the crossroads of trade routes, the territories of both principalities were relatively protected from attacks from the west and east by dense forests and lands of other principalities. But the Moscow princes turned out to be more dexterous politicians. They managed to establish relations with the Horde khans. Since 1293, for almost a hundred years, Moscow did not know the Horde invasions, this attracted the population from other principalities to Moscow. The support of the Moscow princes by the Russian Orthodox Church was of great importance. Ivan Kalita persuaded Metropolitan Peter to move from Vladimir to Moscow.

All this allowed Russia to accumulate strength for the upcoming battle with the horde.

On September 8, 1380, a fierce battle broke out on the Kulikovo field, during which Dmitry Donskoy managed to win. After this victory, the authority of the Moscow princes was indisputable. And although the victory at the Kulikovo field did not lead to a complete deliverance from the Horde domination, after it the Horde recognized Moscow as the political center of Russia, the right of the Moscow dynasty to a great reign, inherited.

Stage 2 1398-1462 "Feudal War", which began between the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy for the Grand Duke's throne. After Dmitry Donskoy, his son Vasily I began to rule, he bequeathed the throne to his son Vasily II, but according to the tradition of “seniority”, the younger brother of Vasily I, Yuri Dmitrievich, began to claim the throne. When Yuri died, Yuri's children began to fight for the throne with Vasily II: Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. The principle from father to son wins.

Stage 3. 1462-1533 stage of completion of the unification of lands around Moscow and the formation of the Russian state. (Ivan III)

In 1479 Ivan III refused to pay tribute. On October 8, 1480, the Horde troops approached the Ugra River and began to wait for the troops of the allied Lithuanian prince. But Ivan III made an alliance with the Crimean Khan and he made a raid on the southern lands of Lithuania. Under such conditions, the Lithuanian Prince did not dare to oppose Moscow. For more than a month, the Moscow and Horde troops were stationed on the Ugra River. After the first unsuccessful attempt to cross the river, the Horde did not dare to engage in battle. Early cold weather set in, the grass covered with snow, which the Horde horses did not have time to eat. And on November 11, 1480, the Tatars turned back. The Horde domination ended.

Ivan III's policy was continued by his son Vasily III. By 1510, he united all the Russian lands, they were reunited within the borders of a single state.

The formation of the Russian centralized state had its own essential features. The catastrophic consequences of the Mongol invasion delayed the economic development of Russia, marked the beginning of its lag behind the advanced Western European countries that escaped the Mongol yoke. Political centralization in Russia significantly outpaced the beginning of the process of overcoming the country's economic disunity and was accelerated by the struggle for national independence, for organizing the rebuff of external aggression.

8. Achievements and features of Russian culture XIII-XV.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion affected the ancient Russian culture in the most destructive way. Many cities, cultural centers of the land, were turned into ruins, architectural and artistic monuments were irretrievably destroyed. Meanwhile, the condition for the national revival itself was indeed cultural revival and development. Preservation and enhancement of cultural heritage was a factor in spiritual survival. Frequent waves of Tatar armies were still falling on Russia, and unknown scribes were already looking for and copying the few surviving manuscripts. Heritage preservation work is closely intertwined with the creation of new works. The chronicle was revived. In literature, as never before, a new theme sounded strongly - the theme of patriotism, the call to fight against the Horde yoke, the hope for the liberation of Russia.

Russian culture has retained its national character. An important role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience was played by lands that were not destroyed, such as Novgorod and Pskov. The violent intervention of an alien culture did not destroy the national identity and independence of Russian culture.
End of the XIV-XV centuries. characterized by the beginning of a long process of merging local literary, architectural, art schools into a single national all-Russian school.

9. The era of Ivan IV: the main directions of domestic and foreign policy.

Reign from 1533-1547 (guardianship) from 1547-1584 (de facto reign).

Domestic policy. Purpose: creation of a single, centralized state.

Stage 1 of domestic policy: reforms of the elected council 1547-1560. The reforms took place peacefully, gradually.

1) Reform of public administration.

Introduction of the royal organ (Ivan the Terrible - the first tsar)

The introduction of the Zemsky Sobor is a meeting of representatives of the boyars, clergy, service people to discuss proposals and transformations. The specifics of the Zemsky Sobor did not limit, but supported the king. The cathedral was entirely dependent on the king.

Political system: estate-representative monarchy. Monarchy since the king is at the head, estate-representative monarchy, all bodies did not limit his power.

Boyar Duma is the highest legislative body under the tsar. New central management bodies - orders. Each order was in charge of certain matters.

2) Reform of local government. She abolished the feeding system. In the districts, the positions of lip chiefs were established. They were elected by the landowners of the district from among themselves. City clerks were elected in the cities. Elected bodies had great rights: they administered the court, monitored order, observance of the law, and collected taxes.

3) Judicial reform. a new Code of Law was adopted. In it, the size of the elderly was increased when peasants passed from one landowner to another on St. George's Day, punishments for dashing people were toughened, punishments for bribes were introduced, and the rights of governors were limited.

4) Church reform. Adoption of the hundred-domed cathedral. In accordance with the tasks of centralization, the cathedral brought church rituals to uniformity, recognized all local saints as all-Russian, and developed rules of conduct for the clergy. There was a strengthening of the position of the church as the ideological support of the autocracy. At the same time, a restriction on the accumulation of wealth by the Church was introduced.

5) military reform. Localism was limited - people who showed military talent were appointed to the highest military posts, regardless of the nobility of the clan. Streltsy regiments began to be created. Any free person could become a Sagittarius. In 1556, the "Code of Service" was adopted, which determined the exact norms of compulsory service in the tsarist army for all landowners. For every 100 quarters of the land, there is one armed equestrian warrior.

6) Tax reform - streamlined taxation and introduced its differentiation depending on the class affiliation.

2nd stage 1560-1584

Ivan the Terrible established a special order in the country: oprichnina from the word oprich (except). This order provided for the division of the entire territory of the state into two parts: the oprichnina, taken into a special tsarist administration, and the zemstvo, which was supposed to be in charge of the boyars. Landowners had to leave their fiefdoms, they were provided with land in remote places. The possessions of the evicted nobility were transferred to the guardsmen. Zemshchina paid taxes and maintained the oprichnina. The oprichnina ravaged the land and weakened the economy. The oprichnina army was created, which was called upon to "gnaw" the tsarist traitors and "sweep" treason from the state. In 1572 the oprichnina was canceled.

Foreign policy

The main tasks of Russian foreign policy in the XVI century. were:
a). in the southeast and east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia;
b). in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea;
v). in the south - the protection of the country from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

a). Southeast and east directions. The Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, constantly threatened the Russian lands. They held the Volga trade route in their hands. As a result: Kazan, Astrakhan, Chuvashia, Bashkiria and the entire Volga trade route were annexed to Russia.

b). Western direction. Trying to reach the Baltic coast, Ivan IV fought the exhausting Livonian War for 25 years. The war became protracted, and several European powers were drawn into it. Failure Livonian War ultimately was a consequence of the economic backwardness of Russia, which could not successfully withstand a long struggle with strong opponents. The ruin of the country during the years of the oprichnina only exacerbated the matter.

v). South direction. Crimean khans raided the southern regions of Russia. The government of Ivan IV did not consider a direct confrontation with the Crimea possible, therefore it limited itself to defensive measures. In the 50s, the construction of the Zasechnaya line began - a defensive line of fortresses and natural barriers.

11. Russia at the beginning of the XVII century. Time of Troubles: causes, course of events and consequences.
The prerequisites for the Troubles were the consequences of the oprichnina and the Livonian War: the ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension.

The reasons for the Troubles are in the suppression of the Rurik dynasty and the interference of neighboring states (Lithuania and Poland) in the affairs of the Muscovy.

Three periods are clearly distinguished in the development of the Moscow Troubles.

1) dynastic - the struggle for the Moscow throne between various contenders up to Tsar Vasily Shuisky.

2) social - internecine struggle of social classes and interference in this struggle of foreign governments.

3) National - the time of the struggle of the Moscow people with foreign domination before the creation of a national government headed by M.F. Romanov.

After death Ivan the Terrible(1584) his two sons remained: Fedor and a minor

Tsarevich Dmitry. Fyodor, who ascended the throne, was not able to rule, so minor boyar families began to be nominated to the throne - Yurievs, Godunovs... Boris Godunov was crowned in 1598. Three years since 1601 on 1603 were barren. A terrible hunger broke out and pestilence. The beginning of the Troubles refers to the news that prince Dmitriy alive, which implied that the reign Boris Godunov illegal. The impostor's name was Grigory Otrepiev, he was a fugitive monk. At the height of the war in 1605 Boris Godunov died on June 20, 1605. False Dmitry entered Moscow. Soon the discontent of Moscow subjects began with the tsar, who did not observe the old Russian customs of rituals, the Poles who came with him offended and insulted Muscovites. On the night of May 17, 1606, the boyars with a handful of conspirators broke into the Kremlin and killed the tsar. The leader of the boyar conspiracy, Prince Vasily Shuisky, became the new tsar.

During his accession, Shuisky promised not to execute anyone and not to punish with confiscation of property and not to listen to false denunciations, but this oath turned out to be false. Rebellions broke out everywhere against the boyar tsar. The second False Dmitry appeared in Starodub. Under the banner of the impostor gathered not only representatives of the oppressed lower classes, but also a part of the service people, Cossacks, large detachments of Polish and Lithuanian adventurers who sought to enrich themselves. Gathering an army, False Dmitry approached Moscow and camped in the village of Tushino near Moscow. Shuisky turned to the Swedes for help. However, the interference of the Swedes in Russian affairs led to a quarrel with Poland, which decided to use the turmoil in its own interests. 1610 Shuisky was overthrown from the throne. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. At the head of the government was the boyar duma - "Prince FI Mstislavsky with his comrades" ("seven boyars"). To get rid of False Dmitry, the boyars decided to elect the Polish prince Vladislav to the Moscow throne. Moscow on August 27 swore allegiance to the prince Vladislav, subject to the preservation of the Orthodox faith. However, Vladislav did not accept Orthodoxy and did not go to Russia, the rule of the Poles in Moscow aroused more and more displeasure.

Patriarch Hermogenes became the head of the national opposition at this time. Hermogenes began to appeal to the Russian people with direct calls for an uprising to defend the church and the fatherland. In the spring of 1611, the zemstvo militia approached Moscow and began its siege. The zemstvo militia that came to Moscow consisted of 1) nobles and boyar children, led by Lyapunov, 2) Cossacks, headed by Trubetskoy, Zarutsky. The first Zemsky militia ended in failure, as there were many disagreements between the leaders of the militia.
The second zemstvo militia began to gather in Nizhny Novgorod, headed by Minin, Pozharsky. Exhausted by hunger, the Poles in the Kremlin surrendered and both militias solemnly entered Moscow. The Provisional Government of Trubetskoy and Pozharsky convened the Zemsky Sobor. The Zemsky Sobor, which met in January and February 1613, was the most complete of the Moscow Zemsky Sobors in composition: all classes of the population (with the exception of slaves and proprietor peasants) were represented at it. Zemsky Sobor on February 21, 1613 elected and solemnly proclaimed Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov tsar.

The consequences of the Troubles.
Economic - devastation and desolation of a huge territory, especially in the west and south-west, the death of almost a third of the country's population.
Political changes in the system of government of the country. The weakening of the boyars, the rise of the nobility, who received estates and the possibility of legislative assignment of peasants to them.
Cultural: the desire to substantiate the inviolability of the Orthodox faith and the inadmissibility of deviations from the values ​​of the national religion and ideology. This strengthened anti-Western sentiments, which aggravated the cultural and, as a result, the civilizational isolation of Russia for many centuries.

12.Russia in the 17th century: socio-economic and internal political development.

The 17th century for Russia began with the crisis of the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich, turmoil, impostors, interference of foreign states. The troubles were stabilized by the Zemsky Sobor in 1613, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected.

In the 17th century, the class division was strengthened: Cathedral Code 1649 established the beginning of serfdom. The Code of Law abolished the "fixed summer", that is, the years when the peasants were allowed to move from one landowner to another, thereby legally formalizing the process of enslaving the peasants. Fines were imposed for the adoption of fugitive peasants; the landowner received the right to unlimited disposal of the person and property of the peasant, trial over serfs. The Code regulated in detail the penalties for various types of crimes. The punishment was dictated by the class of the accused. The role of the Zemsky Sobor and, in general, the estate-representative bodies fell. The main thing is the tendency to absolute monarchy.
Popular movements of the 17th century entered the history of Russia under the name of the Rebellious Age.
1648 - Salt Riot. The Moscow uprising of 1648 was a reaction of the lower and middle strata of the population to the policy of the government of boyar Boris Morozov. In 1646, an additional duty was imposed on goods actively used in everyday life. Salt was also taxed, which caused its rise in price and discontent among the population. The revolt was suppressed, but the Tsar made concessions to the rebels: the collection of arrears was canceled.
1662 - Copper riot. The uprising of the urban lower classes that took place in Moscow against the release of copper kopecks. In the 17th century, the Moscow state did not have its own gold and silver mines, and precious metals were imported from abroad. At the Monetary yard, Russian coins were minted from foreign coins. The protracted war with the Commonwealth over Ukraine demanded huge expenses. To find money to continue the war A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin offered to issue copper money at the price of silver. Taxes were collected in silver, and salaries were distributed in copper. Soon, over-issuance of unsecured copper money led to the depreciation of copper money. Despite the royal decree, all goods rose sharply. The revolt was suppressed; however, in 1663, minting of a silver coin was resumed in Moscow.

1668 - 1676 - Solovetsky uprising. The uprising of the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery against the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon (being baptized with three fingers). Due to the refusal of the monastery to accept the innovations, the government took strict measures, ordered the confiscation of all estates and property of the monastery. Tsarist regiments arrived on Solovki and occupied the monastery, exterminating the rebellious monks.

1682 - Shooting riot. The revolt of the Moscow archers, whose discontent had been brewing for a long time during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich (empty treasury, abuse of the position of commanders, etc.), as a result of which power was transferred to Princess Sophia (his sister)

13.Foreign policy of Russia in the XVII century

After the Time of Troubles, Russia had to abandon an active foreign policy for a long time. However, as the economy is restored and the situation inside the country is stabilized, the tsarist government begins to solve urgent foreign policy problems.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 17th century. was defined by three main objectives :

1. struggle for the further reunification of Ukraine and Belarus with Russia;

2. defense of the southern borders of the country from the Turkish-Ta-Tara aggression;

3. getting access to the Baltic Sea.


Russian-Polish (Smolensk) war 1632-1634. Russia decided to start a war with Poland for Smolensk in 1632, when the struggle for the throne flared up in Poland. As a result, they failed to take Smolensk. An armistice was concluded: all the cities captured at the beginning of hostilities were returned to the Poles, and Smolensk remained behind them. Vladislav finally renounced his claims to the Moscow throne. The Smolensk war ended unsuccessfully.

Russian-Polish war 1654-1667 Russia got the opportunity to return the lost lands when the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples rose to fight against foreign domination. A powerful movement began in 1648, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. In the first battles of 1648, Khmelnytsky's troops defeated the Poles. Simultaneously, and in this, and in subsequent years, Khmelnitsky is negotiating with Moscow, asking to accept Little Russia "under the high hand" of the Russian tsar.

In 1653 the Zemsky Sobor made a decision to accept Malorossia into citizenship and declared war with Poland. Great success was the capture of Smolensk in 1654. In subsequent years, Russian troops occupied almost all of Belarus and Lithuania, part of Ukraine. The war with Poland, during which the warring parties had varying success, was long and ended with the signing in 1667 of the Andrusov armistice. According to its terms, Russia regained the Smolensk and Seversk lands, the Left-Bank Ukraine was fixed to it, and Kiev was fixed on the Right Bank. Zaporozhye was placed under the rule of both states. Poland and Russia pledged to jointly repel attacks by Crimeans and Turks.

Russian-Turkish war. Chigirin hikes. In 1676, an open war broke out between Russia and Turkey. The Turks sought to seize Kiev and Chigirin, the political center of Ukraine, and plant their protege Yuri Khmelnitsky there. In August 1677 g. they began the siege of Chigirin, which ended with the victory of Russia. Summer 1678 g. the sultan sent a new army to Chigirin. After fierce battles, the garrison left the city. But the battle of the main forces of the Russians and Ukrainians with the Turks forced the enemy to retreat. In 1681 Russia signed the Treaty of Bakhchisarai with Crimea. According to the terms of the treaty, a truce was established for 20 years; Turkey and Crimea recognized the transition to Russia of the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev.

“Eternal Peace ”between Russia and Poland. Failures in the war with Turkey forced the Rzeczpospolita to agree to peace. V 1686 g. Polish ambassadors signed an "eternal peace" with Russia in Moscow. The Left Bank and Kiev were assigned to her, she broke off relations with Turkey and the Crimea, entered into an alliance directed against them.

14.Epoch of Peter I: reform activities and its meaning.

Peter I came to power in 1689. In his reforms, he relied not on bourgeois development based on free enterprise and hired labor, but on the power of the monarch's unlimited power, the further enslavement of the peasantry.

Economic reforms.

The leading place in Peter's transformations was taken by industrial reforms that was dictated by the interests of the army (Northern War)

Peter strove to attract private capital to industry, to use the initiative of the nobles and merchants, the townspeople, and the successful rich peasants. Entrepreneurs received loans and benefits from the state, exemption from taxes and government duties. Peter I issued a decree according to which the state peasants who lived in the areas of construction of new factories were attributed to them as a labor force, at the expense of paying state taxes and various duties. The registered peasants left their farms for several months a year and worked in factories. By another decree, Peter I allowed the owners of enterprises to buy peasants for their factories. Violence and coercion in the formation of industry turned into the strongest brake on its development.

Crafts and trade

To increase the volume and improve the quality of handicraft production, Peter I established the Chief Magistrate, which promoted the acquisition of loans and raw materials by artisans, helped in the sale finished products... In the early 1720s, the tsar issued a decree on the organization of artisans in workshops. This was done to transform artisans into an estate, with a strict hierarchy of ranks and titles (master, apprentice, apprentice) and to establish control over the quality and quantity of products. The creation of merchant companies was encouraged, merchants were provided with benefits and privileges, such as the monopoly right to sell a particular product. The government encouraged the development of fair trade. Peter I pursued a policy of mercantilism, ensuring a positive balance of foreign trade, an excess of exports over imports. At the same time, Peter I pursued a policy of protectionism, and industry was protected by customs duties.

Agriculture

Peter tried to increase the productivity of the agricultural sector by introducing innovations. By his order, several thousand Lithuanian braids were brought to Russia to replace sickles. High-quality livestock was discharged from foreign countries, assistance was provided to its breeding in state farms, which were then transferred to private hands. But these were private measures, the Russian countryside remained backward.

Reform of the army and navy.

Under Peter, the recruitment system for the army changed, and recruitment was introduced. The soldiers were to serve for life. The Russian army becomes regular.

Training is the most important feature of the Peter's army. Peter I introduced the system field training.

Grenadier regiments were introduced - regiments of grenade launchers.

The noble cavalry was eliminated and regular cavalry units were formed - their core was dragoon regiments.

Peter introduced light cavalry and large cavalry units into military practice.

In Europe, there was a linear formation of troops, and the shooting was pluto, that is, in turn with each line. In the Russian army, the ranks fired with a fall, having fired, the first ranks fell to the ground, the rear ones continued to shoot, and then stood up one by one, thus, the continuity of firing was achieved.

In 1716, the "Military Charter" was published, in which much attention was paid to the moral and strong-willed qualities of the Russian soldier.

The Naval Charter was also created, an innovation was introduced into the tactics of naval combat, an attack with light galleries of enemy battleships, followed by boarding.

Government reforms

The reform of public administration essentially continued throughout the reign of Peter I.

Instead of the Boyar Duma, the Near Chancellery was created, the members of which Peter called ministers and tightly controlled. He demanded that members of the Near Chancellery certainly record their speeches and subscribe to them.

The supreme governing body in the absence of the monarch became the Governing Senate, created in 1711. The Senate was controlled by the Attorney General and his assistant Chief Attorney. The Attorney General could suspend and challenge the decisions of the Senate.

The positions of the fiscal were introduced, their task was to control the administration, to identify cases of violation of laws, bribery and embezzlement. The fiscal subordinate directly to the tsar, subsisted on a share of the confiscated property.

Starting from 1711, instead of orders, collegia were gradually introduced. The president and vice president headed their collegiate management.

In 1721, the supreme body for the management of church affairs, the Holy Synod, was established. After the death of the patriarch, Peter left this position unoccupied; in essence, now the Synod has become the Spiritual Collegium. The church was finally subordinated to the state.

Peter paid much attention to the organization of political investigation. In the Secret Chancellery, with the participation of the tsar, they collected information, conducted an investigation on political matters.

In 1708-1710, the country was divided into 8, later 11 provinces headed by governors-general and governors, who had enormous administrative, police, judicial and financial power. Later, the provinces were divided into provinces, which in turn were divided into districts.

All cities in the country were in charge of the Chief Magistrate, in each city a Magistrate appeared, to whom the urban population was subordinate. Magistrates were chosen from among the wealthy townspeople. It was the only elected body in Russia.

Profits also appeared, whose task was to replenish the treasury through the introduction of farms and new taxes.

In 1722 the Table of Ranks was adopted. From now on, the Russian bureaucratic world was divided into 14 categories, the same division was in the army and the navy. Each had his own salary and position in society. So the system public service personal dignity and merit came to the fore.

In the interests of the nobility, Peter I in 1714 issued a decree "On single inheritance", eliminated the difference between the patrimony and the estate. Now landowners, like patrimonials, could, subject to service, inherit their possessions, sell, buy, mortgage them.

Culture and life

In 1700, mannequins with samples of new clothes were placed at the gates of the Kremlin. New clothes and shoes, as well as wigs, began to be introduced into the life of nobles and townspeople.

In December 1699, the tsar issued a decree to change the chronology in Russia. (the year began on September 1, now on January 1). But for the church, Peter allowed to preserve the old calculus.

Changes have come in the counting of hours, before the day was divided from morning to evening, now from noon to midnight.

There was a polite-style rule. Peter encouraged the ability to dance, fence, and speak foreign languages.

The civil alphabet was introduced, instead of the outdated Church Slavonic, which greatly simplified book publishing.

The first public libraries were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

In 1702, the first mass newspaper in Russia, Vedomosti, appeared.

15 the era of palace coups

After the death of Peter I, the era of palace coups began. This was due to the adoption by Peter I in 1722 "Charter of the succession to the throne", which secured for the autocrat the right to appoint any successor to himself at his own discretion.
The first palace coup took place with the support of the guards in favor of Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna (wife of Peter I). To support the Empress, the Supreme Privy Council was created, headed by Menshikov. All real power was concentrated in the hands of the leaders. No decree could be passed without the approval of the council. Formally, Peter's reforms continued, but his associates increasingly revised his policy.

In 1727, Catherine I died, naming her successor 11-year-old Peter Alekseevich (Grandson of Peter I), regent - the Supreme Privy Council. Menshikov became virtually the sole regent. Soon after the accession of Peter II to the throne, Menshikov drew up a manifesto in which long-term arrears were forgiven to the serfs, and freedom was granted to those exiled to hard labor for non-payment of taxes. The code of punishment was softened. Along with forgiving old arrears, the Menshikov government made efforts to tighten control over tax collections. In 1727, a decree on the abolition of the Main Magistrate, the abolition of the Main Magistrate led to the disappearance of the body to which a citizen could apply with a complaint against the governor or local authorities. In 1730 Peter II died of smallpox. The result of the reign of Peter II was the strengthening of the influence of the Supreme Privy Council.

The leaders opted for the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioanovna (daughter of Ivan V, brother of Peter I). The supreme leaders developed the conditions (conditions) for the invitation to the Russian throne for Anna Ioannovna. They demanded that the ruler should not marry and appoint a successor. The ruler had to consult with the Supreme Council. Power was limited. The Empress had no right to declare war and conclude peace, to introduce new taxes. Anna Ioannovna signed the conditions. Later, Anna Ioannovna in the hall, in front of everyone, broke the condition. The Supreme Privy Council was destroyed, instead of it a Cabinet of 3 people. The Secret Chancellery (a body of political investigation) was recreated. The term of service of the nobles was reduced to 25 years, and the law on single inheritance was abolished. Serf labor was strengthened. All key government posts were occupied by the Germans. Anna Ioannovna (died 1740) appointed Ivan Antonovich (the son of her niece) as her heir. Favorite Biron became regent with a baby. Bironovshchina - political terror, disrespect for Russian customs, unrestrained plundering of the treasury, the omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, cruelty in the army, the dominance of foreigners. However, he was soon overthrown and Anna Leopoldovna (Anna Ioannovna's niece) came to power. In 1741, a new palace coup took place, leading to power youngest daughter Peter I - Elizabeth. Society turned back to the era of Peter. Elizabeth abolished the death penalty in Russia. Reduced the poll tax. However, serfdom remained unshakable as before. But the tsarina limited the right to buy peasants for factories, and the number of registered peasants was reduced. The Senate became Ruling again (the main one after the Empress). Elizabeth restored some of the Peter's colleges and the Chief Magistrate. The terror against the Russian nobility and nobility ceased. The landowners received the right to exile the guilty serfs to Siberia at the expense of the supply of recruits. One of the problems for Elizabeth was the choice of an heir, she decided to prepare him in advance. The choice fell on the grandson of Peter I, Kala Peter (Peter Fedorovich). At the age of 17, Elizaveta Petrovna married him to Sophia Frederick Augusta (Ekaterina Alekseevna after baptism). In 1761 after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, Peter Fedorovich became emperor (Peter III). A decree was prepared to destroy the Secret Chancellery. By another decree, Peter III deprived industrialists of the right to buy serfs for factories. A ban was introduced on the oppression of the Old Believers. The principle of religious tolerance was proclaimed in Russia. Peter III continued the line of Peter I on the subordination of the Church to the state. In 1762, the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility was adopted, according to which the nobility was exempted from the obligatory 25-year service. June 28, 1762 Ekaterina Alekseevna (wife of Peter III) made a coup and came to power.

16.Russia in the second half of the 18th century. The reign of Catherine II and Paul I.

Catherine II saw her main tasks in strengthening the autocracy, reorganizing the state apparatus in order to strengthen it, and in strengthening the international position of Russia. Catherine II declared herself the successor of Peter I.
In 1764, in order to suppress the desire for secession in the Ukraine, Catherine II abolished the hetmanate (autonomy).
To replenish the state treasury, in 1764, Catherine II carried out the secularization (church property into secular) church lands.
Catherine II began to pursue a policy enlightened absolutism... Enlightened absolutism, on the one hand, pursued a policy in the interests of the nobility, on the other hand, in every possible way contributed to the further development of capitalist relations. She believed that injustice in the state could be eradicated with the help of good laws.
In 1767 the The laid down commission for the purpose of adopting new legislation... The commission made up the "Order of Empress Catherine". It spoke of the need for a strong autocratic power in Russia and the estate structure of Russian society.
The attitude of Catherine II to serfdom. Catherine II shared the views of Western European thinkers on serfdom as an inhuman phenomenon. But by the time of her accession to the throne, she realized that there was a huge difference between abstract discourses about freedom and Russian reality.
Catherine II separated the judiciary from the executive. All estates, except for the serfs, had to take part in local government. Each estate received its own court.
In 1785 the Empress published "Charter to the nobility", which was a collection, a collection of noble privileges, formalized by law. The freedom of the nobility from paying taxes and compulsory service was confirmed. Catherine II forbade corporal punishment of nobles.
In 1785 was published "Certificate of Appreciation to Cities"... The entire urban population was divided into 6 categories: nobility and clergy; merchants, guild craftsmen; foreigners permanently living in cities; eminent townspeople and capitalists; townspeople (those who lived by trades).

Foreign policy of Catherine II. For further Russia needed the shores of the Black and Azov Seas.
Russian-Turkish war 1768 - 1774 In 1768, Turkey, supported by France, began military operations against Russia in the Ukraine and the Caucasus. Russia had the advantage in the war, and in 1774 a peace treaty was signed in Kuchuk-Kainardzhi: Turkey recognized the independence of the Crimea; Russia received the right to unhindered sailing in the Black Sea, to have its own fleet in the Black Sea; Georgia was freed from the hardest tribute by young men and women sent to Turkey; the rights of Orthodox peoples in the Ottoman Empire expanded.
In 1783, Russian troops entered the Crimea without any warning. The Turkish sultan could do nothing. Crimea became part of Russia
In the 90s. XVIII century began to strengthen the position of Russia in the Transcaucasia and the Caucasus. Georgia at that time was going through a period of feudal fragmentation and was not a single state. On July 24, 1783, in the Georgievsk fortress (North Caucasus), an agreement was signed between the Georgian king of Eastern Georgia and Russia on patronage. The Georgievsk Treaty was signed, according to which Eastern Georgia passed under the patronage of Russia while maintaining its autonomy.
In 1787, Catherine II decided to visit Novorossiya. In Turkey, the journey of Catherine II was seen as Russia's desire to further expand the borders of Russia in the south at the expense of Turkish territories. In 1787 g. turkish sultan declared war on Russia.
Russian-Turkish war 1787 - 1791 After the capture of the fortress of Izmail in 1790, and in 1791 the defeat of the Turkish fleet. In 1791 a peace treaty was concluded in Iasi. According to the Yassy Peace Treaty:
The Ottoman Empire recognized the Crimea as the possession of Russia; Russia included the territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers, as well as Taman and Kuban; Turkey recognized the Treaty of St. George.
In 1772, 1793, 1795. Austria, Prussia, Russia made three sections of the Commonwealth.
In 1772 the first division of the Rzecz Pospolita took place. The eastern part of Belarus along the Western Dvina and the Upper Dnieper fell to Russia. In 1793, the second division of the Rzecz Pospolita took place. Central Belarus with Minsk, Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia. In 1795, the third division of the Rzecz Pospolita took place. Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volhynia, Courland were ceded to Russia. The Poles have lost their statehood.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I ascended the throne in 1796. The main direction in the internal politics of Paul I was the strengthening, elevation of the principle of autocracy and the centralization of government.
In 1797 he issued the most significant decree on succession to the throne during his reign, "The Institution of the Imperial Family". This decree canceled the law of Peter I on succession to the throne and established the "natural" right of inheritance. From now on, only a male descendant of the ruler could occupy the throne. A woman could only be a regent (temporary ruler) with a minor heir. Women received the throne only if there were no representatives of the dynasty - men.
Paul I carried out reforms in military service, as a result the authority and prestige of military and public service increased; education, business qualities began to play the main role in the appointment to positions, judicial bodies and the local administrative apparatus were strengthened.
Paul I limited the omnipotence of the nobles, he introduced constant monetary collections from the nobles. Corporal punishment of noblemen for murder, robbery, drunkenness, debauchery, official violations were introduced.
Pursuing a policy in relation to various strata of society, Paul I was convinced that he should not only manage his subjects, but regulate their life, economy, and everyday life. Paul I copied Prussian customs (Maria Fedorovna (wife) was the niece of the Prussian king).
Foreign policy of Paul I. After his accession to the throne, Paul also tried to immediately abandon the principles and traditions of his mother's foreign policy. He decided to defend the interests of only Russia. Multilateral negotiations began between Russia, Austria, Prussia, England and France. In 1797, an agreement was signed in Campo Formio, according to which Russia recognized its allied obligations under those signed during the reign of Catherine II - in 1791 and 1792. - contracts. Nevertheless, for some time Paul I tried to maintain neutrality in international affairs. In 1798, Russia entered the anti-French coalition with Great Britain, Austria, and Turkey. At the insistence of the allies, the disgraced A.V. Suvorov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops as the best commander in Europe. Under the leadership of Suvorov, Northern Italy was liberated from French rule. In September 1799, the Russian army made the famous passage of Suvorov across the Alps. However, in October of the same year, Russia broke off the alliance with Austria due to the failure of the Austrians to fulfill their allied obligations, and Russian troops were withdrawn from Europe.
The last years of Paul's reign are clearly anti-English. Shortly before the assassination, he, together with Napoleon, began to prepare a military campaign against India. At the same time, he sent the Don army to Central Asia, whose task was to conquer Khiva and Bukhara. The campaign was hastily canceled immediately after the death of Paul by the decree of Emperor Alexander I.

17Culture Russia XVIII v.

During the reign of Peter I, Russian culture rapidly Europeanized, acquired a secular, as opposed to religious, character, and was included in the process of interaction with the cultures of other countries. Peter believed in the transformative power of the state, breaking old customs and forcibly introducing new customs. Shaving beards, banning traditional clothing, forcing the nobility to attend assemblies, introducing women to a secular lifestyle, sending thousands of young nobles to study abroad - all this radically changed the way of life. Peter's transformations predetermined the nature and directions of development of Russian culture in the 18th century.

In the XVIII century. a system of secular education has developed in Russia. Medical, mining, shipbuilding, engineering schools, as well as digital schools for elementary education were opened. A distinctive feature of the education system in the 18th century. - its class character. Closed educational institutions were established for nobles, clergy, merchants, and soldiers. Only schools providing professional training in the field of medicine, mining, and crafts were not class-based. Were established general education schools: four-year in provincial towns and two-year in county centers. In the XVIII century. many textbooks have been created. Their dissemination was facilitated by successes in publishing: the creation of new printing houses, the opening of the first state library in St. Petersburg, the formation of periodicals (newspaper Vedomosti, from 1702). The achievements of Russian science are significant. In the literature of the 18th century. Classicism triumphed, focusing on antique art samples and civic virtues. At the end of the century, it was replaced by sentimentalism, which turned to the experiences and feelings of the individual. The construction of the new capital, St. Petersburg, became a milestone in the formation of Russian architecture. Baroque architecture came to Russia - a style of bright, brilliant, magnificent. Passion for antique art second half of XVIII v. found expression in strict, restrained classicism. The favorite genre of Russian painters of the 18th century. - portrait. At the same time, historical and landscape painting developed. In 1757. the Academy of Arts was formed. A year earlier, the first professional theater opened in St. Petersburg.

18.Russia in the first half of the 19th century: attempts at reform and protective policy

On March 12, 1801, Alexander I ascended the throne. Everyone pinned their hopes for the best with the name of the new tsar: the "lower classes" - to weaken the oppression of the landowners, the nobility - to preserve and strengthen the autocratic serf system in Russia.

Reasons for reforms:

1. Growth of discontent among the "lower classes". By 1801, 32 of the 42 provinces of the empire were gripped by peasant unrest.

2. Pressure from the nobility circles who suffered from the despotism of Paul I and demanded to return them the privileges granted by Catherine II.

3. The needs of economic development forced the government of Alexander I to reform. The domination of serfdom hindered technical progress.

Internal policy can be divided into 2 stages.

Stage 1 from 1801-1812-14- return to the ideas of enlightened absolutism.

In his very first manifesto of March 12, 1801, the new tsar promised to rule "according to the laws and heart of our grandmother Catherine the Great." He literally poured out a rain of gracious decrees on the nobles. The Secret Expedition was abolished. Catherine's Certificate of Merit to the nobility was officially confirmed. The government secured their confidence and embarked on the first series of liberal reforms.

Alexander I formed in July 1801 under his chairmanship a special secret committee to prepare general plan state reforms.

On September 8, 1802, instead of the previous colleges, ministries were established with the aim of strengthening one-man management and ousting collegiality in the management of state affairs. The Senate received the right to control the ministers and to object to the king against those of his decrees that would contradict the existing laws. In order to streamline the legislation of the empire, the Law Drafting Commission was established to assist the Secret Committee.

On December 12, 1801, a decree was issued allowing merchants, bourgeois and state peasants to buy land as property. On February 20, 1803, a decree "on free farmers" followed, which allowed the landowners, at their request, to release the peasants with land for ransom. In the Baltics, peasants were freed from serfdom.

For 1802-1804 the government of Alexander I rebuilt the entire system of educational institutions, dividing them into four stages (parish schools, district schools, gymnasiums, universities). The university charter of 1804 for the first time provided all Russian universities autonomy. Education was formally meaningless.

In 1804, a new censorship charter was adopted - the mildest in the entire history of Russia. The ban on the import of literature from abroad was lifted.

The result: an unprecedented rise in culture.

2nd period 1812-14 to 1825. reactionary course

Alexander I put almost all the affairs of ruling Russia into the hands of A.A. Arakcheeva. The years 1815-1825 entered Russian history as the time of the Arakcheevshchina.

1. The emergence of the secret police, the establishment of control over all spheres of society.

2. Military settlements. Army spending absorbed more than half of government revenues. Military settlements were conceived as a new form of recruiting and maintaining the army, in which it would provide for itself. State peasants by whole counties were transferred to the position of "military settlers", that is, while remaining peasants, they also became soldiers and had to combine army service with agriculture.

3.Increased censorship

4. Deprivation of autonomy for universities.

Speransky's project.
The entire population of the country was divided into three classes: the nobility, the "middle state" (merchants, bourgeois, state peasants) and the "working people" (landlord peasants, artisans, servants). The first two estates were to receive political rights, and people from the "working people" were given (in the future) the opportunity to move into a "middle state" and become politically eligible when they acquire real estate. The principles of the inviolability of the person and property were to be extended to all persons filed.
Speransky was the first to put the idea of ​​separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial powers as the basis for the state structure of Russia. The supreme body of the judiciary was to be the Senate, the executive - the ministries, the legislative - the State Duma. To coordinate the activities of all departments, an advisory body, the State Council, is established. Higher education was required to occupy the main government posts.
Of Speransky's projects, only one was realized: the State Council was established as the highest legislative institution.

Nicholas I (1825-1855). The first actions after the coronation were liberal (cultural figures returned from exile, improvement of the situation of serfs). The main goal of politics: the fight against the revolution, for which he strengthens the state apparatus, tightens control over all spheres of society:
Creation of a secret police - gendarmerie, political investigations, investigations, the fight against Old Believers and sectarianism, control over literature and theater, periodicals
Censorship was tightened, it was impossible to criticize the tsarist regime.
Reactionary education policy: class-based education, progressive subjects were excluded from the curriculum.
Nicholas I considered the most important issue of serfdom. At the beginning of his reign, he was constantly occupied with the idea of ​​the liberation of the peasants, he agreed that serfdom there is evil. But then he came to the conclusion that the abolition of serfdom would now be an even greater evil for Russia. Serfdom under Nicholas changed its character - from an institution of slavery it turned into an institution that, to some extent, also defended the rights of peasants. For the first time, the state began to systematically monitor that the rights of the peasants were not violated by the landowners and to punish the landowners for these violations.
Nicholas I created an ideological doctrine substantiating the inviolability of autocracy - the theory of the official nationality. It was based on conservative views on education, science and literature. Later, this ideology began to be called "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Narodnost" for a short time. According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and the Orthodox faith and autocracy are indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. The nationality was understood as the need to adhere to one's own traditions and reject foreign influence.

19.Official ideology and social thought in Russia in the 19th century: conservative, liberal, radical trends

In the second half of the nineteenth century. finally, three directions in the social movement took shape: conservatives, liberals and radicals.

Conservatives (official ideology)

They included: nobles, clergy, bourgeoisie, merchants and a significant part of the peasants.

The ideologists of the Conservatives were K.P. Pobedonostsev, D.A. Tolstoy, M.N. Katkov.

It was based on the thesis of the inviolability of the fundamental foundations of autocracy, expressed in the theory of "official nationality". The foundations were - autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people. In this, the conservatives saw the originality of the historical path of Russia.

In the domestic political sphere, the conservatives fought for the inviolability of the autocracy, against the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s. In the economic sphere - for the inviolability of private property, landlord ownership and community.

In the social field, they called for the unity of the Slavic peoples.

Conservatives reacted negatively to any mass social action.

Liberals

They included: the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.

The ideologists of the liberals were: K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin, V.A. Goltsev and others.

In the domestic political sphere, the liberals insisted on the introduction of constitutional principles and the continuation of reforms, the elimination of serfdom. The political ideal for them was a constitutional monarchy. In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and free enterprise. They demanded to abolish class privileges. The liberals stood for an evolutionary path of development, considering reforms to be the main method of modernizing Russia.

Radicals

Representatives of the radical direction strove for violent methods of transforming Russia and a radical reorganization of society (the revolutionary path).

The basis of the revolutionary movement was the idea of ​​"peasant (communal) socialism". The development of this idea belongs to A.I. Herzen. The theoretical basis of the idea was the belief in a special historical destiny of Russia, the possibility of overthrowing the autocracy through peasant revolution and the transition to socialism with the help of the rural community, bypassing capitalism. The populists became the carriers of this theory in Russia. In its development, populism went through three stages:

The first - 60-80s - a revolutionary direction, the desire to raise the peasantry to a social revolution against the foundations of the existing system.

The second - the 80-90s - the liberal direction - the struggle to improve the situation of the peasants by peaceful means.
In order to implement the tasks set, secret organizations were created, among them the first large revolutionary-democratic "Land and Freedom". Its participants launched a "march to the people" in order to rouse the peasantry to revolt. The failure of such tactics, the strengthening of the police regime, forced the Narodniks to switch to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist activities. The organization "Narodnaya Volya" was founded. There were two directions: revolutionary and liberal.

The main ideas of the revolutionary populists: capitalism in Russia is implanted "from above", the future of the country is in communal socialism, transformations must be carried out by a revolutionary method by the forces of the peasants.

Three currents emerged in revolutionary populism:

Rebellious (seizure of power through a riot of the peasants), Propaganda (propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry), conspiratorial (a group of conspirators, having seized power, will quickly draw the people into socialism.)

In the 90s. - the weakening of the popularity of populism and the beginning of the spread of Marxism.

Many of the participants turned to Marxism soon began to form Marxist circles, which saw their task in the study of Marxism and its propaganda among workers and students.

20.Great reforms of Alexander II and the policy of Alexander III
In the years 1856-1859. in the provincial committees at the local level and in the Main Committee in St. Petersburg, proposals on the content of the forthcoming reform were discussed. Approved By the State Council « Provisions for the abolition of serfdom»Laid down on the emperor's table and were signed by him on February 19, 1861. 1) Serfdom was abolished, the peasants received personal freedom and civil rights, they could independently marry, appear in court, enter educational institutions, but the rights were limited by the need to obtain consent communities. 2) The peasants received the right to self-government. The rural community had its own gathering and an elected village headman, and the volost had an elected gathering, foreman, court. However, these bodies were under the control of peace intermediaries from the nobility. 3) The peasants were freed with land, but for a ransom and under certain conditions. The size of the peasant allotment could not exceed the established norm. If the peasant before the reform had in use a larger allotment than what he was entitled to, the surplus land was “cut off” in favor of the landowner (“cut off”) (the allotment was reduced by 20% outside the Black Earth Region, and by 40% in the Black Earth Region). 4) For the land it was necessary to pay a certain amount to the landlord. The redemption value of the land was calculated as follows. The basis was taken on the size of the quitrent, which the serf peasant paid to the landowner. The ransom was to be equal to such an amount that, being deposited in the bank, would give in the form of interest from it the cost of the previous quitrent ("capitalization of 6% per annum"). Before the redemption operation was carried out, the peasants had to fulfill all their previous obligations in favor of the landowner (“temporarily liable state”). The peasants did not have so much money. The state became an intermediary: it paid 75-80% of the redemption amount to the landlord. The rest was brought in by the peasant. The peasant had to replenish the expenses of the state by contributing to the treasury the amount of the loan with interest over the course of 49 years.
Zemsky reform of 1864 g. established bodies of local self-government - zemstvos. Zemstvos were created in counties and provinces, had administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (zemstvo councils), they were formed on the basis of elections, which gave priority rights to the nobles. Zemstvos dealt with issues of local economy and improvement. They were subordinate to the governors. The significance of the zemstvo reform: for the first time in the history of Russia, a system of local self-government appeared, around which elements of a civil society independent of the authorities could form.
Judicial reform 1864 d. The old estate courts were liquidated, volost-world-general courts, common for all estates, were created. They functioned on the basis of the principles of publicity and transparency, adversarialness of the parties (participation of a lawyer and a prosecutor in a court session), independence of judges (a judge appointed by the emperor could not be dismissed from his office without a court verdict). Finally, a jury trial was established, which was charged with the obligation to pass a verdict on the guilt or innocence of the defendant.
Military reform 1874. The country was divided into military districts (15), the officer corps was qualitatively improved and updated, a system of military education was created, and the army was re-equipped. In 1874, Alexander II approved the law on the transition to universal conscription... All men aged 20, without distinction of class, were subject to conscription into the army (6 years) and the navy (7 years) + 9 years in reserve.

In 1881, the son of Alexander II, Alexander III, ascended the throne, who gave political priorities to the preservation of autocracy, strengthening the estate system, traditions and foundations Russian society, dislike for liberal reforms.
Only public pressure could influence the policy of Alexander III. However, the assassination of the reformer tsar shook society away from the Narodnaya Volya, the intensified police repression finally changed the balance in the social situation in favor of the conservative forces. In these conditions, it became possible to turn to counterreforms in the policy of the tsarist government. Alexander III replaced liberal leaders in government with hardliners. The concept of counterreforms was developed by its chief ideologist K.N. Pobedonostsev. He argued that the liberal reforms of the 60s led to upheavals in society. To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative powers were united. They had unlimited power over the peasants.
Published in 1890, the "Regulations on zemstvo institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.
Seeing the main threat to the existing system in the person of the intelligentsia, the emperor, in order to strengthen the positions of the nobility loyal to him in 1881, issued a “Regulation on measures to preserve state security and Public Peace ”, which granted numerous repressive rights to the local administration.
In 1892, a new "City Regulation" was issued, which infringed on the independence of the city government. The government included them in the general system of state institutions, thereby putting them under control.
The autocrat considered the strengthening of the peasant community to be an important direction of his policy. Alexander III by law of 1893 prohibited the sale and mortgage of peasant lands.

21. Culture of Russia in the XIX century.

The 19th century became a truly golden age of culture in Russia. A number of factors contributed to the cultural progress unprecedented for Russia:
1. The growth of productive forces, and with their growth, the mobility of the population increased: all this entailed major changes in the spiritual life of the people: the need for knowledge, for educated people for public service, education, industry, trade; the demand for books, magazines, newspapers, cultural shows and entertainment expanded.
2. The rapid growth of the national self-awareness of the peoples of Russia, which revived the development of national culture, gave special integrity, ideological maturity and content to cultural values.

3. the liberation movement against serfdom and autocracy, which, as it grew, more strongly influenced the spiritual life of the country.
4. ties with Western countries, mutual contacts and exchange of cultural achievements.

However, in Russia in the XIX century. factors that hindered the development of national culture persisted: serfdom, which limited the possibilities of enlightenment, and tsarist absolutism, which deliberately impeded access to knowledge for the common people.
Advances in education in Russia in the 19th century. were all-encompassing. The general level of literacy of the population has increased more than 3 times in the second half of the century. Allowing the growth of enlightenment, tsarism ruled it so that it was the lot of only the ruling classes, and kept the common people in darkness and religious humility. The natural sciences developed, this was caused by the economic needs of the country, the industrial revolution, the expansion of trade, the development of new lands. The leading area of ​​spiritual life in Russia in the XIX century. there was literature. In the conditions of autocratic oppression, it was of particular importance. Liberation ideas stimulated the rise of Russian literature. The culture of the peoples of Russia, for its part, also positively influenced Russian culture.

22.Social and economic development of Russia in the late XIX century - early XX. Reforms of Witte and Stolypin.

By the beginning of the XX century. Russia came up with a host of unresolved problems, and above all in the socio-economic sphere. These problems were largely generated by the half-hearted, inconsistent nature of the peasant reform of 1861.On the one hand, the abolition of serfdom opened the way for the formation of new, boujoise relations, on the other, the reform largely preserved and preserved the old, serf relations. The most important of them were landlord land tenure and landlord estates, the practiced labor service (a direct remnant of corvee), peasant land shortages, the community with its redistributions, which were a brake on the modernization of the peasant economy. On the whole, the agrarian sector lagged strikingly behind the industrial sector, and this lag more and more took the form of an acute contradiction between the needs of the country's bourgeois modernization and the inhibiting influence of feudal vestiges.

The social-class structure of the country reflected the nature and level of its economic development. Along with the emerging classes of bourgeois society (the bourgeoisie, the proletariat), the class division continued to exist in it: the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, the Cossacks. By the beginning of the XX century. the leading positions in the country's economy were occupied by the bourgeoisie. However, until the mid-1990s, it did not actually play any independent role in the country's social and political life.

The government took an ambivalent position in relation to the capitalist development of the country. The most consistent supporters of industrial modernization in Russia were grouped around S.Yu. Witte, who believed that for a backward Russia in comparison with the West, it was necessary to develop its productive forces, and, consequently, the processing industry and transport. Witte was a champion of the country's industrialization. The ambitious projects required funds that were supported by increases in indirect taxes. On his initiative, a wine monopoly was introduced, providing the main revenues to the state budget. The gold standard was introduced, i.e. free exchange of the ruble for gold. The latter made it possible to attract foreign capital to the Russian economy, since foreign investors could now export gold rubles from Russia. The customs tariff shielded the domestic industry from foreign competition. At the same time, the state encouraged private entrepreneurship, especially favorable conditions were created for the domestic industry. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway was resumed. Witte saw in this not only a military-strategic benefit, but also a way of developing the productive forces of Siberia. All these measures were perceived ambiguously in the government. The opposition accused Witte of destroying the economic foundations, excessive enthusiasm for industry.

Witte proposed to equalize the peasants in rights with other estates, to allow a free exit from the community and the transition to household farming. In essence, it was a set of measures that anticipated the future Stolypin agrarian reform.

The outbreak of the revolution showed that the autocracy was late with reforms "from above". Witte considered it necessary to make certain concessions. Manifesto of October 17, 1905, prepared by S.Yu. Witte, proclaimed the beginning of bourgeois constitutionalism, but drew sharp criticism from both the democratic forces and the ruling circles. The Witte government found itself between two fires and in April 1906 resigned.

In 1906, the tsar appointed P.A.Stolypin as chairman of the Council of Ministers. In his keynote speech (March 1907), Stolypin said: "Our Fatherland must turn into a legal state." Perfectly understanding the need for economic modernization in Russia, he, unlike Witte, focused his efforts not on industry and finance, but on the agrarian issue, arguing that communal order hinders the development of agriculture.

The peasants received the right to leave the community, to consolidate their individual allotment into private property. The state provided all kinds of assistance to private owners. The opportunity to become full-fledged owners of the land attracted many peasants. Instead of scattered strips, the peasant received land in one place - the so-called cut. Private property was intended to be the best antidote to revolutionary sentiments. An integral part of the agrarian reform was the resettlement policy to Siberia and Kazakhstan from European Russia. The Stolypin reform was also met with ambiguity in society. Stolypin understood that even these moderate reforms would encounter resistance from conservatives. Stolypin's projects were not even made public.

The autocracy took a step towards becoming a constitutional monarchy, but this step itself was half-hearted - the government camp did not allow even moderate liberals to gain real power.

23. Russian domestic policy of the endXIX- the beginningXXc The first revolution in Russia 1905-1907 The formation of parliamentarism and a multi-party system in Russia (1905-1917)

Nicholas II, who ascended the throne in 1894, tried to follow the reactionary course of his father (Alexander III). However, the socio-economic and political crisis that hit Russia in the early 20th century complicated the problems facing the tsarist government. It was no longer possible to solve them only by reactionary measures. The desire of Nicholas II to rule according to his father's precepts was most clearly manifested in his defense of the existing system. The tsar waged a decisive struggle against the opponents of autocracy. To this end, great attention was paid to improving the political police (Okhranka). Provocation becomes the main means of struggle - the secret service introduced into public circles and underground organizations their undercover agents. Nicholas II continued his father's course in the national question. The process of modernization of the country required uniformity in the administrative, legal and social structure of all territories of Russia, the introduction of a single language and educational standards. However, this objective tendency often took the form of Russification.

Thus, the internal policy of Nicholas II was a direct continuation of the previous reign and did not correspond to the mood of the majority of Russian society, who expected decisive reforms from the new tsar.

The reasons for the revolution. The confrontation between the authorities and society was growing in the country. An autocratic form of government was preserved in Russia. The government refused to provide the population with political freedom and was categorically against the idea of ​​popular representation. The peasantry suffered from a shortage of land and was dissatisfied with the government's reluctance to add land at the expense of landlord estates. The brutal arbitrariness of the owners, low wages, and the deteriorating financial situation aroused the indignation of the workers. In the national regions of the country, economic and political problems were aggravated by the government's Russification policy.

Therefore, by its nature, the revolution of 1905-1907. was bourgeois democratic.

Main events.

On January 3, 1905, in response to the dismissal of workers, a strike broke out at the Putilov factory. It was supported by all large enterprises of St. Petersburg. On Sunday, January 9, a strike began, in the form of a peaceful procession to the Winter Palace to petition the king about the needs of the workers. In addition to purely economic demands, the petitions included political ones: freedom of speech, press, unions, convocation of the Constituent Assembly. The tsar took this as an attempt to assassinate the foundations of autocracy. Having blocked all the paths to the city center, the troops began to mercilessly shoot the workers' columns. On the same day, the workers began a spontaneous uprising against the tsarist government. Faith in the "good king" collapsed completely. Bloody Sunday caused a general outburst of indignation in the most diverse segments of the population. Most of the speeches were held not only under economic but also political slogans.

Continuing its upward development, the revolutionary labor movement in late spring and summer 1905 reaches a new level. It becomes more organized and focused.

The broad sweep of the revolutionary movement in the country captured the army and navy. Unrest in the army and navy became a characteristic feature of the first year of the revolution.

On August 6, 1905, Nicholas II signed a manifesto on the establishment of a representative body, the Bulygin Duma (named after the Minister of Internal Affairs). This body was to be elected on the basis of a high property qualification; workers were generally barred from elections. The Manifesto proclaimed only the creation of a legislative body, not a legislative one. The bulk of the population accepted the proposal of the Bolsheviks to boycott the elections to the Bulygin Duma.

In the fall of 1905, the revolutionary movement in Russia reached its climax. An all-Russian political strike took place in Russia.

On October 17, the tsar signed a manifesto that changed the foundations of the state system. The population was granted unshakable freedoms on the basis of personal inviolability, freedom of conscience, speech, assembly, and unions. Those classes that had previously been completely deprived of their rights were attracted to participate in the Duma. No law could be passed without the approval of the Duma. The State Duma was transformed from a legislative body into a legislative body.

After the publication of the tsarist manifesto, a multi-party system developed in Russia

1)Cadets(representatives of the intelligentsia, landowners, the bourgeoisie, officials) tried to find compromise solutions to the burning issues of Russian reality. The compulsory alienation of the landowners' lands was supposed for ransom, however, only that part that the landowners, without cultivating themselves, rented out. The introduction of an 8 hour working day was envisaged, but only where it is in the given time perhaps the establishment of freedom of personality, speech, assembly. The form of government is a constitutional monarchy.

2)Octobrists(the top of the big bourgeoisie and landowners) The concessions that were promised in the Manifesto of October 17 fully satisfied the Octobrists, they launched an active struggle to end the revolution. From their point of view, it fulfilled its task by giving the country a legislative Duma, on which the population was asked to place all hopes.

3) Monarchists. They declared themselves defenders of the autocratic tsar from revolutionary encroachments and proclaimed slogans common to the entire movement: “Russia for the Russians! For faith, Tsar and Fatherland! Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality! Down with the revolution! "

The largest right-wing political organizations were the Russian Assembly, the Monarchist Party, the Union of the Russian People and the Mikhail Archangel Union.

The bulk of the party members were small traders, janitors, cabbies.

4) Social Democrats. Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (Social Democrats). The party program consisted of two parts. The first part (the minimum program) provided for the solution of the tasks of the bourgeois-democratic revolution: the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment of a democratic republic; universal suffrage and democratic freedoms; broad local self-government; the right of nations to self-determination and their equality; the return to the peasants of the lands cut off from their allotments in 1861, the abolition of redemption and quitrent payments for land and the return of previously paid redemption sums; 8 hour work day, cancellation of fines and overtime.

The second part (the maximum program) provided for the victory of the proletarian revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat for the socialist reorganization of society.

5) Socialist-revolutionaries. (Socialist-Revolutionaries). The Social Revolutionaries proclaimed their main task to prepare the people for the revolution. They believed that all strata of the population living by their own labor were interested in the liquidation of the autocracy, that is, the peasantry, the proletariat and the intelligentsia, whom they united under the common concept of the "working class". The regime that should be established after the overthrow of the autocracy, they defined the term "democracy". The Socialist Revolutionaries proclaimed the demand for the "socialization" of the land, that is, its withdrawal from commodity circulation (the prohibition of the sale and purchase of land) and its transformation into the public property. As a means of struggle, the Social Revolutionaries actively used individual terror.

The core of the party was the intelligentsia.

December armed uprising. In early December, the Moscow Council decided to start a general political strike. About 6 thousand people took part in the Moscow uprising. The December events were the culmination of the revolution. In 1906, the revolution began to decline. At the same time, the government went on the offensive. The secret service is noticeably activating. At the same time, in an effort to pacify the rebellious peasant population, the government relaxes taxes. In 1906. The redemption payments were halved, and from 1907 they were canceled altogether.

Results of the revolution. The 1905 revolution forced the authorities to make some concessions.

The working class managed to achieve a reduction in the length of the working day to 9-10 hours, and an increase in wages.

For peasants, redemption payments were canceled, and the rent for land was reduced.

The political regime was somewhat softened. The workers were given the right to create mass amateur organizations. The subjects of the Russian Empire were granted some, albeit very limited, democratic rights: inviolability of the person, freedom of conscience, speech, assembly and unions, publication of the press. The issue of creating a representative body of power, the State Duma, was resolved.

24. Foreign policy of Russia 1894-1917.

Nicholas II's foreign policy and the first period of his reign were determined by at least three important factors. First, a sincere intention to continue my father's foreign policy. Secondly, in order to solve the problems of industrialization of the country, appropriate external conditions were needed - peace and tranquility in Europe, the attraction of foreign capital. Finally, thirdly, tension within the country demanded the concentration of military and police forces not on external, but on internal "fronts".

In 1898, all ambassadors of foreign powers in Russia were presented with the text of the address of Nicholas II, which contained an appeal to convene an international conference to discuss the problems of general disarmament. international Conference was convened in June 1899 in The Hague. It was attended by representatives from 26 countries. And although everyone understood that military clashes were unlikely to be prevented, decisions were made to mitigate their nature. Peace and tranquility in Europe were needed by Nicholas II to facilitate the fulfillment of the main goal: Russia's access to ice-free seas The Pacific... Japan was the main obstacle to Russian dominance in the Far East. Russia took the initiative to create a unified anti-Japanese bloc of European states. In 1895, having presented Japan with an ultimatum supported by France and Germany, Russia forced it to abandon some of its claims.

In 1903, Nicholas II convened a Special Meeting on the Affairs of the Far East. The majority of those present considered it necessary to begin accelerated preparations for a war with Japan. A special opinion was expressed by the Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte (Russia is not ready for war).

The Japanese government is also firmly on a course of war. Aid to Japan was rendered by Britain and the United States. In 1904, without declaring war, Japanese destroyers attacked a Russian squadron stationed in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur. During the course of the war, the advantage was on the side of Japan.

However, the war drained both countries. Russia experienced severe internal turmoil, exacerbated by military setbacks. Japan, despite its victories at too high a price, was on the brink of exhaustion. In 1905, Russian-Japanese negotiations began in the small seaside town of Portsmouth (USA). S. Yu. Witte was appointed head of the Russian delegation. Russia recognized Korea as a sphere of Japanese interests. Both sides pledged to withdraw their troops from Manchuria. Russia ceded to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the lease of Port Arthur. She pledged to provide the Japanese with fishing rights along the Russian Pacific coast.
After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the sphere of interests of Russian foreign policy again shifted to Europe. This was due to the strengthening of Germany. Significant changes have taken place in diplomacy, primarily in Russian-English relations.

In 1907, an agreement was reached on the delimitation of interests in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. This treaty finally consolidated the split of Europe into two opposing military-political bloc: Triple Accord, or the Entente (Russia, France, England), and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).

The beginning of the First World War. On June 15, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated. The direct executor was G. Princip, a Serb by nationality. Austria On July 15, 1914, she declared war on Serbia.

On July 18, a general mobilization was announced in Russia. Germany demanded to stop it. Russia did not respond to the German ultimatum, and on July 19 (August 1) 1914 Germany declared war on Russia. The war immediately acquired a pan-European character, and soon turned into a world war. Each of the countries participating in the war pursued its own goals. Russia decided to improve its strategic position: to become the mistress of the straits and Constantinople and the only patroness of the Balkans, to reunite all Polish lands. From the very first days of the war, two fronts were formed in Europe: the Western (in Belgium and France) and the Eastern (against Russia).

The First World War was perceived by the people with understanding. In the first days of the war, 96% of those subject to conscription came to mobilization points. The composition of the Russian army was predominantly peasant. The political sentiments of the multi-million soldier mass in the first years of the war fit into the formula “For Faith, Tsar and Fatherland”.

Military action in 1914 All the belligerent powers expected to carry out their military plans within 3-4 months. However, from the very first days, the war went differently. First of all, the calculations for its lightning-fast nature collapsed. The war became protracted. Germany was forced to conduct active military operations simultaneously on two fronts.

Military action in 1915 The German command developed a new military plan for 1915. It provided for the transition to strategic defense on the Western Front with the concentration of forces and resources on the Eastern with the aim of the speediest defeat of the Russian army and the withdrawal of Russia from the war. As a result, Russian troops were driven out of Galicia, Poland, parts of the Baltic States and Belarus. Territorial losses were accompanied by huge human casualties. The morale of the Russian army plummeted. The allies, who received a temporary respite thanks to the intensification of hostilities on the Eastern Front, were in no hurry to help the Russian army. They did not organize a single major military operation on the Western Front.

Military action in 1916 Germany was pleased with the results of hostilities in 1915. Its leadership thought that although the German troops did not completely defeat the Russian army, they completely deprived it of the ability to conduct serious offensive operations. Therefore, the 1916 German generals hoped to spend under the sign of major victories on the Western Front.

In February 1916, the German army launched an offensive against the French fortified area with the Verdun fortress.

On May 22, 1916, after a massive artillery strike, Russian troops launched an offensive and in a number of places immediately broke through the Austrian positions. The front was broken through for 340 km, the depth of the breakthrough reached 120 km. The Austrians suffered heavy casualties.

The Brusilov breakthrough put Austria-Hungary on the brink of disaster. However, the success of the Southwestern Front did not give decisive strategic results, since it was not supported by the offensive operations of other fronts. The internal and external situation of Soviet Russia demanded the signing of a peace. The country was in a state of extreme economic devastation. The people demanded peace. In 1917, an armistice agreement was signed in Brest-Litovsk, after which peace negotiations began. In 1918 the Soviet delegation signed the Brest Treaty. Large territories were torn away from Russia (Poland, Lithuania, part of Belarus and Latvia). In total, Soviet Russia lost about 1 million km2. Under Article 5, Russia undertook to carry out a complete demobilization of the army and navy, including units of the Red Army. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk restored customs tariffs, which were extremely disadvantageous for Soviet Russia, in favor of Germany. On August 27, 1918, a Russian-German financial agreement was signed in Berlin, according to which Soviet Russia was obliged to pay Germany in different forms indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks. The Brest-Litovsk Peace, which was a complex of political, economic, financial and legal conditions, was a heavy burden for the Soviet Republic. However, the Soviet Republic retained its independence, withdrew from the imperialist war, receiving a peaceful respite necessary to restore the destroyed economy, create a regular Red Army, and consolidate the Soviet state. The November Revolution of 1918 in Germany overthrew the power of Emperor Wilhelm II, and the Soviet government on November 13, 1918 annulled the Treaty of Brest.

25. "The Silver Age of Russian Culture".

The beginning of the XX century. - a turning point not only in the political and socio-economic life of Russia, but also in the spiritual state of society. The industrial era dictated its own conditions and norms of life, destroying the traditional values ​​and perceptions of people. The Silver Age includes, first of all, two main spiritual phenomena: 1) the Russian religious revival of the early XX century, also known as "God-seeking" - a religious philosophical trend. It arose in an atmosphere of social changes that were brewing in the pre-revolutionary period and became widespread after the defeat of the Revolution of 1905-07. He proposed to rebuild modern forms of civil life and human existence. 2) Russian modernism

The ambiguous nature of Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century. most reflected in Russian artistic culture Silver Age... On the one hand, the stable traditions of 19th century critical realism were preserved in the works of the writers. At the same time, the voices of another generation of creative intelligentsia are beginning to sound louder and louder, protesting against the main principle of realistic art - the principle of a direct image of the surrounding world. According to its representatives, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, is capable of not only "reflecting", but also "transforming" existing world, create a new reality.

The pioneers of a new direction in art were poets symbolists.

Painting. The main style was called "modern". art is an independent, intrinsically valuable sphere of human activity and it should not depend on political and social influences.

Architecture. In the second half of the XIX century. new opportunities have opened up for architecture. This was due to general technical progress. The rapid growth of cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, changes in public life constantly required new architectural forms and solutions. Not only in capitals, but also in hundreds of provincial cities, train stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and banking buildings were built. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions and estates continued. The search for a new style became the main problem of architecture. And just like in painting, a new direction in architecture was called "Art Nouveau". One of the features of this trend was the stylization of Russian architectural motives - the so-called neo-Russian style.