Image copyright Thinkstock

The current speed record in space has been held for 46 years. The correspondent wondered when he would be beaten.

We humans are obsessed with speed. So, only in the last few months it became known that students in Germany set a speed record for an electric car, and the US Air Force plans to improve hypersonic aircraft in such a way that they develop speeds five times the speed of sound, i.e. over 6100 km/h.

Such planes will not have a crew, but not because people cannot move with such high speed. In fact, people have already moved at speeds that are several times faster than the speed of sound.

However, is there a limit beyond which our rapidly rushing bodies will no longer be able to withstand overloads?

The current speed record is equally held by three astronauts who participated in space mission Apollo 10 to Tom Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan.

In 1969, when the astronauts flew around the moon and returned back, the capsule they were in reached a speed that on Earth would be equal to 39.897 km / h.

"I think that a hundred years ago we could hardly have imagined that a person could travel in space at a speed of almost 40 thousand kilometers per hour," says Jim Bray of the aerospace concern Lockheed Martin.

Bray is the director of the habitable module project for the promising Orion spacecraft, which is being developed by the US Space Agency NASA.

As conceived by the developers, the Orion spacecraft - multi-purpose and partially reusable - should take astronauts into low Earth orbit. It may well be that with its help it will be possible to break the speed record set for a person 46 years ago.

The new super-heavy rocket, part of the Space Launch System, is scheduled to make its first manned flight in 2021. This will be a flyby of an asteroid in lunar orbit.

The average person can handle about five G's before passing out.

Then months-long expeditions to Mars should follow. Now, according to the designers, the usual maximum speed of the Orion should be approximately 32,000 km/h. However, the speed that Apollo 10 has developed can be surpassed even if the basic configuration of the Orion spacecraft is maintained.

"The Orion is designed to fly to a variety of targets throughout its lifetime," says Bray. "It could be much faster than what we currently plan."

But even "Orion" will not represent the peak of human speed potential. "Basically, there is no other limit to the speed at which we can travel other than the speed of light," says Bray.

The speed of light is one billion km/h. Is there any hope that we will be able to bridge the gap between 40,000 km/h and these values?

Surprisingly, speed as a vector quantity denoting the speed of movement and the direction of movement is not a problem for people in physical sense as long as it is relatively constant and directed in one direction.

Therefore, people - theoretically - can move in space only slightly slower than the "velocity limit of the universe", i.e. the speed of light.

Image copyright NASA Image caption How will a person feel in a ship flying at near-light speed?

But even assuming we overcome the significant technological hurdles associated with building high-speed spacecraft, our fragile, mostly water bodies will face new dangers from the effects of high speed.

Only imaginary dangers can arise, and so far, if people can move around. faster speed light through the use of loopholes in modern physics or through openings that break the pattern.

How to withstand overload

However, if we intend to travel at speeds in excess of 40,000 km/h, we will have to reach it and then slow down, slowly and with patience.

Rapid acceleration and equally rapid deceleration are fraught with mortal danger to the human body. This is evidenced by the severity of bodily injuries resulting from car accidents, in which the speed drops from several tens of kilometers per hour to zero.

What is the reason for this? In that property of the Universe, which is called inertia or ability physical body, which has mass, to resist a change in its state of rest or movement in the absence or compensation of external influences.

This idea is formulated in Newton's first law, which states: "Every body continues to be held in its state of rest or uniform and rectilinear motion until and in so far as it is forced by applied forces to change this state."

We humans are able to endure huge G-forces without serious injury, however, only for a few moments.

"The state of rest and movement at a constant speed is normal for the human body, - explains Bray. - We should rather worry about the state of the person at the time of acceleration."

About a century ago, the development of durable aircraft that could maneuver at speed led pilots to report strange symptoms caused by changes in speed and direction of flight. These symptoms included temporary loss of vision and a feeling of either heaviness or weightlessness.

The reason is g-forces, measured in units of G, which are the ratio of linear acceleration to the free-fall acceleration at the Earth's surface under the influence of attraction or gravity. These units reflect the effect of free fall acceleration on the mass of, for example, the human body.

An overload of 1 G is equal to the weight of a body that is in the Earth's gravity field and is attracted to the center of the planet at a speed of 9.8 m/sec (at sea level).

G-forces that a person experiences vertically from head to toe or vice versa are truly bad news for pilots and passengers.

With negative overloads, i.e. slowing down, blood rushes from the toes to the head, there is a feeling of oversaturation, as in a handstand.

Image copyright SPL Image caption In order to understand how many Gs the astronauts can withstand, they are trained in a centrifuge.

"Red veil" (the feeling that a person experiences when blood rushes to the head) occurs when the blood-swollen, translucent lower eyelids rise and close the pupils of the eyes.

Conversely, during acceleration or positive g-forces, blood drains from the head to the legs, the eyes and brain begin to experience a lack of oxygen, as blood accumulates in the lower extremities.

At first, vision becomes cloudy, i.e. there is a loss of color vision and rolls, as they say, a "gray veil", then a complete loss of vision or a "black veil" occurs, but the person remains conscious.

Excessive overloads lead to complete loss of consciousness. This condition is called congestion-induced syncope. Many pilots died due to the fact that a "black veil" fell over their eyes - and they crashed.

The average person can handle about five G's before passing out.

Pilots, dressed in special anti-G overalls and trained in a special way to tense and relax the muscles of the torso so that the blood does not drain from the head, are able to fly the plane with overloads of about nine Gs.

Upon reaching a steady cruising speed of 26,000 km/h in orbit, astronauts experience no more speed than commercial airline passengers.

“For short periods of time, the human body can withstand much higher g-forces than nine Gs,” says Jeff Sventek, executive director of the Aerospace Medicine Association, located in Alexandria, Va. few".

We humans are able to endure enormous G-forces without serious injury, but only for a few moments.

The short-term endurance record was set by US Air Force Captain Eli Bieding Jr. at Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico. In 1958, when braking on a special rocket-powered sled, after accelerating to 55 km / h in 0.1 second, he experienced an overload of 82.3 G.

This result was recorded by an accelerometer attached to his chest. Beeding's eyes were also covered with a "black veil", but he escaped with only bruises during this outstanding demonstration of the endurance of the human body. True, after the arrival, he spent three days in the hospital.

And now to space

Astronauts, depending on the vehicle, also experienced fairly high g-forces - from three to five Gs - during takeoffs and during re-entry into the atmosphere, respectively.

These g-forces are relatively easy to bear, thanks to the clever idea of ​​strapping space travelers into seats in a prone position facing the direction of flight.

Once they reach a steady cruising speed of 26,000 km/h in orbit, astronauts experience no more speed than passengers on commercial flights.

If overloads will not be a problem for long-term expeditions on the Orion spacecraft, then with small space rocks - micrometeorites - everything is more difficult.

Image copyright NASA Image caption Orion will need some kind of space armor to protect against micrometeorites

These particles the size of a grain of rice can reach impressive yet destructive speeds of up to 300,000 km/h. To ensure the integrity of the ship and the safety of its crew, Orion is equipped with an external protective layer, the thickness of which varies from 18 to 30 cm.

In addition, additional shielding shields are provided, as well as ingenious placement of equipment inside the ship.

"In order not to lose the flight systems that are vital to the entire spacecraft, we must accurately calculate the angles of approach of micrometeorites," says Jim Bray.

Rest assured, micrometeorites are not the only hindrance to space missions, during which high human flight speeds in vacuum will play an increasingly important role.

During the expedition to Mars, other practical tasks will also have to be solved, for example, supplying the crew with food and counteracting heightened danger cancer due to exposure to human body space radiation.

Reducing travel time will lessen the severity of such problems, so that speed of travel will become increasingly desirable.

Next generation spaceflight

This need for speed will put new obstacles in the way of space travelers.

New NASA spacecraft that threaten to break Apollo 10's speed record will still rely on time tested rocket engine chemistry systems used since the first space flights. But these systems have severe speed limits due to the release of small amounts of energy per unit of fuel.

The most preferred, albeit elusive, source of energy for a fast spacecraft is antimatter, a twin and antipode of ordinary matter.

Therefore, in order to significantly increase the speed of flight for people going to Mars and beyond, scientists recognize that completely new approaches are needed.

"The systems that we have today are quite capable of getting us there," says Bray, "but we all would like to witness a revolution in engines."

Eric Davis, lead research physicist at the Institute for Advanced Study in Austin, Texas, and member of NASA's Motion Physics Breakthrough Program, six-year-old research project, which ended in 2002, identified the three most promising tools, from the point of view of traditional physics, that can help humanity achieve speeds that are reasonably sufficient for interplanetary travel.

In short, we are talking about the phenomena of energy release during the splitting of matter, thermonuclear fusion and annihilation of antimatter.

The first method is atomic fission and is used in commercial nuclear reactors.

The second, thermonuclear fusion, is the creation of heavier atoms from simpler atoms, the kind of reactions that power the sun. This is a technology that fascinates, but is not given to the hands; until it is "always 50 years away" - and always will be, as the old motto of this industry says.

"These are very advanced technologies," says Davis, "but they are based on traditional physics and have been firmly established since the dawn of the Atomic Age." According to optimistic estimates, propulsion systems, based on the concepts of atomic fission and thermonuclear fusion, in theory, are able to accelerate the ship to 10% of the speed of light, i.e. up to a very worthy 100 million km / h.

Image copyright US Air Force Image caption Flying at supersonic speeds is no longer a problem for humans. Another thing is the speed of light, or at least close to it...

The most preferred, albeit elusive, source of energy for a fast spacecraft is antimatter, the twin and antipode of ordinary matter.

When two kinds of matter come into contact, they annihilate each other, resulting in the release of pure energy.

The technologies to produce and store - so far extremely small - amounts of antimatter already exist today.

At the same time, the production of antimatter in useful quantities will require new next-generation special capacities, and engineering will have to enter into a competitive race to create an appropriate spacecraft.

But, as Davis says, a lot great ideas already being worked out on the drawing boards.

Spaceships propelled by antimatter energy will be able to accelerate for months and even years and reach greater percentages of the speed of light.

At the same time, overloads on board will remain acceptable for the inhabitants of the ships.

At the same time, such fantastic new speeds will be fraught with other dangers for the human body.

energy hail

At speeds of several hundred million kilometers per hour, any speck of dust in space, from dispersed hydrogen atoms to micrometeorites, inevitably becomes a high-energy bullet capable of piercing a ship's hull through and through.

"When you are moving at a very high speed, it means that the particles flying towards you are moving at the same speeds," says Arthur Edelstein.

Together with his late father, William Edelstein, professor of radiology at medical school Johns Hopkins University, he worked on a scientific work that examined the effects of cosmic hydrogen atoms (on people and equipment) during superfast space travel in space.

The hydrogen will begin to decompose into subatomic particles, which will penetrate the interior of the ship and expose both crew and equipment to radiation.

The Alcubierre engine will carry you like a surfer on a wave crest Eric Davies, research physicist

At 95% the speed of light, exposure to such radiation would mean almost instantaneous death.

The starship will be heated to melting temperatures that no conceivable material can withstand, and the water contained in the bodies of the crew members will immediately boil.

"These are all extremely nasty problems," remarks Edelstein with grim humor.

He and his father roughly calculated that in order to create some hypothetical magnetic shielding system capable of shielding the ship and its people from a deadly hydrogen rain, a starship could travel at no more than half the speed of light. Then the people on board have a chance to survive.

Mark Millis, problem physicist forward movement, And former leader NASA's Breakthrough Motion Physics Program warns that this potential speed limit for spaceflight remains a problem for the distant future.

“Based on the physical knowledge accumulated to date, we can say that it will be extremely difficult to develop a speed above 10% of the speed of light,” says Millis. “We are not in danger yet. A simple analogy: why worry that we can drown if We haven't even entered the water yet."

Faster than light?

If we assume that we, so to speak, have learned to swim, will we then be able to master gliding through space time - if we develop this analogy further - and fly at superluminal speed?

The hypothesis of an innate ability to survive in a superluminal environment, although doubtful, is not without certain glimpses of educated enlightenment in pitch darkness.

One of these intriguing modes of travel is based on technologies similar to those used in the "warp drive" or "warp drive" from Star Trek.

The operating principle of this power plant, also known as the "Alcubierre engine"* (named after the Mexican theoretical physicist Miguel Alcubierre), is that it allows the ship to compress the normal space-time described by Albert Einstein in front of it and expand it behind it.

Image copyright NASA Image caption The current speed record is held by three Apollo 10 astronauts - Tom Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan.

In essence, the ship moves in a certain volume of space-time, a kind of "curvature bubble", which moves faster than the speed of light.

Thus, the ship remains stationary in normal space-time in this "bubble" without being deformed and avoiding violations of the universal speed limit of light.

"Instead of floating in the water column of normal space-time," says Davis, "the Alcubierre engine will carry you like a surfer on a board on the crest of a wave."

There is also a certain trick here. To implement this idea, an exotic form of matter is needed, which has a negative mass in order to compress and expand space-time.

"Physics does not contain any contraindications regarding negative mass," says Davis, "but there are no examples of it, and we have never seen it in nature."

There is another trick. In a paper published in 2012, researchers at the University of Sydney speculated that the "warp bubble" would accumulate high-energy cosmic particles as it inevitably began to interact with the contents of the universe.

Some of the particles will get inside the bubble itself and pump the ship with radiation.

Stuck at sub-light speeds?

Are we really doomed to get stuck at the stage of sub-light speeds because of our delicate biology?!

It's not so much about setting a new world (galactic?) speed record for a person, but about the prospect of turning humanity into an interstellar society.

At half the speed of light - which is the limit that Edelstein's research suggests our bodies can withstand - a round-trip journey to the nearest star would take more than 16 years.

(The effects of time dilation, which would cause the crew of a starship to pass less time in its frame of reference than to humans remaining on Earth in their frame of reference, would not have dramatic consequences at half the speed of light.)

Mark Millis is full of hope. Considering that humanity has developed anti-g suits and protection against micrometeorites, allowing people to safely travel in the great blue distance and the star-studded blackness of space, he is confident that we can find ways to survive, no matter how fast we reach in the future.

"The same technologies that can help us achieve incredible new travel speeds," Millis muses, "will provide us with new, as yet unknown, capabilities to protect crews."

Translator's notes:

*Miguel Alcubierre came up with the idea of ​​his "bubble" in 1994. And in 1995, Russian theoretical physicist Sergei Krasnikov proposed the concept of a device for space travel faster than the speed of light. The idea was called "Krasnikov's pipes".

This is an artificial curvature of space-time according to the principle of the so-called wormhole. Hypothetically, the ship will move in a straight line from the Earth to a given star through curved space-time, passing through other dimensions.

According to Krasnikov's theory, the space traveler will return back at the same time that he set off.

Readers are presented fastest rockets in the world throughout the history of creation.

Speed ​​3.8 km/s

The fastest medium-range ballistic missile with maximum speed 3.8 km per second opens the ranking of the fastest rockets in the world. The R-12U was a modified version of the R-12. The rocket differed from the prototype in the absence of an intermediate bottom in the oxidizer tank and some minor design changes - there are no wind loads in the mine, which made it possible to lighten the tanks and dry compartments of the rocket and abandon the stabilizers. Since 1976, the R-12 and R-12U missiles began to be withdrawn from service and replaced by Pioneer mobile ground systems. They were decommissioned in June 1989, and between May 21, 1990, 149 missiles were destroyed at the Lesnaya base in Belarus.

Speed ​​5.8 km/s

One of the fastest American launch vehicles with a maximum speed of 5.8 km per second. It is the first developed intercontinental ballistic missile adopted by the United States. Developed under the MX-1593 program since 1951. formed the basis nuclear arsenal US Air Force in 1959-1964, but then was quickly withdrawn from service in connection with the advent of the more advanced Minuteman missile. It served as the basis for the creation of the Atlas family of space launch vehicles, which has been in operation since 1959 to the present day.

Speed ​​6 km/s

UGM-133 A Trident II- American three-stage ballistic missile one of the fastest in the world. Its maximum speed is 6 km per second. Trident-2 has been developed since 1977 in parallel with the lighter Trident-1. Adopted in 1990. Starting weight - 59 tons. Max. throw weight - 2.8 tons with a launch range of 7800 km. The maximum flight range with a reduced number of warheads is 11,300 km.

Speed ​​6 km/s

One of the fastest solid-propellant ballistic missiles in the world, which is in service with Russia. It has a minimum radius of destruction of 8000 km, an approximate speed of 6 km / s. The development of the rocket has been carried out since 1998 by the Moscow Institute of Thermal Engineering, which developed in 1989-1997. ground-based missile "Topol-M". To date, 24 test launches of the Bulava have been made, fifteen of them were recognized as successful (during the first launch, weight and size layout missiles), two (seventh and eighth) - partially successful. The last test launch of the rocket took place on September 27, 2016.

Speed ​​6.7 km/s

Minuteman LGM-30 G- one of the fastest land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles in the world. Its speed is 6.7 km per second. The LGM-30G Minuteman III has an estimated range of 6,000 kilometers to 10,000 kilometers, depending on the type of warhead. The Minuteman 3 has been in service with the US since 1970. It is the only silo-based missile in the United States. The first rocket launch took place in February 1961, modifications II and III were launched in 1964 and 1968, respectively. The rocket weighs about 34,473 kilograms and is equipped with three solid propellant engines. It is planned that the missile will be in service until 2020.

Speed ​​7 km/s

The fastest anti-missile in the world, designed to destroy highly maneuverable targets and high-altitude hypersonic missiles. Tests of the 53T6 series of the Amur complex began in 1989. Its speed is 5 km per second. The rocket is a 12-meter pointed cone with no protruding parts. Its body is made of high-strength steels using composite windings. The design of the rocket allows it to withstand large overloads. The interceptor starts at 100x acceleration and is capable of intercepting targets flying at speeds up to 7 km per second.

Speed ​​7.3 km/s

The most powerful and fastest nuclear rocket in the world at a speed of 7.3 km per second. It is intended, first of all, in order to destroy the most fortified command posts, ballistic missile silos and air bases. The nuclear explosive of one missile can destroy Big city, a very large part of the US. Hit accuracy is about 200-250 meters. The missile is housed in the world's most durable mines. The SS-18 carries 16 platforms, one of which is loaded with decoys. Entering a high orbit, all the heads of the "Satan" go "in a cloud" of decoys and are practically not identified by radars.

Speed ​​7.9 km/s

An intercontinental ballistic missile (DF-5A) with a maximum speed of 7.9 km per second opens the top three fastest in the world. The Chinese DF-5 ICBM entered service in 1981. It can carry a huge 5 mt warhead and has a range of over 12,000 km. The DF-5 has a deviation of approximately 1 km, which means that the missile has one goal - to destroy cities. The size of the warhead, the deflection, and the fact that it only takes an hour to fully prepare for launch all mean that the DF-5 is a punitive weapon designed to punish any would-be attackers. The 5A version has increased range, improved 300m deflection, and the ability to carry multiple warheads.

R-7 Speed ​​7.9 km/s

R-7- Soviet, the first intercontinental ballistic missile, one of the fastest in the world. Its top speed is 7.9 km per second. The development and production of the first copies of the rocket was carried out in 1956-1957 by the OKB-1 enterprise near Moscow. After successful launches, it was used in 1957 to launch the world's first artificial satellites Earth. Since then, launch vehicles of the R-7 family have been actively used to launch spacecraft for various purposes, and since 1961 these launch vehicles have been widely used in manned cosmonautics. Based on the R-7, a whole family of launch vehicles was created. From 1957 to 2000, more than 1,800 launch vehicles based on the R-7 were launched, of which more than 97% were successful.

Speed ​​7.9 km/s

RT-2PM2 "Topol-M" (15ZH65)- the fastest intercontinental ballistic missile in the world with a maximum speed of 7.9 km per second. The maximum range is 11,000 km. Carries one thermonuclear warhead with a capacity of 550 kt. In the mine-based variant, it was put into service in 2000. The launch method is mortar. The rocket's solid propellant main engine allows it to pick up speed much faster than previous types of rockets of a similar class, created in Russia and the Soviet Union. This greatly complicates its interception by missile defense systems in the active phase of the flight.

Our reader Nikita Ageev asks: what is the main problem of interstellar flights? The answer, like , will require a large article, although the question can be answered with a single character: c .

The speed of light in a vacuum, c, is about 300,000 kilometers per second and cannot be exceeded. Therefore, it is impossible to reach the stars in less than a few years (light takes 4.243 years to reach Proxima Centauri, so the spacecraft cannot arrive even faster). If we add the time for acceleration and deceleration with a more or less acceptable acceleration for a person, then we get about ten years to the nearest star.

What are the conditions to fly?

And this period is already a significant obstacle in itself, even if we ignore the question "how to accelerate to a speed close to the speed of light." Now there are no spaceships that would allow the crew to live autonomously in space for so long - astronauts are constantly brought fresh supplies from Earth. Usually, a conversation about the problems of interstellar travel begins with more fundamental questions, but we will start with purely applied problems.

Even half a century after Gagarin's flight, engineers could not create a washing machine and a fairly practical shower for spacecraft, and toilets designed for weightlessness break down on the ISS with enviable regularity. A flight to at least Mars (22 light minutes instead of 4 light years) already poses a non-trivial task for plumbing designers: so traveling to the stars will require at least inventing a space toilet with a twenty-year warranty and the same washing machine.

Water for washing, washing and drinking will also have to either be taken with you or reused. As well as air, and food, too, must either be stored or grown on board. Experiments to create a closed ecosystem on Earth have already been carried out, but their conditions are still very different from those in space, at least in the presence of gravity. Mankind knows how to turn the contents of a chamber pot into pure drinking water, but in this case, you need to be able to do it in zero gravity, with absolute reliability and without a truckload of consumables: taking a truckload of filter cartridges to the stars is too expensive.

Washing socks and protecting against intestinal infections may seem like too banal, "non-physical" restrictions on interstellar flights - but any experienced traveler will confirm that "little things" like uncomfortable shoes or upset stomach from unfamiliar food on an autonomous expedition can turn into a threat to life.

The solution to even elementary domestic problems requires the same serious technological base as the development of fundamentally new space engines. If on Earth a worn-out gasket in a toilet bowl can be bought at the nearest store for two rubles, then already on a Martian spacecraft it is necessary to provide either a reserve all similar parts, or a three-dimensional printer for the production of spare parts from universal plastic raw materials.

In the US Navy in 2013 in earnest engaged in 3D printing after assessing the time and cost of repairing military equipment using traditional methods in the field. The military reasoned that it was easier to print some rare gasket for a helicopter assembly that had been discontinued ten years ago than to order a part from a warehouse on another mainland.

One of Korolev's closest associates, Boris Chertok, wrote in his memoir Rockets and People that at some point the Soviet space program encountered a shortage of plug contacts. Reliable connectors for multicore cables had to be developed separately.

In addition to spare parts for equipment, food, water and air, astronauts will need energy. The energy will be needed by the engine and on-board equipment, so the problem of a powerful and reliable source will have to be solved separately. Solar batteries are not suitable, if only because of the distance from the stars in flight, radioisotope generators (they feed the Voyagers and New Horizons) do not provide the power required for a large manned spacecraft, and they still have not learned how to make full-fledged nuclear reactors for space.

The Soviet nuclear-powered satellite program was marred by an international scandal following the fall of Kosmos-954 in Canada, as well as a series of failures with less dramatic consequences; similar work in the US was curtailed even earlier. Now Rosatom and Roskosmos intend to create a space nuclear power plant, but these are still installations for short flights, and not a long-term journey to another star system.

Perhaps, instead of a nuclear reactor, tokamaks will be used in future interstellar ships. About how difficult it is to at least correctly determine the parameters of a thermonuclear plasma, at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology this summer. By the way, the ITER project on Earth is progressing successfully: even those who entered the first year today have every chance to join the work on the first experimental thermonuclear reactor with a positive energy balance.

What to fly?

Ordinary rocket engines are not suitable for acceleration and deceleration of an interstellar spacecraft. Those who are familiar with the mechanics course, which is taught at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology in the first semester, can independently calculate how much fuel a rocket will need to reach at least one hundred thousand kilometers per second. For those who are not yet familiar with the Tsiolkovsky equation, we will immediately announce the result - the mass of fuel tanks is significantly higher than the mass of the solar system.

It is possible to reduce the fuel supply by increasing the speed at which the engine ejects the working fluid, gas, plasma, or something else, up to a beam of elementary particles. Currently, plasma and ion thrusters are actively used for flights of automatic interplanetary stations within the solar system or for correction of the orbit of geostationary satellites, but they have a number of other disadvantages. In particular, all such engines give too little thrust, they cannot yet give the ship an acceleration of several meters per second squared.

MIPT Vice-Rector Oleg Gorshkov is one of the recognized experts in the field of plasma engines. Engines of the SPD series are produced at the Fakel Design Bureau, these are serial products for correcting the orbit of communication satellites.

In the 1950s, an engine project was being developed that would use momentum nuclear explosion(project Orion), but it is far from being a ready-made solution for interstellar flights. Even less developed is the design of the engine, which uses the magnetohydrodynamic effect, that is, it accelerates due to interaction with interstellar plasma. Theoretically, the spacecraft could "suck" the plasma in and throw it back to create jet thrust, but there is another problem here.

How to survive?

Interstellar plasma is primarily protons and helium nuclei, if we consider heavy particles. When moving at speeds of the order of hundreds of thousands of kilometers per second, all these particles acquire energy in megaelectronvolts or even tens of megaelectronvolts - the same amount as the products of nuclear reactions have. The density of the interstellar medium is about one hundred thousand ions per cubic meter, which means that in a second square meter ship skin will receive about 10 13 protons with energies of tens of MeV.

One electron volt, eV,― this is the energy that an electron acquires when flying from one electrode to another with a potential difference of one volt. Light quanta have such energy, and ultraviolet quanta with higher energy are already capable of damaging DNA molecules. Radiation or particles with energies in megaelectronvolts accompanies nuclear reactions and, in addition, is itself capable of causing them.

Such irradiation corresponds to an absorbed energy (assuming that all the energy is absorbed by the skin) of tens of joules. Moreover, this energy will come not just in the form of heat, but may be partially spent on initiating nuclear reactions in the material of the ship with the formation of short-lived isotopes: in other words, the skin will become radioactive.

Part of the incident protons and helium nuclei can be deflected to the side magnetic field, it is possible to protect oneself from induced radiation and secondary radiation by a complex shell of many layers, but these problems also have not yet been solved. In addition, the fundamental difficulties of the form “what material will be least destroyed by irradiation” at the stage of servicing the ship in flight will turn into particular problems - “how to unscrew four bolts by 25 in a compartment with a background of fifty millisieverts per hour.”

Recall that during the last repair of the Hubble telescope, the astronauts at first failed to unscrew the four bolts that fastened one of the cameras. After conferring with Earth, they changed the torque-limiting wrench to a regular one and applied a rough physical strength. The bolts started to move, the camera was successfully replaced. If the stuck bolt had been torn off at the same time, the second expedition would have cost half a billion US dollars. Or it wouldn't have happened at all.

Are there workarounds?

In science fiction (often more fantasy than science), interstellar travel is accomplished through "subspace tunnels". Formally, Einstein's equations, which describe the geometry of space-time depending on the mass and energy distributed in this space-time, do allow something similar - only the estimated energy costs are even more depressing than the estimates of the amount rocket fuel for the flight to Proxima Centauri. Not only is a lot of energy needed, but also the energy density must be negative.

The question of whether it is possible to create a stable, large and energetically possible "wormhole" is tied to fundamental questions about the structure of the Universe as a whole. One of the unsolved physical problems is the lack of gravity in the so-called Standard Model - a theory that describes the behavior of elementary particles and three of the four fundamental physical interactions. The vast majority of physicists are rather skeptical about the fact that in quantum theory gravity has room for interstellar "hyperspace jumps," but strictly speaking, no one forbids trying to find a workaround for flying to the stars.

Korznikov calculates that at a speed of more than 0.1 C, the spacecraft will not have time to change its flight path and avoid a collision. He believes that at sublight speed the spacecraft will collapse before reaching the target. In his opinion, interstellar travel is possible only at significantly lower speeds (up to 0.01 C). From 1950-60s. in the United States, a spacecraft with a nuclear-pulse rocket engine was developed to explore interplanetary space "Orion".

Interstellar flight is a journey between the stars of manned vehicles or automatic stations. According to the director of the Ames Research Center (NASA) Simon P. Warden, the project of an engine for flights into deep space can be developed within 15-20 years.

Let the flight there and the flight back consist of three phases: uniformly accelerated acceleration, flight at a constant speed and uniformly accelerated deceleration. Let the spaceship move half the way with unit acceleration, and slow down the other half with the same acceleration (). Then the ship turns around and repeats the stages of acceleration and deceleration.

Not all types of engines are suitable for interstellar flight. Calculations show that with the help of the space system considered in this paper, it is possible to reach the star Alpha Centauri ... in about 10 years. As one of the solutions to the problem, it is proposed to use elementary particles moving at light or near-light speed as the working substance of the rocket.

What is the speed of modern spacecraft?

The exhaust velocity of the particles is between 15 and 35 kilometers per second. Therefore, ideas arose to supply interstellar ships with energy from external source. On this moment this project is not feasible: the engine must have an exhaust velocity of 0.073 s (specific impulse 2 million seconds), while its thrust must reach 1570 N (that is, 350 pounds).

The collision with interstellar dust will occur at near-light speeds and will resemble microexplosions in terms of physical impact. In science fiction works, interstellar travel methods are often mentioned, based on moving faster than the speed of light in a vacuum. The largest crew consisted of 8 cosmonauts (it included 1 woman), who launched on October 30, 1985 on the spacecraft reusable"Challenger".

The distance to the nearest star (Proxima Centauri) is about 4.243 light years, that is, about 268 thousand times the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Starship flight has a significant place in science fiction.

In this situation, the flight time in the earth's reference system will be approximately 12 years, while according to the clock on the ship, 7.3 years will pass. The suitability of various types of propulsion for interstellar flight was considered in particular at a meeting of the British Interplanetary Society in 1973 by Dr. Tony Martin.

In the course of the work, projects were proposed for large and small starships (“ships of generations”), capable of reaching the star Alpha Centauri in 1800 and 130 years, respectively. In 1971, in a report by G. Marx at a symposium in Byurakan, it was proposed to use X-ray lasers for interstellar flights. In 1985, R. Forward proposed the design of an interstellar probe accelerated by microwave energy.

Cosmic speed limit

The main component of the mass of modern rockets is the mass of fuel required for the rocket to accelerate. If it is possible in some way to use the environment surrounding the rocket as a working fluid and fuel, it is possible to significantly reduce the mass of the rocket and achieve high speeds of movement due to this.

In the 1960s, Bussard proposed the design of an interstellar ramjet engine (MPRE). The interstellar medium consists mainly of hydrogen. In 1994, Jeffrey Landis proposed a project for an interstellar ion probe, which would be powered by a laser beam at the station.

The rocket ship designed by the Daedalus project turned out to be so huge that it would have had to be built in outer space. One of the disadvantages interstellar ships is the need to carry the power system with you, which increases the mass and, accordingly, reduces the speed. So an electric rocket engine has a characteristic speed of 100 km/s, which is too slow to fly to distant stars in a reasonable amount of time.

It began in 1957, when the first satellite, Sputnik-1, was launched in the USSR. Since then, people have managed to visit, and unmanned space probes have visited all the planets, with the exception of. Satellites orbiting the Earth have become part of our lives. Thanks to them, millions of people have the opportunity to watch TV (see the article ""). The figure shows how part of the spacecraft returns to Earth using a parachute.

rockets

The history of space exploration begins with rockets. The first rockets were used for bombing during the Second World War. In 1957, a rocket was created that delivered Sputnik-1 into space. Most of the rocket is occupied by fuel tanks. Only the upper part of the rocket, called payload. The Ariane-4 rocket has three separate sections with fuel tanks. They are called rocket stages. Each stage pushes the rocket a certain distance, after which, when empty, it separates. As a result, only the payload remains from the rocket. The first stage carries 226 tons of liquid fuel. Fuel and two boosters create the huge mass necessary for takeoff. The second stage separates at an altitude of 135 km. The third stage of the rocket is hers, working on liquid and nitrogen. Fuel here burns out in about 12 minutes. As a result, only the payload remains from the European Space Agency's Ariane-4 rocket.

In the 1950s-1960s. The USSR and the USA competed in space exploration. Vostok was the first manned spacecraft. The Saturn V rocket carried humans to the moon for the first time.

Missiles of the 1950s-/960s:

1. "Satellite"

2. Vanguard

3. "Juno-1"

4. "East"

5. "Mercury-Atlant"

6. "Gemini-Titan-2"

8. "Saturn-1B"

9. "Saturn-5"

space speeds

To get into space, the rocket must go beyond. If its speed is insufficient, it will simply fall to the Earth, due to the action of the force. The speed required to go into space is called first cosmic speed. It is 40,000 km/h. In orbit, the spacecraft circles the Earth with orbital speed. The orbital speed of a ship depends on its distance from the Earth. When a spaceship flies in orbit, it essentially just falls, but it cannot fall, because it loses height just as much as the earth's surface goes down under it, rounding.

space probes

Probes are unmanned space vehicles sent over long distances. They have visited every planet except Pluto. The probe can fly to its destination long years. When he flies to the right celestial body, then goes into orbit around it and sends the extracted information to Earth. Miriner-10, the only probe that has visited. Pioneer 10 became the first space probe to leave the solar system. It will reach the nearest star in more than a million years.

Some probes are designed to land on the surface of another planet, or they are equipped with landers that are dropped onto the planet. The descent vehicle can collect soil samples and deliver them to Earth for research. In 1966, he landed on the surface of the moon for the first time. spacecraft- Luna-9 probe. After landing, it opened up like a flower and started filming.

satellites

A satellite is an unmanned vehicle that is placed into orbit, usually the earth. The satellite has a specific task - for example, to monitor, transmit a television image, explore mineral deposits: there are even spy satellites. The satellite moves in orbit at orbital speed. In the picture you see a picture of the mouth of the Humber River (England), taken by Landset from Earth orbit. "Landset" can "consider areas on Earth with an area of ​​​​as little as 1 square. m.

The station is the same satellite, but designed for the work of people on board. A spacecraft with a crew and cargo can dock to the station. So far, only three long-term stations have been operating in space: the American Skylab and the Russian Salyut and Mir. Skylab was launched into orbit in 1973. Three crews worked in succession on its board. The station ceased to exist in 1979.

Orbital stations play a huge role in studying the effect of weightlessness on the human body. Stations of the future, such as Freedom, which the Americans are now building with contributions from Europe, Japan, and Canada, will be used for very long-term experiments or for industrial production in space.

When an astronaut leaves the station or spacecraft outer space he puts on spacesuit. Inside the spacesuit is artificially created, equal to atmospheric. The inner layers of the suit are cooled by liquid. Devices monitor the pressure and oxygen content inside. The glass of the helmet is very durable, it can withstand the impact of small stones - micrometeorites.