Introduction - page 2

· Laser weapons - page 2-4

Accelerator (beam weapon) - page 4-5

· Infrasonic weapons –p. 5-6

RF weapons - pages 6-7

· Geophysical weapons - pp. 7-10

· Gene weapons - pp.10-12

· Annihilation weapons - pp. 12-13

New types of non-lethal weapons - pp. 13-15

· Means of information warfare - pp. 15-17

Conclusion - page 18

Literature - page 19

Introduction

general characteristics weapons

on new physical principles

Along with the development of traditional weapons in many countries great attention given to work on the creation unconventional weapons or, as it is more common to say, weapons based on new physical principles.

There is the following definition of this weapon. Weapon based on new physical principles (ONFP) is a type of weapon based on qualitatively new or previously unused physical, biological and other principles of action and technical solutions based on advances in new fields of knowledge and new technologies. ONFPs include:

laser weapons

Laser weapon (LO) is a type of directed energy weapon based on the use of electromagnetic radiation from high-energy lasers. The striking effect of LO is determined mainly by the thermomechanical and shock-pulse effect of the laser beam on the target.

Depending on the flux density laser radiation these effects can lead to temporary blinding of a person or to the destruction of the body of a rocket, aircraft, etc. In the latter case, as a result of the thermal effect of a laser beam, the shell of the target object is melted or evaporated. When enough high density energy in the pulsed mode, along with the thermal effect, there is a shock effect due to the appearance of a plasma.

Of all the variety of lasers, solid-state, chemical, free-electron, nuclear-pumped X-ray lasers, etc. are considered the most suitable for laser weapons. solving the problems of destroying ICBMs, SLBMs, operational tactical, cruise missiles and aircraft, suppressing optoelectronic air defense systems, as well as protecting aircraft carriers of nuclear weapons from guided missiles with any guidance systems. In recent years, there has been significant progress associated with the transition from lamp pumping of active elements to pumping with laser diodes. In addition, the ability to generate radiation in TTL at several wavelengths makes it possible to use this type of lasers not only in the power, but also in the information channel of the weapon system (for detecting, recognizing targets and accurately aiming the power laser beam at them).



Currently, work is underway in the United States to create aviation complex laser weapons. Initially, it is planned to work out a demonstration model for the Boeing 747 transport aircraft and, after completion of preliminary studies, go to 2004. to the full development stage.

The complex is based on an oxygen-iodine laser with an output radiation power of several megawatts. According to experts, it will have a range of up to 400 km.

Work on the study of the possibility of creating X-ray lasers does not stop. Such lasers are distinguished by high X-ray energy (100–10000 thousand times higher than that of lasers in the optical range) and the ability to penetrate through significant thicknesses of various materials (unlike conventional lasers, whose beams are reflected from obstacles). It is known that a laser device pumped by X-rays from a low-power nuclear explosion was tested during underground tests. nuclear weapons. Such a laser operates in the X-ray range with a wavelength of 0.0014 μm and generates a radiation pulse with a duration of several nanoseconds. Unlike conventional, in particular, chemical lasers, when targets are hit by coherent beams due to thermal effects, an X-ray laser ensures hitting a target due to a shock pulse effect, leading to evaporation of the target surface material and its subsequent spalling.

Laser weapons are distinguished by stealth action (no flame, smoke, sound), high accuracy, almost instantaneous action (delivery speed is equal to the speed of light). Its use is possible within line of sight. The damaging effect is reduced in fog, rain, snowfall, with smoke and dust in the atmosphere.

As of the middle of the 1990s, tactical laser weapons were considered the most developed, which ensured the defeat of optoelectronic means and human organs of vision.

Accelerator (beam) weapon

This weapon is based on the use of highly focused beams of charged or neutral particles generated by various types accelerators, both ground-based and space-based.

The defeat of various objects and a person is determined by radiation (ionizing) and thermomechanical effects. Beam agents can destroy hull shells aircraft, to hit ballistic missiles and space objects by incapacitating on-board electronic equipment. It is assumed that with the help of a powerful flow of electrons, it is possible to detonate ammunition with explosives, melt the nuclear charges of the warheads of the ammunition.

To impart high energies to the electrons generated by the accelerator, powerful electric sources are created, and to increase their “range”, it is supposed to apply not single, but group impacts of 10–20 pulses each. The initial impulses will, as it were, break through a tunnel in the air, through which the subsequent ones will reach the target. Neutral hydrogen atoms are considered very promising particles for beam weapons, since the beams of its particles will not be bent in the geomagnetic field and will not be repelled inside the beam itself, thereby not increasing the divergence angle.

Work on accelerating weapons based on charged particle (electron) beams is being carried out in the interests of creating air defense systems for ships, as well as for mobile tactical land installations.

infrasonic weapons

Infrasonic weapons are one of the types of ONFP based on the use of directed radiation of powerful infrasonic vibrations. Prototypes of such weapons already exist and have been repeatedly considered as a possible subject for testing.

Of practical interest are oscillations with a frequency from tenths and even hundredths to units of hertz. Infrasound is characterized by low absorption in various media, as a result of which infrasonic waves in air, in water and in the earth's crust can propagate over long distances and penetrate concrete and metal barriers.

According to studies conducted in some countries, infrasonic vibrations can affect the central nervous system and digestive organs, causing paralysis, vomiting and spasms, leading to general malaise and pain in internal organs, and at higher levels at frequencies of a few hertz - to dizziness, nausea, loss of consciousness, and sometimes to blindness and even death. Infrasonic weapons can also cause people to panic, lose control of themselves and an overwhelming desire to hide from the source of damage. Certain frequencies can affect the middle ear, causing vibrations, which in turn cause sensations akin to motion sickness, seasickness. The range of its action is determined by the radiated power, the value of the carrier frequency, the width of the radiation pattern and the conditions for the propagation of acoustic vibrations in a real environment.

According to press reports, work on the creation of infrasonic weapons is being completed in the United States. transformation electrical energy in low-frequency sound occurs with the help of piezoelectric crystals, the shape of which changes under the influence of an electric current. Prototypes of infrasonic weapons have already been used in Yugoslavia. The so-called "acoustic bomb" produced sound vibrations of very low frequency.

RF weapons

In recent years, research into the biological effects of electromagnetic radiation has intensified. The main place in research is given to the impact on people of electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency range from extremely low (f = 3-30 Hz) to ultrahigh

(f = 3-30 GHz). The study of these frequency ranges of electromagnetic radiation can be the basis for the creation of a new type of ONPP - radio frequency weapons.

Radio frequency weapons in the microwave frequency range are sometimes called microwave or microwave weapons. In this case, first of all, the effect of radiation on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems is studied, since they regulate the activity of all other organs and systems, determine the state of the psyche and human behavior. It has now been established that when acting on the central nervous system, the greatest biological effect is caused by radiations that, in their parameters, correspond to the electromagnetic fields of the brain and coordinate the activity of its centers. In this regard, a detailed study of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation of human brain centers is being carried out and the possibility of developing means of suppressing and stimulating their activity is being investigated.

As a result of experiments carried out in the USA, it was determined that with a single exposure of a person to radiation with certain frequencies in the radio frequency range from 30 to 30,000 MHz (meter and decimeter waves) at an intensity of more than 10 MW / cm2, the following are noted: headache, weakness, depression, increased irritability, fear, impaired ability to make decisions, memory impairment.

Exposure to the brain of radio waves in the frequency range of 0.3–3 GHz (decimeter waves) at an intensity of up to 2 MW / cm2 causes a sensation of whistling, buzzing, buzzing, clicking, disappearing with appropriate shielding. It has also been established that powerful electromagnetic radiation can cause severe burns and blinding.

According to scientists, with the help of electromagnetic radiation, it is possible to remotely and purposefully influence a person, which makes it possible to use radio-frequency weapons to carry out psychological sabotage and disrupt the command and control of enemy troops. For your troops electromagnetic radiation can be used to increase resilience to the stress that occurs during combat operations.

With the help of microwave weapons, it will be possible to disrupt the operation of any electronic systems. Promising magnetrons and klystrons with a power of up to 1 GW using phased array antennas will make it possible to disrupt the functioning of airfields, missile launch sites, centers and command posts, and disable command and control systems for troops and weapons.

With the adoption by the armies of the opposing sides of such means as powerful mobile microwave generators of all types based, it will be possible to block weapons systems opposing side. This puts microwaves in the category of the highest priority weapons of the future.

Geophysical weapons

Geophysical weapons are understood as weapons whose destructive effect is based on the use of natural phenomena and processes caused by artificial means for military purposes. Depending on the environment in which these processes occur, it is divided into atmospheric, lithospheric, hydrospheric, biospheric and ozone. The means by which geophysical factors are stimulated may be different, but the energy expended by these means is always much less than the energy released by the forces of nature as a result of the induced geophysical process.

Atmospheric (weather) weapons are the most studied type of geophysical weapons today. In relation to atmospheric weapons, its damaging factors are various kinds atmospheric processes and related weather and climate conditions, on which life may depend, both in individual regions and on the entire planet. To date, it has been established that many active reagents, for example, silver iodide, solid carbon dioxide and other substances, being dispersed in clouds, are capable of causing heavy rains over large areas. On the other hand, reagents such as propane, carbon dioxide, lead iodide, provide mist dispersion. Spraying of these substances can be carried out using ground-based generators and on-board devices installed on aircraft and missiles.

In areas where the moisture content of the air is high, the above method can cause heavy rains and thereby change water regime rivers, lakes, swamps, significantly impair the patency of roads and terrain, and cause floods in low-lying areas. On the other hand, if artificial precipitation is provided on the outskirts of areas with a large deficit of moisture, a significant amount of the latter can be removed from the atmosphere and cause drought in these areas.

Lithospheric weapons are based on the use of the energy of the lithosphere, that is, the outer sphere of the "solid" earth, which includes the earth's crust and the upper layer of the mantle. In this case, the damaging effect manifests itself in the form of such catastrophic phenomena as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, and the movement of geological formations. The source of the energy released in this case is tension in tectonically dangerous zones.

Conducting experiments by a number of researchers showed that in some seismically hazardous regions of the Earth, using ground or underground nuclear explosions of relatively low power, earthquakes can be initiated, which can lead to catastrophic consequences.

Hydrospheric weapons are based on the use of the energy of the hydrosphere for military purposes. The hydrosphere is a discontinuous water shell of the Earth, located between the atmosphere and the solid earth's crust (lithosphere). It is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters.

The use of the energy of the hydrosphere for military purposes is possible when hydro resources (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes) and hydraulic structures are affected not only by nuclear explosions, but also by large charges of conventional explosives. The damaging factors of hydrospheric weapons will be strong waves and flooding.

Biospheric weapons (environmental) are based on a catastrophic change in the biosphere. The biosphere covers part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere, which are interconnected by complex biochemical cycles of matter and energy migration. Currently, there are chemical and biological agents, the use of which over vast areas can destroy the vegetation cover, the surface fertile soil layer, food supplies, etc.

Artificially caused soil erosion, death of vegetation, irreparable damage to flora and fauna due to the use of various kinds chemicals, incendiary weapons can lead to a catastrophic change in the biosphere and, as a result, mass destruction of people.

Ozone weapons are based on the use of ultraviolet radiation energy emitted by the Sun. The shielding ozone layer extends at an altitude of 10 to 50 km with a maximum concentration at an altitude of 20–25 km and a sharp decrease up and down. Under normal conditions, the Earth's surface reaches an insignificant part of the UVR c = 0.01-0.2 μm. Its main part, passing through the atmosphere, is absorbed by ozone, dispersed by air molecules and dust particles. Ozone is one of the most powerful oxidizing agents, kills microorganisms, is poisonous. Its destruction is accelerated in the presence of a number of gaseous impurities, especially bromine, chlorine, fluorine and their compounds, which can be delivered to the ozone layer by rockets, aircraft and other means.

Partial destruction of the ozone layer over the territory of the enemy, the artificial creation of temporary "windows" in the protective ozone layer can lead to damage to the population, animals and flora in the planned area globe due to exposure to high doses of hard UV radiation and other radiation of cosmic origin.

Despite the signing by the majority of UN member countries of the 1978 Convention "On the Prohibition of Military and Any Other Hostile Use of Means of Influencing the Environment" and the possibility of leading industrial states to carry out global monitoring of the physical parameters of the environment, a number of large corporations and firms developed countries(primarily the United States, Japan and Great Britain) in recent years have significantly expanded the scope of research on the active impact on the human environment, as well as on processes that can have a significant impact on supporting space systems (intelligence, communications, navigation).

Thus, an analysis of recent studies in the field of geophysical impact on the environment indicates the likelihood of the appearance in the 21st century of fundamentally new approaches to the technology of creating certain types of geophysical weapons.

Gene weapons

Scientific and technical achievements in the field of biotechnology in recent years have made it possible to enter a new direction in the development of this science, called evolutionary molecular ("gene") engineering. It is based on the technology of reproduction in laboratory conditions of the processes of adaptive evolution of genetic material. The application of this approach ensures the creation of flexible technologies for targeted selection and reliable production of proteins with desired properties. According to experts, Genetic Engineering creates the prerequisites for the development of fundamentally new methods of working with DNA and for obtaining a new generation of biotechnological products. However, it should be taken into account that the use of the results genetic research is not limited only to the possibility of obtaining modified or new types of microbes that most fully meet the requirements of biological warfare. According to foreign experts, means of destroying the human genetic apparatus or "gene weapons" can also be created. It is understood as substances of chemical or biological origin that can cause mutations (structural changes) in genes in the human body, accompanied by a violation of health or programmed behavior of people.

In recent years, in the field of biotechnology, it has already been possible to develop methods for obtaining a wide range of physiologically active proteins that affect pain sensitivity and psychosomatic reactions in mammals. Research on such bioregulators is in progress. various stages up to human clinical trials.

A special type of genetic weapon is the so-called ethnic weapon - a weapon with a selective genetic factor. It is designed to defeat primarily certain ethnic and racial groups of the population. The possibility of developing and subsequently using such weapons comes from the genetic differences of different races and ethnic groups of people.

Animals, plants, soil microflora, specific for a given region of the Earth and components important condition human existence in the area.

As you know, in the organisms of certain groups of people there are genetically determined biochemical features that depend on environmental factors and, above all, food and infectious agents. Under the influence of such regional environmental factors, various biological structures were formed, which were fixed hereditarily and passed on to subsequent generations of people. It is obvious that such intraspecific differences can be a direct object of the purposeful chemical or biological effect of ethnic weapons on cells, tissues, organs, systems of people. This can be one of the means of genocide and a weapon of sterilization (deprivation of the ability to bear children).

Science fiction films give us a clear idea of ​​the arsenals of the future - these are various blasters, lightsabers, subsonic weapons and ion cannons. Meanwhile, modern armies, like three hundred years ago, have to rely mainly on bullets and gunpowder. Will there be a breakthrough in military affairs in the near future, should we expect the appearance of weapons operating on new physical principles?

Story

Work on the creation of such systems is being carried out in laboratories around the world, however, scientists and engineers cannot yet boast of special success. Military experts believe that they will be able to participate in real hostilities no earlier than in a few decades.

Among the most promising systems, the authors often mention ion guns or beam weapons. Its principle of operation is simple: to destroy objects, the kinetic energy of electrons, protons, ions or neutral atoms, accelerated to enormous speeds, is used. In fact, this system is a particle accelerator put into military service.

Beam weapons are a real brainchild of the Cold War, which, along with combat lasers and interceptor missiles, was intended to destroy Soviet warheads in space. The creation of ion cannons was carried out as part of the famous Reagan Star Wars program. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, such developments ceased, however, today interest in this topic is returning.

A bit of theory

The essence of the work of beam weapons is that the particles are accelerated in the accelerator to enormous speeds and turn into a kind of miniature "projectiles" with enormous penetrating power.

The destruction of objects occurs due to:

  • electromagnetic impulse;
  • exposure to hard radiation;
  • mechanical destruction.

The powerful energy flow that particles carry has a strong thermal effect on materials and construction. It can create significant mechanical loads in them, disrupt the molecular structure of living tissue. It is assumed that beam weapons will be capable of destroying aircraft hulls, disabling their electronics, carrying out remote detonation of a warhead, and even melting the nuclear "stuffing" of strategic missiles.

To increase the damaging effect, it is supposed to apply not single blows, but whole series of pulses with a high frequency. A serious advantage of beam weapons is their speed, which is due to the huge speed of the emitted particles. To destroy objects at a considerable distance, the ion gun needs a powerful source of energy such as a nuclear reactor.

One of the main disadvantages of beam weapons is their limited effect in earth's atmosphere. Particles interact with gas atoms, losing their energy in the process. It is assumed that under such conditions, the range of destruction of the ion gun will not exceed several tens of kilometers, so for now there is no talk of shelling targets on the Earth's surface from orbit.

The solution to this problem can be the use of a rarefied air channel, through which charged particles will move without energy loss. However, all this is only theoretical calculations, which no one has tested in practice.

Now the most promising field of application of beam weapons is considered to be anti-missile defense and defeat spacecraft enemy. Moreover, for orbital impact systems, the use of not charged particles, but neutral atoms, which are preliminarily accelerated in the form of ions, looks most interesting. The nuclei of hydrogen or its isotope, deuterium, are usually used. In the recharging chamber, they are converted into neutral atoms. When they hit the target, they are easily ionized, and the depth of penetration into the material increases many times over.

The creation of combat systems operating within the earth's atmosphere still looks unlikely. The Americans considered beam weapons as possible remedy to destroy anti-ship missiles, but this idea was later abandoned.

How the ion gun was made

The emergence of nuclear weapons led to an unprecedented arms race between the Soviet Union and the United States. By the mid-1960s, the number of nuclear warheads in the arsenals of the superpowers numbered in the tens of thousands, and intercontinental ballistic missiles became the main means of delivering them. Further increase in their number did not make practical sense. To gain an advantage in this deadly race, the rivals had to figure out how to protect their own facilities from missile attack enemy. This is how the concept of anti-missile defense was born.

On March 23, 1983, US President Ronald Reagan announced the launch of the Strategic defense initiative". Its goal was to be a guaranteed defense of the US territory from a Soviet missile attack, and the instrument of implementation was to gain complete dominance in space.

Most of the elements of this system were planned to be placed in orbit. A significant part of them were most powerful weapon developed on new physical principles. For destruction Soviet missiles and warheads intended to use nuclear-pumped lasers, atomic buckshot, conventional chemical lasers, railguns, as well as beam weapons mounted on heavy orbital stations.

I must say that the study of the damaging effect of high-energy protons, ions or neutral particles began even earlier - approximately in the mid-70s.

Initially, work in this direction was more of a preventive nature - American intelligence reported that similar experiments were being actively conducted in the Soviet Union. It was believed that the USSR had advanced much further in this matter, and could put the concept of beam weapons into practice. The American engineers and scientists themselves did not believe too much in the possibility of creating particle-shooting guns.

Work in the field of creating beam weapons was supervised by the famous DARPA - the Pentagon Advanced Research Office.

They worked in two main directions:

  1. Creation of ground-based strike installations designed to destroy enemy missiles (ABM) and aircraft (Air Defense) within the atmosphere. The American army acted as the customer of these researches. A test site with a particle accelerator was built to test prototypes;
  2. Development of space-based combat installations placed on the Shuttle-type spacecraft to destroy objects in orbit. It was planned to create several prototype weapons, and then test them in space, destroying one or more old satellites.

It is curious that in terrestrial conditions it was planned to use charged particles, and in orbit to shoot with a beam of neutral hydrogen atoms.

The possibility of "space" use of beam weapons aroused genuine interest among the leadership of the SDI program. Several research works were carried out that confirmed the theoretical ability of such installations to solve missile defense problems.

Project Antigone

It turned out that the use of a beam of charged particles is associated with certain difficulties. After leaving the installation, due to the action of the Coulomb forces, they begin to repel each other, resulting in not one powerful shot, but many weakened impulses. In addition, the trajectories of charged particles are curved under the influence of the earth's magnetic field. These problems were solved by adding a so-called reload chamber to the design, which was located after the upper stage. In it, the ions turned into neutral atoms, and in the future they no longer influenced each other.

The project to create beam weapons was withdrawn from the Star Wars program and received its own name - "Antigone". This was probably done in order to preserve the developments even after the closure of the SDI, the provocative nature of which did not cause much doubt among the army leadership.

The overall management of the project was carried out by specialists from the US Air Force. Work on the creation of an orbital beam gun went quite briskly, several suborbital rockets with prototype boosters were even launched. However, this idyll did not last long. In the mid-1980s, new political winds began to blow: a period of detente began between the USSR and the USA. And when the developers approached the stage of creating prototypes, the Soviet Union ordered a long life, and further work on missile defense lost all meaning.

At the end of the 80s, Antigonus was transferred to the naval department, and the reasons for this decision remained unknown. Around 1993, the first draft designs of ship-based missile defense based on beam weapons were created. But when it turned out that huge energy was needed to destroy air targets, the sailors quickly lost interest in such exoticism. Apparently, they did not much like the prospect of carrying additional barges with power plants behind the ships. And the cost of such installations clearly did not add enthusiasm.

Beam installations for Star Wars

It is curious how exactly they planned to use beam weapons in outer space. The main emphasis was placed on the radiation effect of a particle beam during sharp deceleration in the material of the object. It was believed that the resulting radiation is guaranteed to disable the electronics of missiles and warheads. The physical destruction of targets was also considered possible, but it required a greater duration and power of impact. The developers proceeded from the calculations that beam weapons in space are effective at distances of several thousand kilometers.

In addition to destroying electronics and physically destroying warheads, they wanted to use beam weapons to determine targets. The fact is that when entering orbit, the rocket launches dozens and hundreds of false targets, which on the radar screens are no different from real warheads. If such a cluster of objects is irradiated with a particle beam of even low power, then by emission it is possible to determine which of the targets are false, and which ones should be fired upon.

Is it possible to create an ion gun

Theoretically, it is quite possible to create a beam weapon: the processes occurring in such facilities have long been well known to physicists. Another thing is to create a prototype of such a device, suitable for real use on the battlefield. Not without reason, even the developers of the Star Wars program assumed the appearance of ion cannons no earlier than 2025.

The main implementation problem is the energy source, which, on the one hand, must be quite powerful, on the other hand, have more or less sane dimensions and not be too expensive. The foregoing is especially relevant for systems designed to operate in space.

Until we have powerful and compact reactors, projects for beam anti-missile defense, as well as combat space lasers, are best shelved.

The prospects for ground or air use of beam weapons seem even less likely. The reason is the same - a power plant cannot be installed on a plane or tank. In addition, when using such installations in the atmosphere, it will be necessary to compensate for the losses associated with the absorption of energy by air gases.

In the domestic media, materials often appear about the creation of Russian beam weapons, allegedly possessing monstrous destructive power. Naturally, such developments are top-secret, so they are not shown to anyone. As a rule, these are the next pseudo-scientific nonsense such as torsion radiation or psychotropic weapons.

It is possible that research in this area is still ongoing, but until fundamental issues are resolved, there is no reason to hope for a breakthrough.

If you have any questions - leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them.

Beam weapons hit their target with a stream of relativistic atoms or subatomic particles, resulting in damage from both direct heat and intense exposure to radiation. It requires long and bulky accelerators, which limits its placement to large spaceships or fixed installations. Particle beams pose a radiation hazard to all living beings and not to radiation-resistant electronics in the vicinity of the impact point, but in the atmosphere and near the path of the beam. Electronic weapons Electron beams are most often used in the atmosphere as generators of EMP and electromagnetic interference. Highly relativistic electrons have a fairly large range in air, and ionization, heating, and partial evacuation of the beam channel can significantly increase it. The current arising in the beam intensely compresses it, but the scattering of electrons by air molecules greatly reduces the range of the weapon. In the earth's atmosphere at sea level, it does not exceed a few hundred meters. At high altitudes or in a thin atmosphere, it expands significantly, sometimes reaching several kilometers. An electron beam in air looks like a geometrically straight blue-white lightning surrounded by a blue halo of Cherenkov radiation from scattered electrons of the primary beam. Scattered electrons and bremsstrahlung x-rays create a high level of radiation both near the point of impact and in the immediate vicinity of the beam path.
Electron beam weapons have a minimum length of over a meter and a range of about 200 meters in air at sea level on Earth. Larger accelerators can accelerate electrons to higher energies and have a longer range. The upper limit is two kilometers for accelerators over ten meters in length. Electron accelerators are usually long linear structures. But electron beams are easily controlled using magnets, and this allows you to quickly redirect the beam without turning the entire accelerator. In the vacuum of space, highly charged electrons repel each other and the beam rapidly loses focus. In addition, electrons are deflected by the planetary magnetic field and magnetic fields V solar wind, as a result of which their trajectories become chaotic. Proton guns Proton guns are usually used in a vacuum. Protons are preliminarily accelerated to ultrarelativistic speeds. Once the beam exits the accelerator, it is neutralized by introducing an electron beam to eliminate the Coulomb scattering. This avoids beam defocusing due to repulsion and neutralizes the effect of external magnetic fields. The scattering of a neutralized proton beam is determined by the thermal velocity of the protons. Neutralization inevitably heats the beam due to the energy of recombination with electrons, and after leaving the accelerator, they begin to move away from each other at a speed of 15 km/s. The higher the proton energy, the longer the beam scattering time. Proton accelerators are usually circular, from several hundred meters to several tens of kilometers in diameter. Even the largest proton accelerators do not give them enough energy to compete in range with X-ray lasers and, therefore, X-ray lasers dominate the niche of long-range energy weapons. Proton weapons are usually used in combat in planetary orbits, as well as for strikes on the planetary surface. Like electron beams, proton beams can be manipulated with magnets until neutralized. In addition, the beam can exit from multiple ports around the perimeter of the accelerating ring, allowing for quick retargeting of weapons. Rays of relativistic protons have an extraordinary penetrating power. Typically, they travel through a meter or so of solid or liquid matter before creating a shower of muons, which themselves can penetrate many meters of solid or liquid matter. This cascading radiation creates an extremely high level of radiation that destroys all forms. biological life and even unprotected electronics. The only defenses against proton weapons are thick layers of radiation-inert materials or radiation-resistant control systems. Fortunately, defenses that are effective against protons are more effective against any other weapon. In the atmosphere, proton beams lose energy for ionization and direct collisions with the nuclei of air atoms, which limits their range to several hundred meters in the earth's atmosphere. This is comparable to the range in the air electron beams, but the electron accelerator is much more compact. Efficient plasma accelerators make it possible to create much more compact proton and electron beam accelerators. Various means for cooling the proton beam after neutralization can significantly increase the radius of its action. Since wake plasma accelerators are inefficient and poorly collimated, laser cooling is used to reduce the scattering of neutralized proton beams.
Exotic Particle Weapon Beams of accelerated neutrons are able to pass through several tens of centimeters of solid matter with little loss, but are quickly absorbed by any material containing hydrogen (including water, wax, oil, and biological tissues), heating it intensely. Neutron beams also create residual radioactivity if they encounter nuclei of heavy elements. The efficiency of a neutron beam slightly exceeds that of a proton beam, the range in air and the penetrating power are approximately the same. However, since neutrons are neutral particles, they cannot be accelerated. Muon beams can penetrate miles of air, giving them a very long range in the atmosphere. However, since muons are unstable particles, they completely decay after flying several tens of kilometers in any medium, which makes their use in space battles impossible. Modern technology can create low-intensity uncollimated neutron and muon beams. Usually such beams are used for research, but there is no known method for producing a highly concentrated, collimated, efficient beam suitable for use as a weapon.

Beam weapon

A powerful beam of charged particles (electrons, protons, ions) or a beam of neutral atoms can also be used as a weapon. Research on beam weapons began with work on the creation of a naval battle station to combat anti-ship missiles (ASMs). In this case, it was supposed to use a beam of charged particles that actively interact with air molecules, ionize and heat them. Expanding, heated air significantly reduces its density, which makes it possible for charged particles to spread further. A series of short pulses can form a kind of channel in the atmosphere, through which charged particles will propagate almost unhindered (a UV laser beam can also be used to "pierce the channel"). A pulsed electron beam with a particle energy of about 1 GeV and a current strength of several thousand amperes, propagating through an atmospheric channel, can hit a rocket at distances of 1–5 km. With a "shot" energy of 1-10 MJ, the rocket will receive mechanical damage, with an energy of about 0.1 MJ, a warhead may be detonated, and with an energy of 0.01 MJ, the electronic equipment of the rocket may be damaged.

However, the practical creation of space-based beam weapons encounters a number of problems that have not been solved even at the theoretical level, associated with a large beam divergence due to the Coulomb repulsive forces and with strong magnetic fields existing in space. The curvature of the trajectories of charged particles in these fields makes their use in beam weapon systems generally impossible. In naval combat, this is imperceptible, but at distances of thousands of kilometers, both effects become very significant. To create a space missile defense system, it is considered expedient to use beams of neutral atoms (hydrogen, deuterium), which are preliminarily accelerated in the form of ions in conventional accelerators.

A fast-flying hydrogen atom is a rather weakly bound system: it loses its electron when it collides with atoms on the target surface. But the fast proton formed in this case has a great penetrating power: it can hit the electronic "stuffing" of the rocket, and under certain conditions, further melt the nuclear "stuffing" of the warhead.

In accelerators developed at the Los Alamos Laboratory in the USA specifically for space anti-missile systems, negative hydrogen and tritium ions are used, which are accelerated by electromagnetic fields to speeds close to the speed of light, and then "neutralized" by passing through a thin layer of gas. Such a beam of neutral hydrogen or tritium atoms, penetrating deep into a rocket or satellite, heats the metal and disables electronic systems. But the same gas clouds created around a rocket or satellite can, in turn, turn a neutral beam of atoms into a beam of charged particles, from which it is not difficult to protect. The use of so-called powerful "fast-burning" accelerators (boosters) to accelerate ICBMs, which shorten the acceleration phase, and the choice of flat trajectories for missiles make the very idea of ​​using particle beams in missile defense systems very problematic.

A powerful beam of charged particles (electrons, protons, ions) or a beam of neutral atoms can also be used as a weapon. Research on beam weapons began with work on the creation of a naval battle station to combat anti-ship missiles (ASMs). In this case, it was supposed to use a beam of charged particles that actively interact with air molecules, ionize and heat them. Expanding, heated air significantly reduces its density, which makes it possible for charged particles to spread further. A series of short pulses can form a kind of channel in the atmosphere, through which charged particles will propagate almost unhindered (a UV laser beam can also be used to “pierce the channel”). A pulsed electron beam with a particle energy of about 1 GeV and a current strength of several thousand amperes, propagating through an atmospheric channel, can hit a rocket at a distance of 1-5 km. With a "shot" energy of 1-10 MJ, the rocket will receive mechanical damage, with an energy of about 0.D MJ, the warhead may be detonated, and with an energy of 0.01 MJ, the electronic equipment of the rocket may be damaged.

However, the practical creation of space-based beam weapons encounters a number of unsolved (even at the theoretical level) problems associated with a large beam divergence due to the Coulomb repulsive forces and strong magnetic fields existing in space. The curvature of the trajectories of charged particles in these fields makes their use in beam weapon systems generally impossible. In naval combat, this is imperceptible, but at distances of thousands of kilometers, both effects become very significant. To create a space missile defense system, it is considered expedient to use beams of neutral atoms (hydrogen, deuterium), which are preliminarily accelerated in the form of ions in conventional accelerators.

A fast-flying hydrogen atom is a rather weakly bound system: it loses its electron when it collides with atoms on the target surface. But the fast proton formed in this case has a great penetrating power: it can hit the electronic "stuffing" of the rocket, and under certain conditions even melt the nuclear "stuffing" of the warhead (52, 203).

The accelerators being developed at the US Los Alamos Laboratory specifically for space anti-missile systems use negative hydrogen and tritium ions, which are accelerated by electromagnetic fields to speeds close to the speed of light, and then "neutralized" by passing through a thin layer of gas. Such a beam of neutral hydrogen or tritium atoms, penetrating deep into a rocket or satellite, heats the metal and disables electronic systems. But the same gas clouds created around a rocket or satellite can, in turn, turn a neutral beam of atoms into a beam of charged particles, from which it is not difficult to protect. The use of so-called powerful "fast-burning" accelerators (boosters) to accelerate ICBMs, which shorten the acceleration phase, and the choice of flat trajectories for missiles make the very idea of ​​using particle beams in missile defense systems very problematic.

Since beam weapons are basically associated with electromagnetic accelerators and electrical energy concentrators, it can be assumed that the recent discovery of high-temperature superconductors will accelerate the development and improve the characteristics of these weapons (52, p. 204).

Acoustic emitters (radiators of mechanical vibrations: infrasonic, ultrasonic) present the same danger to the human body.

The emitter is technical device converting one type of energy into a specific type of radiation.

Sound is mechanical vibrations propagating in elastic media - gases, liquids and solids. From a physical point of view, sound is an alternating compression and rarefaction of the medium, propagating in all directions. Alternating compression and rarefaction in the air are called sound waves (51, p.13 - 15).

When a sound wave reaches a certain point. space, the particles of matter, which before that did not perform ordered movements, begin to oscillate. Any moving body, including an oscillating one, is capable of. do work, that is, it has energy. Therefore, the propagation of a sound wave is accompanied by the propagation of energy.

Human hearing organs are capable of perceiving sounds with a frequency of 15-20 vibrations per second to 16-20 thousand. Accordingly, mechanical vibrations with the indicated frequencies are called sound or acoustic (51, p. 16).

The main physical characteristics of any oscillatory movement are the period and amplitude of the oscillation, and in relation to sound, the frequency and intensity of the oscillations.

The period of oscillation is the time during which one complete oscillation occurs, when, for example, a swinging pendulum moves from the extreme left position to the extreme right and returns to its original position.

The oscillation frequency is the number of complete oscillations (periods) in one second. This value in international system units are called hertz (Hz). Frequency is one of the main characteristics by which we distinguish sounds. The higher the oscillation frequency, the higher "the sound we hear, that is, the sound has a higher tone.

We, humans, have access to sounds limited by the following frequency limits: not lower than 15-20 hertz and not higher than 16-20 thousand hertz. Below this limit is infrasound (less than 15 hertz), and above - ultrasound and hypersound, that is, 1.5-10 4 - 10 9 hertz and 10 9 - 10 13 hertz, respectively.

The human ear is most sensitive to sounds with a frequency of 2000 to 5000 hertz. The greatest hearing acuity is observed at the age of 15-20 years. Then hearing gets worse. In a person under 40 years of age, the highest sensitivity is in the region of 3000 hertz, from 40 to 60 years old - 2000 hertz, and over 60 years old - 1000 hertz. Within the range of up to 500 hertz, a person distinguishes between an increase or decrease in frequency by only one hertz. At higher frequencies, people are less susceptible to this slight change in frequency. So, for example, at a frequency of more than 2000 hertz, the human ear is able to distinguish one sound from another only when the difference in frequency is at least 5 hertz. If the difference is smaller, the sounds will be perceived as the same. However, there are no rules without exceptions. There are people who have unusually fine hearing. For example, a gifted musician may respond to change even to a fraction of a single vibration (51, 21-22).

The concept of wavelength is associated with period and frequency. The length of a sound wave is the distance between two successive concentrations or rarefications of the medium. Using the example of waves propagating on the surface of water, this is the distance between two crests (or troughs).

The second main characteristic is the amplitude of oscillations. This is the largest deviation from the equilibrium positions at harmonic vibrations, On the example of a pendulum, the amplitude is its maximum deviation from the equilibrium position to the extreme right or left position. The amplitude of the oscillations, as well as the frequency, determines the intensity (strength) of the sound. When sound waves propagate, individual particles of an elastic medium are successively displaced. This displacement is transmitted from particle to particle with some delay, the value of which depends on the inertial properties of the medium. The transfer of displacements from particle to particle is accompanied by a change in the distance between these particles, resulting in a change in pressure at each point of the medium. An acoustic wave carries a certain energy in the direction of its movement. Thanks to this, we hear the sound created by a source located at a certain distance from us. The more acoustic energy reaches the human ear, the louder the sound is heard. The strength of sound, or its intensity, is determined by the amount of acoustic energy flowing in one second through an area of ​​​​one square centimeter. Consequently, the intensity of acoustic waves depends on the magnitude of the acoustic pressure created by the sound source in the medium, which, in turn, is determined by the magnitude of the displacement of the particles of the medium caused by the source. In water, for example, even very small displacements create a high intensity of sound waves (51, pp. 22-23).

Observations of the health status of workers in noisy workshops have shown that under the influence of noise, the dynamics of the central nervous system and the functions of the autonomic nervous system are disturbed. Simply put, noise can increase blood pressure, speed up or slow down the pulse, lower the acidity of gastric juice, blood circulation in the brain, weaken memory, and reduce hearing acuity. Workers in noisy industries have more high percent diseases of the nervous and vascular systems, gastrointestinal tract.

One of the reasons for the negative impact of noise in that when we focus to hear better, our hearing aids are overdriven. A one-time overload is not terrible, but when we overstrain from day to day, from year to year, it does not go away without a trace (51, p26).

Doctors persistently continue to study the impact of noise on human health. For example, they found that when noise increases, the release of adrenaline increases. Adrenaline, in turn, affects the functioning of the heart and, in particular, promotes the release of free fatty acids into the blood. To do this, it is enough for a person to be briefly under the influence of noise with an intensity of 60-70 decibels. Noise over 90 decibels promotes a more active release of cortisone. And this, to a certain extent, weakens the ability of the liver to fight substances harmful to the body, including those that contribute to the occurrence of cancer.

It turned out that noise is also harmful to human vision. This conclusion was reached by a group of Bulgarian doctors who studied this problem (51, p. 27).

By their physical nature, audible sound and ultrasound do not differ from each other. Yes, in fact, there is no sharp transition from audible sound to ultrasound: here the boundary ranges from “from” to “to” and depends on the capabilities of the hearing aid of people. For some, ultrasound starts at a threshold of 10 kilohertz, for others this threshold rises to 20 kilohertz. And some people can even react to 40-50 kilohertz. True, they can no longer perceive such sounds by ear, but it has been noticed that if they are near an ultrasound source, their eyesight becomes sharper.

Therefore, the lower limit, after which the sound becomes ultrasound, depends on the threshold of audibility of people, and since it is not the same for everyone, the specialists had no choice but to agree on some "average" values. Usually it is 16-20 kilohertz (51, p.40).

Depending on the wavelength and frequency, ultrasound has specific features radiation, reception, distribution and application, so the area of ​​ultrasonic frequencies is conveniently divided into three sub-areas: low ultrasonic frequencies (1.5-104 - 105 hertz), medium (105 - 107 hertz) and high (107 - 109 hertz) .

Ultrasonic waves are used in scientific research when studying the structure and properties of matter, and for solving a wide variety of technical tasks(51, p. 40).

Ultrasound differs from ordinary sounds in that it has much shorter wavelengths, which are easier to focus and, accordingly, receive narrower and more directed radiation, that is, to concentrate all the ultrasound energy in the right direction and concentrate it in a small volume. Many properties of ultrasonic rays are similar to those of light rays. But ultrasonic rays can also propagate in media that are opaque to light rays. This makes it possible to use ultrasonic beams to study optically opaque bodies (51, p. 41).

The power of ultrasound, in contrast to audible sounds, can be quite large. From artificial sources, it can reach tens, hundreds of watts or even several kilowatts, and the intensity - tens and hundreds of watts per square centimeter. Consequently, with ultrasound, a very large energy of mechanical vibrations enters the material medium. There is a so-called oscillatory sound pressure. Its value is directly related to the sound intensity (51, p. 42).

Modern methods of obtaining ultrasound are based on the use of piezoelectric and magnetostrictive effects.

In 1880, French scientists brothers Jacques and Pierre Curie discovered the piezoelectric effect. Its essence lies in the fact that if a quartz plate is deformed, then electric charges opposite in sign appear on its faces. Therefore, piezoelectricity is electricity resulting from mechanical action on a substance (“piezo” in Greek means “to press”) (51, p.63).

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that a piezoelectric transducer is one or more individual piezoelectric elements connected in a certain way with a flat or spherical surface, glued to a common metal plate (51, p67). To obtain a high radiation intensity, focusing piezoelectric transducers, or concentrators, are used, which can have a variety of shapes (hemispheres, parts of hollow spheres, hollow cylinders, parts of hollow cylinders). Such transducers are used to produce powerful ultrasonic vibrations at high frequencies. In this case, the radiation intensity in the center of the focal spot is spherically:; transducers is 100--150 times higher than the average intensity on the radiating surface of the transducer (51, p.68).