Project "Environmental problems in the woodworking workshop of IP Veselova S.M." Organization of integrated use of wood raw materials using the example of the enterprise LLC "Chuin"

Group FB-62

Nikonov D.V.

Boriskin V.V.

Forestry, wood processing and pulp and paper industries.

The main logging regions of the Russian Federation remain the Irkutsk region, Krasnoyarsk and Khabarovsk region, Tyumen and Arkhangelsk regions. The forests of the European part of the country, which are the most accessible for effective use and have therefore been subjected to increased exploitation, are now almost completely involved in economic turnover and are largely depleted. The movement of logging to poorly developed areas, remote from established centers of industrial processing and consumption of wood, is accompanied by constantly increasing costs for the procurement and removal of wood, and requires large capital investments in the development of production and social infrastructure.

In 1944, the output of timber and paper products decreased in comparison with 1993 in all subsectors of the complex: logging industry
– by 32.2%, sawmills – by 31.4%, in the production of fiberboards
– by 32.4%, pulp – by 18.1%, paper by 23.2%.

Enterprises in densely forested areas suffered the greatest lag
Siberia and the Far East. Enterprises in the republics of Khakassia and Buryatia, Irkutsk, Chita, and Omsk regions have significantly reduced the production of commercial wood.

One of the problems facing the forestry industry is reducing the loss of wood raw materials during harvesting and processing. We are talking about both reducing the volume of waste generated and eliminating undercuts and losses of harvested wood from untimely removal, imperfect transportation methods, accumulation of wood along temporary transport routes, etc.

The main direction of resource conservation in the forest industry is the rational use of wood raw materials (which at the stage of wood harvesting is expressed in the most efficient use of the logging fund, reducing wood losses), as well as expanding the use and processing wood waste as a substitute for industrial wood, allowing to achieve a tangible environmental effect, consisting in reducing deforested forest areas, preserving the natural environment, etc.

The industrial and economic activities of the forestry complex are closely related to the problems of developing the environmental and social functions of forests.
The restriction on a further increase in the volume of harvested wood raw materials, together with the requirements for preserving and improving the state of the forest environment as part of the biosphere, with the need to increase the efficiency and use of all biomass obtained from cutting sites, require a reorientation of the entire complex to a resource-saving path of development.

This transition is possible only through the use of the latest achievements of science and technology, the introduction of waste-free technologies, and the expansion of the use of secondary resources and production waste.

Given the lack of wood raw materials, the problem of the integrated use of wood is slowly being solved; the lack of modern equipment and advanced technologies does not allow expanding the scale of processing of deciduous wood, wood waste, and waste paper to produce effective substitutes for commercial wood. The largest enterprises in the industry are concentrated in Eastern Siberia, in the Northern, Northwestern and Ural regions, as well as in the Kaliningrad region.

The production of the most important types of products from the woodworking and pulp and paper industries has decreased significantly.

The decline in demand from capital construction was one of the reasons for the reduction in the production of plywood, window and door blocks, and cement-bonded particle boards. The production of factory-made wooden houses has decreased.

The enterprises of the complex are a significant source of air pollution. Industry-wide emissions into the atmosphere in 1994 amounted to
523.3 thousand tons and decreased by 18% compared to 1993, this is explained by incomplete (40-50%) utilization of production capacity. The most typical pollutants for this industry are solids (29.8% of total emissions into the atmosphere), carbon monoxide (28.2%), sulfur dioxide (26.7%), nitrogen oxides (7.9%), toluene ( 1%), hydrogen sulfide (0.9%), acetone (0.5%), xylene (0.45%), butyl (0.4%).

The largest air pollutant can be identified
Arkhangelsk PPM with emission volume in 1994. 47.8 tons, which is 7.5% of the total emissions in the industry.
The list of cities with the highest emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air and discharges into water bodies in the Russian Federation, where the production activities of the enterprises of the complex is decisive, includes the city.
Arkhangelsk, Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Ust-Ilimsk.

The pulp and paper industry is one of the most water-intensive sectors of the national economy of the Russian Federation, therefore the woodworking and pulp and paper industries have the greatest impact on the state of surface waters.

The annual consumption of fresh water in the industry is about 4.5-4.7% of the total water consumption in Russian industry. Fresh water savings are relatively low, amounting to 69%, which is explained by the need to use fresh water in a number of technological processes as one of the raw material components.

The complex accounts for over 20% of the discharge of contaminated wastewater by industry in the Russian Federation. For enterprises in the pulp and paper industry, the problem of eliminating the quantity and degree of contamination of wastewater is of paramount importance. The main source of polluted wastewater in the industry is the production of cellulose, which is based on sulfate and sulfite methods of wood cooking and bleaching of the semi-finished product using chlorine products.

Contaminated wastewater from industry enterprises is characterized by the presence of harmful substances such as sulfates, chlorides, petroleum products, phenols, furfural, methanol, formaldehydes, dimethyl sulfide, etc.

Water bodies in the areas where industry enterprises are located are subject to negative impacts. This is still a contaminated section of the Ust-Ilimsk reservoir, which is adversely affected by the Vikhorevka River, where more than half of the wastewater from the Bratsk forestry complex is discharged. The river here is characterized as “extremely dirty”; the formaldehyde content in the water reached 6 MAC, lignin – 14.7 mg/l, hydrogen sulfide – 280-510 MAC. In the river basin The Sukhona river is the most polluted. Dumpling. The river is characterized by an extremely high level of water pollution in the section below the wastewater discharge of the Sokolbumprom Production Association, where the average annual concentrations are: ammonia nitrogen - 32 MPC, lignosulfonates - 173 mg/l.

A significant volume of contaminated wastewater is discharged into surface water bodies:
- Bratsk LPK;
- Kotlas Pulp and Paper Mill;
- Arkhangelsk Pulp and Paper Mill;
- JSC “Syktyvkar Forestry Complex”;

The woodworking and pulp and paper industries contribute to air pollution in Russia at the level of 3% of emissions in
Russia from industrial stationary sources. The most significant share of this industry in emissions of solid substances (1/23 of the industrial volume of their emissions) is vanadium oxide and mercury (1/33 of the emissions of the entire industry
Russia).

The wood processing and pulp and paper industries account for about 5% of the volume of fresh water used by the Russian industry and almost 6% of wastewater discharges into surface water bodies.

In terms of the volume of discharge of contaminated wastewater, the contribution of the industry is significant and is estimated at one fifth of the total volume of discharge of contaminated wastewater of this category in the entire industry of the Russian Federation.

Literature.
1. Odum Yu. “Fundamentals of Ecology”, M. –75.
2. Gorelov A.A. "Ecology. Course of lectures”, M. –98.
3. Mazur I.I. and others. “Engineering Ecology”, M. –96.

• BIOMASS
• LAWMILLING
• WOODWORKING
• RECYCLING
• DISPOSAL

• Impact of forest fires on the logging industry
• Assessment of the use of standardization of diesel fuel equipment
• Study of the properties of liquid glass mixtures using natural materials

The problem of sawmill waste is as relevant in 2017 as it was 20 years ago. Large and small enterprises are concerned about it. Previously, many sawmills followed the path of least resistance and, instead of recycling, simply burned waste in a landfill until environmentalists began to stop violations. Now the Ministry of Natural Resources and Timber Industry has tightened penalties, and finding a solution to this problem has become a top priority for all enterprises associated with sawmilling and wood processing.

According to calculations from statistical data for the Northwestern Federal District, depending on the species, age, growing conditions and trunk diameter, the amount of waste from the volume of sawn raw materials is:

• Reiki 10 - 15%
• Sawdust 10 - 15%
• Croaker 5 - 10%
• Tenderloins 2 - 5%
• Chairs 2 - 5%

The amount of bark obtained after debarking wood at enterprises, taking into account losses during logging operations, is estimated in the range from 10 to 14.5% of the volume of marketable wood.

At a meeting of the government of the Arkhangelsk region, the concept of a plan for the development of local energy in Pomorie until 2030 was adopted. Specialists from the regional energy saving center proposed mechanisms and an action plan executive bodies state authorities and local governments of the Arkhangelsk region for the implementation of the concept. In 2013, the region's fuel balance looked like this:

• 45% - natural gas
• 21% - coal
• 19% - petroleum products
• 15% - wood fuel

Based on the results of the implementation of the concept, by 2030 the fuel balance of the region should look like this:

• 54% - natural gas
• 44% - biofuel
• 2% - coal

In this regard, I consider this problem to be extremely acute and its raising at the regional government level is confirmation of this. It is also worth considering that solving this problem will help reduce the dependence of our region on imported fuel.

The main reason for the lack of motivation among entrepreneurs to recycle sawmill waste is the extremely low price of processed products, such as pellets and fuel briquettes. Based on this, most often plants sell waste in direct form - firewood, sawdust, wood chips and mulch.

In this article we will look at the most common recycling options, and also offer not everyone known options for using waste and technological scheme on the most rational location of workshops in woodworking industries.

All large Russian wood processing complexes have long understood that the most profitable option for waste disposal is their processing into fuel pellets and briquettes, and their further export to Europe. After analyzing the European market, where in 2014-2015. there was an increase in pellet consumption by 13% and from the figures given by the director of the large Latvian company “Komforts” Ivars Liepins that by 2020 the demand for pellets in Europe will increase by 10 million tons per year, their choice becomes obvious.

Let's start with the fact that pellets are made from different types biomass and thus differ in energy value. The most common materials for manufacturing are: sawdust, bark and wood chips. Their advantages: high heat transfer when compared with ordinary wood chips, bark and boards, low volume of warehouse space for storage, almost 2 times compared to ordinary wood chips, the possibility of storing them near residential premises, due to the biological inactivity of the material after heat treatment, absence of allergic properties, such as dust and spores, environmental friendliness, since they do not contain glue, thickener and other chemical substances, as well as extremely low cost, unlike any other type of fuel.

The technology for producing pellets is extremely simple. The first operation is the crushing of large parts, such as slab and obapol wood into chips, using a special machine - a crusher, which produces material no larger than 4 mm in size. Next, the resulting semi-finished product is dried various designs, such as a drying drum, aerodynamic dryer, pneumatic dryer and others, up to a humidity level of 10-12%. After this, additional moisture is added with water or steam to achieve the best adhesion during pressing. The formation of granules itself occurs in a pressing chamber, called a granulator press, followed by cooling. I would like to note that the gluing function in the material-forming substance is performed by lignin, which is a natural polymer. It makes no sense to describe the technology for producing fuel briquettes, since it is extremely similar to pellet technology.

Having considered the 2 most common options for recycling wood waste, I would like to pay due attention to less known method recycling - wood flour.

Wood flour is a powdery substance, with particle sizes of about a hundred microns, obtained by grinding sawdust. Manufactured in accordance with GOST 16361-87. On this moment There are new grades of wood flour according to technical specifications that have improved properties for the production of: wood-polymer composite, construction, finishing and many other materials.

The most common method of producing wood flour is by grinding wood pulp using hammer, finger, knife and rotary mills. Prices for production equipment vary from 500,000 rubles to 700,000 rubles. The required area for the workshop is about 75m3. Number of working personnel: 4 people. These figures suggest that the production of wood flour does not require a huge injection of funds.

Now the use of wood flour is widely used both in our country and abroad. The scope of its application and volumes are steadily growing, as its cheapness and unique properties ideal for the manufacture of many materials.

The profitability of this type of production after the above facts is immediately visible. Payback on average occurs in 1 year. The profit received will depend on the productivity of the workshop and sales volume. Average wholesale price for Russian market wood flour is from 16 rubles/kg. A medium-capacity workshop will be able to produce monthly from 18 to 23 tons of finished material. By selling the entire volume of these products, you will receive a profit from sales of up to 350,000 rubles per month.

Now I would like to talk about my proposal for designing the location of sawmills and woodworking industries. How could the workshops be located for maximum financial benefit? Firstly, these enterprises need to equip a system for heating all workshops and work buildings from the boiler room located on the territory of the enterprise. This proposal is based on the fact that it is economically feasible to use your own products for heating, which do not need to be delivered anywhere and do not need to be spent on logistics operations. Reducing fixed payment costs utilities, in the form of heating, and waste-free production- the main facts justifying this option.

Secondly, sawmilling and waste processing workshops should be located on the territory of the enterprise as close as possible, based on minimizing the cost of manual labor associated with loading, removal and unloading. When designing, do not forget about allocating an area for operational reserves of raw materials, materials between production sites, as well as passages and departures for fire trucks, since this production is highly fire hazardous.

Using the types of recycling and design options that I proposed, in total, you can enormously increase your profits and at the same time reduce costs, plus, the problem of waste disposal, which is extremely important for these types of industries, will be solved.

Summing up the results of this article, I would like to draw due attention of entrepreneurs of the Russian Federation to the options we have proposed, since they show how relevant the above problems are. If they are resolved, a huge number of advantages will be obtained from the financial side, and most importantly, the ecology of our country will be preserved. The article can be considered dedicated to the year of ecology in the Russian Federation.

Bibliography

1. Golyakov A.D. Design of sawmill sections: Textbook. - Arkhangelsk: ASTU Publishing House, 2002. - 100 p.
2. Waste-free production in the wood processing industry [electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: http://greenologia.ru/othody/derevoobrabotka/bezotxodnoe-proizvodstvo.html (accessed March 24, 2017).
3. Shegelman I.R., Vasilyev A.S. Analysis of ways to increase the competitiveness of energy biomass // Engineering Bulletin of the Don, 2013 - URL: ivdon.ru/magazine/archive/n3y2013/1769.

Types of knots: a - round; b - oval; c - oblong; g - plastic; d - edge; e - rib; g - stitched; z - group; and - branched

: I - face; II - edge; III - end; a - methic; b - frosty; c - shrinkage cracks; g - thrashing

: a, c - change in the cross-sectional shape of the bars with different arrangements of layers at the end; b - the same, boards (core and side); g - longitudinal warping; d - wingedness.

Changes in appearance, violations of the correct structure, integrity of tissues and other defects that reduce the quality of wood and limit the possibilities of its practical use are called wood defects.

According to GOST 2140-81, all defects are divided into nine groups:

1 - knots;
2 - cracks;
3 - defects in the shape of the trunk;
4 - structural defects of wood;
5 - chemical stains;
6 - fungal infections;
7 - biological damage;
8 - foreign inclusions, mechanical damage and processing defects;
9 - warped.

Each group includes several types of defects; for some defects their varieties are indicated. Some defects are characteristic only of round timber (logs, etc.), other defects are characteristic only of lumber products (boards, beams, blanks) or veneer. There are defects that occur in two or all three classes of assortments.

Bitches

The most common defect is knots. They are parts (bases) of branches enclosed in assortment wood. According to the degree of overgrowth, knots are distinguished only in round timber, distinguishing two types: open, i.e. extending onto the side surface of the assortment, and overgrown, detected by swellings and other traces of overgrowth on the side surface.

According to the shape of the cut knots (in lumber and veneer) are divided into round, oval And oblong. A round knot is formed if the base of a branch is cut at a large angle to the longitudinal axis so that the ratio of the larger to the smaller diameter of the knot does not exceed 2. A round knot can be found on the tangential surface of the assortment. An oval knot is formed when the base of a branch is cut at an angle to its longitudinal axis so that the ratio of the larger diameter of the knot to the smaller one is 2 - 4. An oblong knot is formed when the base of a branch is cut along or at a small angle to its axis, if the ratio of the larger diameter to the smaller exceeds 4. An oblong knot in the form of a strip tapering towards the core or a strongly elongated oval can be detected on a radial or close to it section.

By position in the sawn assortment differentiate plastic, edge, rib, end And sewing knots. Face knots go out on the wide side (face), edge knots - on the narrow side (edge), edge knots - simultaneously on the adjacent face and edge, end knots - on the short side (end) of the assortment. If a knot penetrates the entire face or edge and extends onto two edges, it is called stitched.

In addition, knots are distinguished in sawn products: unilateral, facing one or two adjacent sides of the assortment, and end-to-end, facing two opposite sides of the assortment.

By relative position in the sawn assortment differentiate scattered, group And branched branches . Scattered are any single knots that are spaced from each other along the length of the assortment at a greater distance than its width. For wide assortments (more than 150 mm wide), the distance between knots must be at least 150 mm. Group knots are two or more round, oval or ribbed knots located on a segment of the length of the assortment equal to its width. For wide assortments, this segment should be 150 mm. With a whorled arrangement of branches, especially characteristic of pine and larch, branched (old name - palmate) knots are formed. They are found on radial or close to them cuts and include two oblong knots of one whorl or one oblong knot in combination with an oval or ribbed knot of one whorl (there may be a third - round or oval knot - between them).

According to the degree of fusion with the surrounding wood in sawn products and veneer there are fused, partially fused And unfused knots , in which the annual layers have not grown together with the surrounding wood for an area of ​​less than 1/4; more than 1/4, but less than 3/4; more than 3/4 of the perimeter of the knot cut. Among the unfused knots, the ones that fall out are distinguished.

According to the condition of the wood knots in all types of timber are divided into healthy, rotten, rotten And tobacco. Knots in which the wood shows no signs of rot are called healthy. Among this variety of knots in lumber and veneer, the following knots are distinguished: light, colored slightly darker than the surrounding wood; dark, the wood of which is impregnated with resin, tannins and heartwood and is therefore much darker than the surrounding wood; healthy with cracks. Knots in which the rotten zone occupies less or more than 1/3 of the cut area are called rotten and rotten. Tobacco knots are knots whose wood has completely or partially rotted and turned into a loose mass of rusty-brown (tobacco) or whitish color, easily ground into powder.

Characteristics of assortments by knotiness includes an indication of the variety, size and number of knots. In round timber, when identifying the types of open knots based on the condition of the wood, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish tobacco knots from other rotten knots. In this case, probing with a probe is used. If the destruction zone extends to a depth of no more than 3 cm, then such knots, depending on the area of ​​damage, are classified as rotten or rotten, but if the destruction zone extends to a greater depth (often to the core), then these are tobacco knots.

Open knots are measured by their smallest diameter, and the piecing bead is not included in the knot size. Overgrown knots are assessed by the height of the swellings covering them above the side surface of the assortments. In deciduous timber, the diameter of an overgrown knot can be determined by the size of the wound spot or edge whiskers. A clearly visible edge on the smooth bark of some species (birch, beech, hornbeam, aspen) in the form of two dark stripes directed at an angle - whiskers - arises from the pressure of a growing branch on the wood of the trunk. After the branch dies and falls, a wound spot appears in the place of the overgrown knot, most often of a regular ellipsoidal shape.

The size of the thickest part of an overgrown knot in assortments of birch, beech, linden, alder and ash is 0.9, and in aspen - 0.6 of the maximum diameter of the wound spot. In some round assortments, for example in plywood logs, it is important to know the depth of overgrown knots. This allows you to determine the size of the knot-free zone from which veneer can be obtained High Quality. The depth of knots in assortments from the specified rocks can be determined by the ratio between the height and width of the wound spot and the diameter of the assortment at the site where the knot is overgrown.

With a decrease in the specified ratio for a given diameter of the assortment, the depth of the top of the overgrown knot increases. With the same ratio of the sizes of the wound spot, the deeper the knot lies, the larger the diameter of the assortment.

In birch assortments, the depth of the knot can also be determined by the angle between the edges. The greater the angle between the whiskers, the deeper the overgrown knot is located (at a constant diameter of the assortment). At the same value of the angle between the whiskers, the depth of occurrence is greater for assortments of larger diameter. By the length of the mustache you can roughly judge the size of the overgrown knot. The length of the whisker, measured in centimeters, approximately corresponds to the size of the knot in millimeters.

In lumber and sliced ​​veneer, knot sizes are determined in one of two ways:

by the distance between two tangents to the contour of the knot, drawn parallel to the longitudinal axis of the assortment;

along the smallest cross-sectional diameter of the knot.

Round, oval and oblong (or branched) knots that do not extend to the edge are measured as shown in Fig. 5, first (dimensions a1 a2, etc.) or second (dimensions b1 and b2, etc.) way. The size of branched knots can be determined as the sum of the sizes of the component knots. The sizes of group knots are determined in the same way. In rotary cut veneer, all knots are measured by the largest diameter of their cross-section. The sizes of knots are expressed in millimeters or in fractions of the size of the assortment and their number is calculated in round timber and sawn products per 1 m or over the entire length of the assortment, in veneer - per 1 m or over the entire sheet area.

Number, size and location of knots depend on the tree species, its growth conditions and the area of ​​the trunk. Shade-tolerant tree trunks - spruce trees have more knots than pine trunks; trees grown in closed stands are cleared of knots earlier and higher than a tree grown in freedom; the butt part of the trunk is less knotty than the apical part. The dimensions of the same knots and the condition of their wood vary along the radius of the trunk. As you move from the bark deep into the trunk to the core, the size of the knots decreases, unfused knots become fused, and the number of rotten and rotten knots decreases.

When using wood, knots in most cases have a negative effect - they often worsen appearance wood, disrupt its homogeneity and cause curvature of fibers and annual layers, which leads to a decrease in the indicators of many mechanical properties of wood. Due to their greater hardness compared to the surrounding wood, healthy and especially dark (horny) knots make wood processing difficult cutting tools. Tobacco knots in round assortments are accompanied by hidden core rot.

The degree of influence of the knot on the mechanical properties depends on its relative size, type and nature of the stressed state of the loaded part of the product or structure. Healthy, round, fully fused knots have the least negative impact, while stitched and grouped knots have the greatest negative impact. The strength of wood decreases most strongly when stretched along the grain, and least when compressed along the grain. When bending, the degree of influence significantly depends on the position of the knot along the length and height of the part. The greatest negative impact is exerted by knots located in the stretched zone of the dangerous section of the bending part, especially if the knot extends to the edge.

According to the data for blanks made of pine wood, there is a close to proportional relationship between the relative size of the knot (in fractions of the width or thickness of the blank) and the strength during static bending and compression along the grain (as a percentage of the strength of pure wood). Consequently, with a knot size of 0.3 and 0.5, the strength will decrease by 30 and 50%, respectively. A similar relationship was found when bending birch and beech wood. In oak wood, the effect of knot size on strength is less pronounced.

Strength increases due to the presence of knots when wood is compressed and stretched in the radial direction across the grain, when the axis of the knot coincides with the direction of the force. Knots also increase strength when shearing along the fibers in the tangential direction, when they are located perpendicular to the shearing plane.

If necessary, wooden plugs (with or without glue) are inserted into the holes remaining after fallen knots. Sometimes knots are specially drilled out and the holes are sealed with plugs. At the same time, the strength of the wood does not increase, since the curvature of the fibers around the plugs still remains.

As the size of the knots increases, the modulus of elasticity during compression along the fibers and static bending decreases, and when stretched and compressed across the fibers in the radial and tangential directions, they increase greatly due to the greater rigidity of the wood of the knots themselves.

The influence of knots on the mechanical properties of pine round timber was investigated. And the decrease in the compressive strength along the fibers of samples with a diameter of 8.5 to 12 cm with an increase in the ratio of the size of the largest knot in the whorl to the diameter of the sample from 0.18 to 0.61 ranged from 4 to 18% compared to pure wood. Approximately the same decrease in strength was found when testing samples for static bending if a large knot was in the stretched zone. For samples with a diameter of 16 cm or more, no significant effect of knots on compressive strength along the fibers was found. Thus, in lumber, knots have a greater influence on strength than in round timber. In round timber, as in lumber, knots have less effect on the modulus of elasticity than on strength.

Cracks

Cracks are longitudinal breaks in wood that are formed under the influence of internal stresses that reach the tensile strength of wood across the grain.

Cracks in round timber and sawn products divided by type into methic, thrashing And frosty that appear in a growing tree, and shrinkage cracks that appear in felled wood.

Methic cracks are internal radial cracks in tree trunks. They are found in all species, especially often in pine, larch, and beech, mainly in overmature stands. The length of the crack along the trunk reaches 10 m or more, sometimes the crack from the butt reaches the living crown. In round timber, metic cracks are noticeable only at the ends (preferably at the butt), since, starting from the core, they do not reach the bark and are not visible on the side surface. In lumber, these cracks are found both on the ends and on the side surfaces. A simple crack is a meticulous crack (or two cracks directed along the same end diameter) located in the same plane along the length of the assortment. Complex are two or more cracks directed at the end at an angle to each other, as well as one or two cracks directed along the same diameter, but due to the spiral arrangement of the fibers they are not in the same plane. Methic cracks occur as the tree grows. There is an opinion that cracks also form when a tree is felled by hitting the ground. As the wood dries, the size of the crack increases. Methic cracks are not continuous, but intermittent breaks along the length of the assortment.

Peeling cracks - these are peelings (along the annual layer) of wood inside the core or mature wood of the trunks of growing trees; found in all breeds. Shot can be found in round timber only on the ends in the form of arcuate (not filled with resin) or annular cracks, in lumber - on the ends in the form of cracks-holes, and on the side surfaces in the form of longitudinal cracks or grooved depressions. Until now, the reason for the appearance of peeling cracks has not been precisely established. Peel cracks form in places where there is a sharp transition from fine-grained wood to coarse-grained wood. The occurrence of rot can be associated with the formation of internal rot, and in pine and deciduous trees - water layer.

Frosty cracks are external longitudinal tears in the wood of the trunks of growing deciduous (less often coniferous) trees; spread deep into the trunk in radial directions. They are formed when the temperature drops sharply in winter. They look like old cracks caused by a lightning strike. On the surface of the trunk, this defect looks like a long open crack, often with ridges of overgrown wood and bark along the edges. Frost cracks are located in the butt part of the trunk. In round timber, frost cracks are clearly visible on the side surface and ends; on the outside they have the greatest width, go deep into the wood (often to the core), gradually narrowing. In lumber they are found in the form of long radial cracks with the annual layers widening around them.

Shrinkage cracks arise in timber under the influence of internal drying stresses. Cracks spread from the side surface deep into the assortment in radial directions. They differ from metic and frost cracks in that they are shorter along the length of the assortment (usually no more than 1 m) and shallower in depth. These cracks can appear on the end surfaces of round logs and lumber due to uneven drying along their length. At the final stage of drying large-section lumber (usually hardwood), internal cracks (fistulas) sometimes appear, which are discovered when cutting assortments.

By location in the assortment differentiate end cracks located at the ends and not extending to the sides of the assortment, and side cracks, which are located on the sides of the assortment and can extend to the ends. Among the lateral cracks in sawn assortments, a distinction is made between face and edge cracks.

If cracks extend to a depth of less than 1/10 of the thickness of the log (but not more than 7 cm for round timber and 5 mm for sawn products), they are called shallow, if to a greater depth (but do not have a second exit to the side surface) - deep. Through called cracks that extend onto two sides or two ends of the assortment, as well as peeling cracks that extend in two places on one side of the assortment (they can form a groove). In veneer, cracks less than 0.2 mm wide are called closed, and wider ones - dispersed.

Lateral cracks are measured by the depth of the assortment in millimeters, and by the length - in centimeters or, respectively, in fractions of the thickness and length of the assortment. To measure depth, use a thin steel probe. Face metic, peel and frost cracks in round timber, measured by the smallest thickness of the core board or the diameter of the circle into which it can be inscribed, or by the smallest width of the intact peripheral zone of the end. End shrinkage cracks in round timber are measured by depth. In sawn products, end cracks are measured by their length at the end in millimeters or in fractions of that side of the log on which their projection is larger. Peel end cracks in lumber are measured along the chord, and if the crack occupies more than half the circumference of the annual layer, by diameter. In veneer, cracks are measured along the length, and split cracks are measured along the width; take into account the number of cracks per 1 m of sheet width.

The smallest reduction in strength due to cracks is observed during compression along or across the fibers, the greatest - during tension across the fibers, if the crack is located in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the force, as well as during shearing, if the crack coincides with the shearing plane. During bending, the greatest negative effect is exerted by a crack perpendicular to the direction of the bending force and located in the neutral plane. Here there are no normal stresses, but shear stresses are maximum and the decrease in strength is proportional to the decrease in the area working for shearing. According to the data, cracks do not affect the modulus of elasticity in tension and compression along the fibers, but greatly reduce the modulus of elasticity in static bending in the case when the plane of the crack is perpendicular to the direction of the bending force.

Cracks are one of the main factors reducing the strength of assortments used in construction. Restrictions on the tolerance of cracks are also explained by the fact that they facilitate the penetration of moisture and fungal spores deep into the assortment.

Trunk shape defects

Convergence. All tree trunks are characterized by a gradual decrease in diameter in the direction from the butt to the top (runoff). If for every meter of trunk height (length of the assortment) the diameter decreases by more than 1 cm, then this phenomenon is considered a defect - camber. The taper is measured as the difference between the butt and top diameters of round logs (in butt logs, the lower diameter is measured at a distance of 1 m from the butt end), and for unedged lumber - between the width of the butt and top ends. The resulting difference is related to the total length of the assortment and is expressed in centimeters per 1 m or as a percentage.

The trunks of deciduous trees are more tapering than those of coniferous trees. Heavily cambered trunks of trees grown in the wild or in a sparse forest stand. The higher the quality of the planting, the more woody the trunks are, i.e. less runaways. The least camber is characteristic of assortments cut from the middle part of the trunk, the greatest - from the apical part. The curvature increases the amount of waste when sawing assortments and peeling them and indirectly affects the strength, as it causes the appearance of a defect in the lumber - a radial inclination of the fibers.

Compulsiveness. This is a case of camber when there is a sharp increase in diameter in the lower part of the trunk; The diameter of round timber or the width of unedged lumber at the butt end is more than 1.2 times greater than the diameter (width) of the assortment at a distance of 1 m from this end.

Rounded backbone called if the cross-section of the butt part has a shape close to a circle. Ribbed buttock characterized by a multi-lobed cross-sectional shape. Longitudinal depressions are visible on the side surface of the assortment.

Buttiness is measured as the difference between the diameters (for unedged lumber - widths) of the butt end and the cross-section at a distance of 1 m from it. With ribbed butt end, it is possible to determine the difference between the maximum and minimum diameter of the butt end.

Ovality. This is the name for the elliptical shape of the end of round timber, in which the largest diameter is at least 1.5 times larger than the smallest. The defect is measured as the difference between the specified diameters. Ovality accompanies heel or traction wood.

Growths. This is what local thickenings of the trunk are called. They can have a smooth or bumpy barked surface and dormant buds (burls). Sometimes burls can be distinguished from suvels by the presence of shoots on them. Growths are formed as a result of the adverse effects of fungi, bacteria, viruses, chemical agents, radiation, mechanical damage, etc. Features of the formation of growths caused by disruption of growth processes. In a longitudinal section of the suvel, the annual layers are curved and repeat the outer contours of the growth. Burls are characterized by a curled wood structure. In coniferous species, mainly suvels are formed, while in deciduous species, growths of both types are formed. The curliness of the burl wood and the presence of numerous traces of dormant buds in it creates a very beautiful texture on the cuts. The texture of the burls is especially decorative walnut. Root burls often reach significant sizes.

In walnut and birch they can weigh hundreds of kilograms, and sometimes more than a ton. On the trunks of Karelian birch, spherical thickenings with a characteristic texture are often formed. Suvel wood has high shrinkage along the grain (from 0.5 to 1.0%), low elastic modulus and low compressive strength along the grain. Burl wood is denser and harder than normal stem wood and has less pronounced anisotropy. Growths are measured by length and width. They make it difficult to use round timber and complicate its processing, but burl wood is highly valued as a material for artistic crafts and raw material for sliced ​​veneer.

Curvature. Curvature of the trunk along its length occurs in all tree species. Due to the loss of an apical shoot and its replacement by a lateral branch, due to the tilt of the tree towards better lighting, when growing on mountain slopes and for other reasons, the tree trunk may become curved. Distinguish simple And complex curvature, characterized respectively by one or more bends of the assortment.

Simple curvature is measured as the amount of deflection of the assortment at the point of its curvature (as a percentage of the length of the curved section of the assortment). When cross-cutting a long piece of wood into short pieces, their curvature turns out to be less by approximately the same amount of times as the length of the long piece of wood was cut into equal parts. Complex curvature is characterized by the magnitude of the greatest curvature, measured in the same way as in the case of simple curvature.

Defects in the shape of the trunk increase the amount of waste when sawing and peeling round logs and cause the appearance of radial inclination of fibers in lumber and veneer.

Wood structural defects

Incorrect arrangement of fibers and annual layers

Fiber inclination. Deviation of fibers from the longitudinal axis of the assortment (previously this defect was called cross-layer) occurs in all breeds. In roundwood, the slope is due to the natural spiral arrangement of the fibers; found on the lateral surface in the direction of bark grooves or in debarked assortments along screw cracks. There are two types of this defect in lumber and veneer - tangential And radial incline. The tangential inclination of the fibers is detected on a tangential section by the deviation of the direction of resin passages, vessels, core rays, cracks and strips of fungal lesions from the longitudinal axis of the assortment.

If these signs are not clearly expressed, then you should draw the marks with a thin, but not sharp, instrument or carry out a test splitting along the fibers; deviation of the mark from the longitudinal axis of the assortment or non-flatness of the surface of the radial split will indicate the presence of a defect.

Inclination of fibers on a tangential surface lumber may not be associated with the spiral arrangement of fibers in the tree trunk, but arise as a result of sawing straight-grained boards (timbers) into small parts when the cuts are directed at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the original assortment. This defect, in contrast to the natural tangential inclination of the fibers, has the same angles of inclination of the fibers on opposite sides of the assortment.

Radial fiber inclination observed when cutting annual layers on the radial or close to it surface of lumber. This type of inclination of fibers (according to the old terminology - artificial cross-grain) is obtained when sawing heavily chamfered, ragged and crooked logs. If the saw cuts run parallel to the longitudinal axis of the log, then the annual layers and, consequently, the fibers on the radial surface of the lumber are at an angle to the assortment edge. In this case, closely spaced boundaries of the annual layers are visible on the tangential surface of the lumber, as well as on the peeled veneer.

The inclination of the fibers of round timber is measured in the most typical place where the defect manifests itself - on the side surface - as the deviation of the fibers from a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the log over 1 m and is expressed as a percentage or centimeters. In butt logs, the slope of the fibers is measured at a distance of 1 m from the bottom end. It is allowed to measure the defect at the upper end along the chord h in centimeters or fractions of the diameter of the end. In sawn products, the slope of the fibers is measured as the deviation h over a length l equal to at least twice the width of the assortment (as a percentage of the length of this section along the longitudinal axis).

In veneer, the tangential slope is measured in the same way as in lumber, and the radial slope is measured by the average width of the cut annual layers, which are calculated on a 100 mm long segment in the area of ​​the tangential surface of the sheet where these layers are most closely located.

The greater the slope of the fibers, the more the strength of the wood decreases. The greatest decrease in strength is observed during tension along the fibers; strength during static bending decreases noticeably; This defect has the least effect on compressive strength along the fibers. According to the data, a fiber inclination equal to 12% causes a decrease in the tensile strength of pine in compression along the fibers by 3%, in static bending by 11%, and in tension along the fibers by 14%. The elastic modulus also decreases significantly with increasing fiber inclination, especially when compressed along the fibers.

The inclination of the fibers increases the shrinkage of assortments in the longitudinal direction and causes the formation of helical warping (winging) of lumber and twisting of pillars. In addition, the slope of the grain makes it difficult to machine the wood and reduces its ability to bend.

Curlyness. This is the name for the tortuous and random arrangement of fibers, which is most often found in hardwoods.

Wavy curliness is expressed in a more or less ordered arrangement of wavy curved fibers and forms a characteristic streamy texture. This arrangement of fibers is observed mainly in the butt part of the trunk, especially in the places where the trunk passes into the roots.

Confused curliness characterized by a random arrangement of fibers; found mainly in wood of burl-type growths.

Typically, twisting is a local defect, as it is limited to individual areas of wood, but sometimes it can be found over a large length of the trunk, for example, in Karelian birch. According to research, such wood is characterized by the presence of large false-wide medullary rays containing clusters of small parenchyma cells. The peculiar brownish patterned pattern is caused by brown pigment found in the cells of the false broad rays and areas of the parenchyma.

By measuring the width and length of the curly part of the surface, the percentage of the surface area of ​​the assortment occupied by the defect is determined. Curling reduces tensile strength and increases toughness and splitting resistance. Mechanical processing of curly wood is difficult. At the same time, curliness (especially confused) creates a beautiful texture, which is highly valued when using wood as a decorative material, so curliness should be considered a conditional defect.

Curl. This is a local curvature of the annual layers of knots and shoots. On the side surfaces of lumber and in veneer, bracket-shaped, curved or closed concentric contours of curved annual layers are noticeable. One-sided is a curl that goes out on one or two adjacent sides of the assortment, end-to-end is called a curl that goes out on two opposite sides of the assortment.

On the side surfaces of lumber and in veneer, the width and length of the curl are measured, and the number of curls per 1 m or over the entire length of the assortment in lumber and blanks and per 1 m or over the entire surface of the sheet in veneer is counted. Curls surrounding knots, which are acceptable in this assortment, are not taken into account.

The greatest reduction in strength is observed in the presence of through curls that are under the influence of tensile stresses. Curls also reduce toughness. Curls are especially dangerous for small assortments.

Reactive wood. In inclined and curved trunks and branches, a special wood is formed, which is called reactive wood in the world botanical literature. This defect occurs under the influence of gravity, which causes redistribution of substances that stimulate or suppress growth processes, wind load, growth stress, osmotic pressure and other factors.

Kren. This structural defect of coniferous wood is expressed in an apparent increase in the width of the late zone of annual layers. The lurch wood only resembles the late wood in color. The heel is formed mainly in the compressed zone of curved or inclined trunks, i.e. on the bottom side facing the ground.

Continuous roll is found at the ends of trunks that have been bent for a long time, in the form of a dark-colored area, sometimes occupying more than half of the cross-section, which has an oval shape. The core is displaced towards the area of ​​normal wood. In lurch wood, the annual layers are much wider, and within each annual layer the transition from the light to dark zone is less sharp than in normal wood. Typically, the surface of edged wood is smoother than that of normal wood. Continuous roll is more often observed in the butt part of inclined trunks; it can be observed in the stretched zone of curved trunks, as well as in the lower (compressed) zone of branches.

Local roll occurs due to short-term bending of the trunk or the action of other factors. At the end of the trunk it is noticeable in the form of arched areas, covering one or several annual layers.

On the side surfaces of lumber and veneer, continuous and local heel looks like dull dark stripes of varying widths. Rolling is especially common and clearly visible in mature wood species - spruce and fir; In the dark-colored core zone of larch, pine, and cedar, the roll is less visible.

The roll is measured by the width and length of the zone occupied by it; You can also determine the share (in percent) of the area of ​​the assortment side occupied by this defect.

The heel tracheids have a rounded cross-section; large intercellular spaces remain. The thickness of the walls is 2 times greater than in normal tracheids.

In lurch wood, the cellulose content decreases by approximately 10% and the lignin content increases. Density, end hardness, compressive strength along the fibers and static bending increase, and tensile strength along the fibers and impact strength decrease. The elastic moduli along the fibers decrease, while the shear moduli and elastic moduli in compression across the fibers increase.

Shrinkage across the fibers of lurch wood is approximately 2 times less than that of normal wood, however, shrinkage along the fibers (due to the large angle of inclination of the microfibrils) increases significantly (10 times or more). This causes longitudinal warping and cracking of the lumber.

The limit of hygroscopicity of lurch wood is lower; the permeability of wood to liquids and gases decreases, which is associated with the smaller size of the tracheid cavities and bordered pores; water absorption decreases.

The presence of hemp in pulp pulp reduces the yield of chemically pure cellulose and increases the cost of bleaching. Due to heeling, the quality of wood pulp used in paper production, saws are clamped when cutting boards crosswise.

Traction wood. This defect in the structure of deciduous wood is related in origin to heel, but unlike heel, it is formed in the upper (stretched) zone of curved or inclined trunks and branches of some species (beech, poplar, etc.). In beech, after felling the tree, traction wood can be identified by its lighter color with a silver or pearlescent tint. Under the influence of light, air, and also as a result of the removal of moisture during drying, traction wood turns darker brown.

At the ends of the timber, traction wood has the appearance of arched sections that differ in color and structure (fluffy-velvety surface) from normal wood. On the radial surface and in wood veneer with clearly visible annual layers (oak, ash), it is observed in the form of narrow strips - strands. In timber with weakly defined annual layers (birch, maple), defect recognition is difficult. The methods for measuring traction wood are the same as for heeling.

The content of libriform fibers in traction wood increases; they have a smaller diameter, but greater length and significantly thicker walls. The walls of the libriform fibers have a thick gelatinous layer lining the inner surface (from the cavity side). This layer is rich in cellulose and does not become lignified. General content cellulose and ash are higher, and lignin and hemicelluloses are lower than those of normal wood.

The density of traction wood is approximately 10-30% higher, shrinkage along the grain is approximately 2 times greater than that of normal wood, but the reduction in shrinkage across the grain is less than that of lurch wood. Compressive strength along the grain is less and tensile strength along the grain and toughness are greater than normal wood.

Internal sapwood

Double core in a pine trunk

Stepson

Dry-sidedness

Types of sprouts: a - open; b - closed

Pine cancer

Pockets

Traction wood makes it difficult to mechanically process lumber, leading to the formation of fleecy and mossy surfaces. The fibers that separate during cutting clog the sinuses of the saws, and the sawing process slows down.

Irregular anatomical formations

False core. This is the name of the dark-colored inner zone of deciduous wood (birch, beech, alder, aspen, maple, hornbeam, linden, etc.). The border of the false nucleus usually does not coincide with the growth rings. It is often separated from the sapwood by a dark, less often light (for example, birch) border.

Distinguish rounded, star-shaped And lobed false kernels, dark brown or red-brown, sometimes with lilac, violet or dark green tint. There is a dark border that divides the core into sections. On longitudinal sections, a wide stripe of one or more of the indicated colors is noticeable.

The causes of the formation of the defect may be age-related tissue differentiation, wound reaction of the tree, exposure to fungi, and the influence of severe frosts.

In round timber, the false kernel is measured by the smallest diameter of the circle into which it can fit; in raw plywood (blocks) the smallest width of the defect-free peripheral zone is measured. In lumber and veneer, the size of the zone occupied by the defect is measured.

False heartwood degrades the appearance of the wood. This zone has reduced permeability, tensile strength along the fibers, and impact strength. The presence of a false core reduces the wood's ability to bend. In birch, the false heartwood cracks easily. In terms of resistance to decay, false heartwood is often superior to sapwood.

Internal sapwood. In the wood of oak, ash (sometimes also in other hardwoods) in the core zone, several adjacent annual layers can form, similar to sapwood in color and other properties. In round assortments, at the ends, among the dark-colored core wood, one or several light-colored rings of different widths can be noticeable. In lumber, smooth light stripes are visible on radial surfaces or surfaces close to them. On tangential surfaces, the internal sapwood is observed in the form of a more or less wide strip, which wedges out when the annual layers are cut. Internal sapwood is formed as a result of disruption of the normal activity of the cambium, which is caused by frost.

In round logs, the outer diameter of the inner sapwood ring is measured, as well as the width of the ring. In lumber and veneer, the width and length or area of ​​the zone occupied by the defect is measured.

Internal sapwood, like normal sapwood, has significantly less resistance to decay than the core and easily allows liquids to pass through. The shrinkage of internal sapwood is somewhat less than that of heartwood.

Spotting. In the wood of growing deciduous trees, due to wound reactions, exposure to chemical factors, fungi and insects, relatively small dark-colored areas of wood are formed (the color resembles the kernel and core).

Tangential spotting most often found in beech. It is noticeable at the ends in the form of spots elongated along the annual layer with a width approximately equal to the width of the annual layer, and up to 2 cm long, and sometimes more.

On tangential sections, longitudinal wide stripes of brown or gray-brown color are visible, on a radial section - narrow stripes with core rays that stand out sharply against a dark background.

Radial spotting found in deciduous trees (usually birch), usually closer to the central part of the trunk; at the ends of the assortments it is noticeable in the form of small spots of dark brown, brown or dark gray color, which are elongated mainly in the radial direction, i.e., along the medullary rays. On longitudinal sections, spotting is observed in the form of longitudinal stripes, tapering at the ends. It occurs under the influence of fungi and insects, as a result of damage to the bark by birds.

Veins, or core repetitions, are constantly found in the wood of birch, as well as other deciduous species (alder, rowan, etc.). The veins are clearly visible on a radial section in the form of brown lines located at the boundaries of the annual layer. When viewed tangentially, they have a loop-like shape. In the veneer, group veins are distinguished between scattered and crowded, in the form of interlacing strips. Core repeats are microanomalies in the structure of wood caused by various reasons.

In round timber, spotting is not taken into account. In lumber and veneer, the length and width of this defect or the percentage of the corresponding surface area of ​​the assortment is measured. The spotting does not have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of large assortments, but cracking occurs in the veneer in places where there are large spots of radial spotting. A large number of veins can reduce the tensile strength of the veneer.

Core. In round assortments, the presence of a core is inevitable, so it is not considered a defect in them. In sawn products, the depth of the core is measured, counting from the nearest face or edge. The core and adjacent juvenile wood significantly reduce the strength of small-section assortments. In large sawn assortments, the presence of a core is undesirable due to the numerous overgrown knots around it. In addition, assortments cut in such a way that the core appears in them, when drying, as a rule, crack due to the anisotropy of shrinkage. The core rots easily.

Displaced core. The defect is expressed in the eccentric location of the core, which makes it difficult to use round timber; it indicates the presence of reactive wood.

Double core. In assortments cut from a trunk near its division into separate tops, two cores, and sometimes more, can be found. Each core has its own system of annual layers and is surrounded along the periphery of the trunk common system annual layers. The cross-section of the trunk takes an oval shape.

In lumber and veneer, the length of the section with a double core is measured, and in round timber only the presence of this defect is noted. Sawn logs with a double core are more prone to warping and cracking. Sawing and peeling of round logs is difficult and is accompanied by an increase in the amount of waste.

Stepson and eyes. This subgroup includes very large or, conversely, extremely small knots.

Stepson represents a stunted or dead second tip of the trunk, which penetrates the assortment under acute angle to its longitudinal axis over a considerable distance. In round timber, the stepson has the appearance of a highly elongated oval; in sawn products and veneer, it is a strip or oval with an independent system of annual layers. The defect is measured by the smallest diameter of its cross-section. The stepson disrupts the homogeneity of the wood structure, and in lumber products, the integrity, reduces strength, especially during bending and stretching.

Eyes - these are traces of dormant buds that have not developed into shoots, which are found in lumber and veneer. The diameter of the eyes is no more than 5 mm. There are scattered and group ocelli (three or more ocelli at a distance of less than 10 mm from each other). In addition, the veneer contains light, almost no different in color from the surrounding wood, and dark eyes. If there are scattered eyes, their number is determined, and if there are group eyes, the width of the zone they occupy is determined. In small assortments, eyes, especially those located in the stretched zone of the dangerous section, reduce static bending strength and impact strength.

Wounds

Dry-sidedness. This is what is called external unilateral necrosis of the trunk. The deepened area devoid of bark is elongated along the length of the assortment, and has bulges along the edges (Fig. 1). This defect occurs in all breeds; it is formed as a result of peeling, bruising, burns or overheating of the bark of a growing tree. In coniferous species, dry side is accompanied by increased resin content. In the dry side area, a sapwood mushroom color often appears; In this case, core stains and rot are shifted to the outer zones of the wood. In round assortments, the defect is measured by depth, width and length. Dry-sidedness changes the correct shape of round assortments, causes curls and disrupts the integrity of the wood at the places of sagging, reduces the yield of lumber and veneer.

Germination. This is the name given to an overgrown or overgrown wound that contains bark and dead wood. When partially healed, the wound is easily detected on the side surface of the trunk. When completely overgrown, the overgrowth is visible only at the end as a blunt-shaped crack and an internal radial crack filled with bark remnants.

Distinguish sprout open, extending only to the side surface of any size or to the side surface and end, and closed, which is found only on the ends of round timber and sawn products. The open wound is less than 2 cm wide, which makes it possible to distinguish it from a wider wound - dry side.

In sawn products and veneer, among open shoots, there are one-sided ones, going out on one or two adjacent sides of the assortment, and through ones, going out on two opposite sides of the assortment.

In addition, veneer may also contain the following types of sprouts: fused— a trace from a closed growth in the form of an elongated section (seam) of twisted wood; light- growth similar in color to the surrounding wood, and dark- a sprout that contains inclusions of bark or is significantly different in color from the surrounding wood.

In round timber, open and closed shoots are measured by the smallest thickness of the core cut (board) into which it can fit. In lumber, shoots are measured by depth, width, length, and their number in pieces per 1 m of length or on the entire side of the assortment is taken into account; in veneer, they are measured by length and the number in pieces per 1 m2 or over the entire sheet area is taken into account.

Sprouting violates the integrity of the wood and is accompanied by curvature of the annual layers. The degree of influence of sprouts on the quality of wood depends on their variety, size, location, quantity, as well as on the nature of the assortment.

Cancer. This is a wound that occurs on the surface of the trunk of a growing tree as a result of the activity of fungi and bacteria. Cancer can be open (an unhealed wound with a flat or uneven bottom, stepped edges, and nodules at the periphery) or closed (an overgrown wound with abnormal thickening of bark and wood tissue near the affected areas). This defect occurs in deciduous and coniferous trees. In coniferous species it is accompanied by severe gumming and tarring of the wood. Open cancer is measured by the width, length and depth of the wound, closed - by the length and thickness of the swelling.

With this defect, the correct shape of the round assortments is disrupted. Due to changes in the structure and increased resin content of coniferous wood, it is difficult to use assortments for their intended purpose.

Abnormal deposits in wood

Grinded. This is the name given to a section of wood heavily impregnated with resin, which is formed as a result of wounding of coniferous tree trunks. Most often, tarring occurs in pine. On round assortments they are detected by the presence of wounds and the accumulation of resin. Tarred areas are darker than the surrounding normal wood and are translucent in thin pieces.

The defect is measured by the length, width and depth or area of ​​the tarred area. Tarred wood has significantly lower water permeability, moisture and water absorption, but higher density and reduced impact strength; According to the data, the heat of combustion of wood impregnated with resin increases (by 30% with a resin content of 45%). Tarred wood has increased resistance to decay, but is poorly finished and glued.

Pocket. This defect, which was previously called a resin pocket, is a cavity inside or between the annual layers, filled with resin or gums. Such resin reservoirs are found in conifers containing resin ducts in the wood, especially often in spruce. At the ends, arcuate cracks are visible - holes, the flat side facing the center of the trunk, and the convex side facing its periphery (Fig. 1). On the tangential surface, the pockets are recesses in the form of an oval, elongated in the longitudinal direction; on a radial section they look like short slits.

In sawn products, there is a one-sided pocket that goes out on one or two adjacent sides of the assortment, and a through pocket that goes out on two opposite sides. The size of pockets in Siberian spruce can vary from a few millimeters to 10-15 cm. Pockets arise as a result of subcrustal damage to the cambium when individual sections of the trunk are heated by sunlight during the frosty period.

Small pockets can also form from damage by insects. To improve the extraction of resin from spruce, pockets can be created artificially by causing large subcrustal damage to the cambium with a special tool.

Pockets are measured by depth, width and length, and their number in pieces is also taken into account (in lumber products - per 1 m of length or for the entire length of the assortment, in veneer - per 1 m2 or for the entire sheet area). Resin leaking from the pockets interferes with finishing and gluing of product parts. In small parts, pockets can significantly reduce the strength of the wood.

Water layer. These are areas of core or mature wood with high humidity in a freshly cut state. The defect occurs in the butt part of the trunk both in coniferous trees (pine, cedar, and especially often in spruce and fir) and in deciduous trees (aspen, elm, poplar, etc.).

At the ends of timber with this defect, dark spots of various shapes are visible, and stripes are noticeable on longitudinal sections. After drying, the stains of the water layer turn pale, and small cracks appear in these areas of the wood. The humidity of pine and spruce in the watershed zone is 3-4 times higher than the humidity of healthy wood (kernel or mature wood).

In round timber, the water layer is measured by the smallest thickness of the core cut (board), by the smallest diameter of the circle into which it can be inscribed, or by the area of ​​the zone occupied by the defect. In sawn products, the width and length or area of ​​the zone occupied by the defect is measured.

The reasons for the formation of the watershed have not been fully established. Some researchers believe that this defect in the wood of elm, poplar, fir and some other species is caused by the activity of bacteria. In a number of studies, the occurrence of a watershed is associated with the penetration of rainwater through ungrown knots. One of the scientists suggests the fungal nature of the water layer in aspen, in which mechanical properties decrease by an average of 10% (impact strength drops especially noticeably). Water-layered wood differs from healthy wood by increased shrinkage and swelling. An increase in the hygroscopic limit was noticed. The water layer makes it difficult to impregnate wood with antiseptics. The increased ability to absorb water can cause drowning during rafting. According to research, the formation of a water layer in spruce and pine is associated with oversaturation of the soil with moisture. Significant fragility of the water-layered wood of these species is noted. The presence of cracks in the central zone of the watershed in growing trees and the formation of cracks when cut wood dries reduces the yield of high-quality lumber.

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Educational institution of the Federation of Trade Unions of Belarus

International University "MITSO"

Vitebsk branch

Department of Economics and Management

Woodworking industry: problems and development prospects

Vitebsk 2014

Introduction

The products of the forestry complex are the most in demand and cover virtually all sectors of the national economy, since more than twenty thousand different products and products are currently produced from wood raw materials. However, the export of wood products is small, it is in demand mainly in the domestic market and accounts for only 2.3% in the structure of the republic’s exports. In this connection, the issue of rational use becomes relevant. forest resources and increasing economic efficiency from their implementation. Scientists such as N.A. dealt with the problems of forest management. Moiseev, A.D. Yanushko, N.P. Anuchin. However, in the context of growing global competition, requiring the use of new approaches to management, the problem of increasing the economic effect from the use of forest resources has not been sufficiently studied. Currently, the forestry complex of the Republic of Belarus is a complex hierarchical structure, the interaction of industries and productions in which have a number of their own characteristics. The purpose of this work is to analyze current state forest complex of the Republic of Belarus, identifying existing problems and possible ways to solve them.

woodworking competitiveness Belarus

1. Main part

Some of the significant factors economic development any state - natural conditions and the resources it has. Land, water, forest and mineral resources form the basis of the state's well-being. According to the National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus, as of 2008, the basis of Belarus' exports (77.7%) are: mineral products (37.5%), machinery and equipment (18.9%), chemical industry products (19.0%). ), wood and pulp and paper products (2.3%). Wood and pulp and paper products have one of the smallest export structures specific gravity, although, as world experience shows, the importance this indicator may be much higher, but economic effect much bigger. In this regard, it presents scientific interest a more detailed study of the concept of the forestry complex, the features of its functioning and reserves for increasing economic efficiency. According to state forest records, the forest cover of the territory (the ratio of forested area to the entire territory of the state) of the Republic of Belarus is approximately 38%. The total area of ​​the forest fund as of 2008 was 9368 thousand hectares, i.e. 1.5% more than in 2001. However, the area was not always so forested. Historical experience shows that the value of forests as a source of wood increased sharply by the beginning of the 19th century. The greatest harm to nature was caused by predatory exploitation at the beginning of the twentieth century, when Belarus accounted for up to 1/4 of all-Russian timber exports; timber trade was a major component of its economy. Forest cutting and the absence of any work to restore it led to a catastrophic decrease in the forest cover of the territory of Belarus: in 1840 it was 45.6%, and by 1917 the forest cover reached its lowest level in history - 22%. Many forests were cut down and destroyed by fires during the Great Patriotic War. After the war, the forest cover of the territory gradually increased and currently accounts for more than 1/3 of the territory of the republic. The tragedy at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant caused great damage to the forests of Belarus, as a result of which about a quarter of the forest area was contaminated with radionuclides. Forest fires, diseases and pests also cause damage to the forest great harm. Forest is a collection of natural and artificially created tree and shrub vegetation, ground cover, animals and microorganisms, forming a forest biocenosis and used in economic, recreational, health, sanitary and hygienic, research and other purposes. Thus, the final “product” of the forest is not only mature tree stands as raw materials for the wood processing industry, animal world as an object for hunting, but also a wide range of non-timber products (mushrooms, berries, medicinal and technical raw materials, resin, birch sap, etc.), which are in demand in many sectors of the economy. Forests perform a number of functions: ecological, economic, social, environment-forming, etc. Every year, the forests of Belarus release thousands of tons of oxygen, regulate river flow, and ensure the preservation of biological and landscape diversity. According to the functions they perform, the forests of the Republic of Belarus are divided into two groups: - forests of the first group primarily perform environmental protection functions and occupy about 45% total area. These include: National parks and nature reserves; water protection and protective forests; forests performing sanitary and hygienic functions; forests of the second group (exploitation forests) are intended primarily for the production and harvesting of wood, but at the same time they also perform a number of protective functions. Among the forests of the first and second groups, those specifically excluded from exploitation are identified protective areas, playing an important environmental role. They occupy about 10% of the area. In addition, on the territory of forests of the first and second groups, reserves of republican and local significance are allocated, which have the status of specially protected areas. However, on modern stage development of the forestry complex, there are a number of problems that hinder the development of this industry. One of the problems is the low intensity of use of forest resources. An increase in the intensity of use of forest resources is observed where a large amount of labor is expended per unit area of ​​forest. As such, there are no quantitative measures of the degree of forestry intensity in the Republic of Belarus. This is due to the fact that forest growing is a long-term process, and the costs of its renewal are varied and difficult to compare. This is explained by the fact that some activities related to reforestation activities, pest protection, and forest care do not produce products suitable for sale during their implementation. Products from these activities can be obtained and sold only after many years, during the main felling of the forest. The most general indicator characterizing the intensity of forestry is considered to be the root cost of wood harvested annually on one hectare of forested area, for which forest taxes (monetary payment) are established. However, in the current economic conditions, this payment system (forest taxes) is not entirely acceptable, since the proceeds from the sale of timber are small. In modern pricing practice, there is a wide variety of different approaches to setting prices. The generally accepted prices for average commercial timber sold in finished form are: target prices, pledge prices, monitoring prices, free prices, guaranteed or protective prices and threshold prices. Target prices are calculated based on the average or average planned costs for the industry for specific conditions and period of operation and the required level of profitability. Deposit prices are based on expected costs and obtaining the required profit, taking into account the interests of the contracting parties. Monitoring prices can be introduced to eliminate excess or shortage of products on the market and restore market equilibrium. Free prices are formed under the influence of supply and demand, the cost of production and sales. The most acceptable for the Republic of Belarus would be a transition to threshold prices or guaranteed prices. Threshold prices are understood as prices that may be applicable to support and protect domestic producers when the consumer market is oversaturated with forest products that are sold at dumping prices. Threshold prices cover costs and provide a profit of 1 - 2%. The level cannot be reduced below these prices. Guaranteed or protective prices are prices that protect producers, provide a profitability of 5 - 10% and cover the costs of forestry activities. These prices may be lower than market prices. A significant problem is the one-sided nature of forest use, which manifests itself in the cutting down of mainly sawn resources. As shown in the figure, increasing lumber production is a top priority for the forest industry. Harvesting timber and selling it mainly in the form of pulpwood is one of the export items of the forestry complex. However, this direction is not entirely justified, since prices for impersonal wood are an order of magnitude lower than in economic developed countries, and the added value in this case is too small and amounts to only 5 - 10 US dollars per 1 m3 of depersonalized wood. It is more expedient to sell finished products and products made from wood raw materials in large volumes.

The next problem is the irrationally formed forest management system. It is advisable to distinguish between the concepts of “forest complex”, “forestry complex” and “timber industry complex”. The forest complex is understood as an integrated set of industries and industries that perform functions such as reproduction, protection, protection of forests, and wood harvesting, mechanical, chemical-mechanical and chemical processing of wood raw materials. Mechanical processing includes sawmilling, production of building parts, standard houses, furniture, etc. Chemical processing is carried out in the wood chemical industry. The pulp and paper industry occupies an intermediate position, where chemical technology is combined with mechanical technology. The forestry complex ensures, first of all, the reproduction of forest resources, their protection and use. It also includes forestry and hunting, secondary forest management and agricultural production. Sawmilling and woodworking production as part of forestry is of an auxiliary, auxiliary nature and is aimed at processing low-value wood. The concept of timber industry complex is used in two meanings: 1) a set of branches of the forestry, woodworking, pulp and paper and wood chemical industries; 2) economic-organizational and production-technological association of enterprises located on the same industrial site with a forest area in which logging operations are carried out. Forest resources of the Republic of Belarus are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of Belarus, the Ministry Agriculture and food, Ministry of Defense, Presidential Administration, Ministry of emergency situations, Ministry of Education, local executive authorities, Forest Institute of the National Academy of Sciences. The system of the Ministry of Forestry includes more than 100 organizations with a total workforce of over 35 thousand people. Directly subordinate to the Ministry there are 6 regional industrial forestry associations (RPFO), which include 96 state forestry institutions (forestry enterprises) and 10 specialized organizations at the republican level, each of which solves a specific range of tasks to ensure effective management forestry The forestry management system is a vertical structure built according to the territorial production principle: Ministry of Forestry - Forestry Management Agency - forestry enterprises. Forestry enterprises are located mainly within the boundaries of administrative districts. They are managed according to a linear-functional principle. Forestry enterprises, in turn, are divided into forest districts, which are the main production structural divisions forestry enterprises, workshop areas and rounds.

The main volumes of timber harvesting for the main use are carried out by the Bellesbumprom concern, which harvests about 60% of the timber. The concern not only harvests and processes wood, but also produces products from it. The Bellesbumprom concern includes enterprises producing furniture, plywood, matches, plates, cardboard, pulp and paper products, which are in demand not only in the Republic of Belarus, but also abroad. The remaining volumes of timber harvesting for the main and intermediate use are carried out by the Ministry of Forestry and enterprises of other departments. Enterprises of the Ministry of Forestry are also engaged in wood processing in forestry processing shops, but their level of equipment is not high enough, and production volumes are not comparable with the volumes of the concern. The total production capacity of the wood processing shops of the Ministry of Forestry is about 1 million m3 per year. About 85% of products are sold on the domestic market, the rest - on the foreign market, mainly lumber and pulpwood. Thus, we can conclude that there is no correlation between the activities of the Ministry of Forestry and the Bellesbumprom concern. Consequently, it is necessary to radically change the system of forestry management bodies, since the Ministry of Forestry and the Bellesbumprom concern have different departmental subordination, and accordingly pursue different goals both in the global and domestic markets. As world experience shows, the most effective form increasing the competitiveness of the industry, region, and therefore the country in world markets is the use of the cluster approach. This approach can also be applied to the forestry complex of the Republic of Belarus. The founder of the cluster approach is the American economist M. Porter. According to M. Porter, a country's competitiveness should be viewed through the prism of international competitiveness not of its individual firms, but of clusters - associations of firms in various industries, and the ability of these clusters to effectively use internal resources is of fundamental importance. Having analyzed the competitive capabilities of more than 100 industries in ten countries, M. Porter came to the conclusion that the most competitive transnational companies are usually not scattered haphazardly across different countries, but tend to concentrate in one country, and sometimes even in one region of the country. The explanation for this phenomenon is as follows: one or more firms, achieving competitiveness in the global market, extend their positive influence to their immediate environment (suppliers, consumers and competitors). The successes of the environment, in turn, influence the further growth of the competitiveness of a given company. As a result of such mutually beneficial cooperation, a “cluster” is formed - a community of firms in closely related industries that mutually contribute to the growth of each other’s competitiveness.

There are three types of clusters:

Regional (regionally limited associations around a scientific or industrial center);

Vertical (unifications within one production process, for example, the chain “supplier - manufacturer - marketer - client”);

Horizontal (combination of various industries into one megacluster, for example, a “chemical cluster” or at an even higher level of aggregation - an “agro-industrial cluster”). An example is the forestry cluster of Finland, which represented an economic block of unity of forestry and the forest industry, industries for the production of machinery and equipment for the forestry complex, investments, and a research base, with the active introduction of innovations, which provided the country with world leadership in the field of forestry technologies. Finland's economic policy, based on clustering, provides 10% of the world's exports of wood products and 25% of paper, with 0.5% of the world's forest resources, indicating the competitiveness of the national economy. Despite the fact that the forest complex of the Republic of Belarus is so economically and environmentally important direction national economy, most of its expenses are still subsidized from the budget. Forestry is one of the first sectors of the national economy to receive investment support from the World Bank and a loan for the implementation of a forestry development project. The loan was allocated for intensive forestry, logging mechanization, spare parts, seed production center, forest fire protection, air pollution monitoring, radiation control, wetland monitoring, information system forestry management (FMIS), forest research, forestry education and training, forest pest control program, marketing.

Thus, one of the most significant sectors of the national economic complex requires significant changes, primarily in the management structure, since the established management procedure cannot ensure the rational use of forest resources. Foreign experience shows that the cluster approach is effective and, most importantly, competitive, as evidenced by the presence in European countries of more than a thousand clusters of different types and different economic orientations.

The woodworking industry is divided into sawmills, the production of standard houses and building parts made of wood, plywood, furniture, and the production of matches. Its share in the structure of the complex is 65%. The woodworking industry is engaged in the processing and processing of wood, mainly specializing in the production of sawmill materials, furniture, fiberboard (fibreboard) and particleboard (chipboard), matches, door and window blocks, parquet, plywood, sports equipment, etc.

The furniture industry accounts for almost 70% of the industry. There are 11 furniture production associations in Belarus. The largest ones - "Bobruiskdrev", "Minskmebel", "Gomeldrev", "Vitebskdrev", "Mostovdrev", "Pinskdrev" - produce furniture of various designs. In the structure of export goods of the industry, the share of the furniture industry today is about 45 - 50%. Belarus also has a large plywood industry, which began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century.

An important part of the timber industry is plywood production. Currently in Belarus there are six plywood production facilities with a total capacity of 183.5 thousand m3 of plywood per year. They are part of woodworking associations and enterprises in Borisov, Mostov, Pinsk, Rechitsa, Gomel and Bobruisk.

The production of particleboard and fiberboard (chipboard and fibreboard) is concentrated at enterprises located in Bobruisk, Vitebsk, Borisov, Pinsk, Mosty, Rechitsa, Ivatsevichi. About 55% of chipboard and 26% of fiberboard are used in the domestic market, the rest is exported (to Russia, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, etc.).

The production of matches is carried out at three enterprises: PA "Borisovdrev", PA "Gomeldrev" and PA "Pinskdrev".

The Republic of Belarus has a developed packaging production. Up to 100 thousand m3 of box sets are produced annually, of which up to 60% are produced by forestry enterprises.

The pulp and paper industry produces approximately 20% of the gross output of the timber industry. There are 12 specialized enterprises in the Republic of Belarus that produce mass and special types of paper and cardboard. The leading industry enterprises in the Republic of Belarus include: Svetlogorsk Pulp and Cardboard Mill OJSC, Belarusian Wallpaper OJSC, Gomeloboi OJSC, Dobrush Paper Mill Hero of Labor OJSC, Slonim Cardboard and Paper Plant Albertin OJSC, OJSC "Paper Mill "Krasnaya Zvezda", Unitary Enterprise "Paper Mill" of Goznak of the Republic of Belarus, OJSC "Paper Mill "Spartak", OJSC "Molodechno Cardboard Factory "Raevka", OJSC "Cardboard Factory "Olkhovka", OJSC "Krovlya" and others.

Taking into account the fact that in the republic the imbalance in the production of paper and cardboard is 5:1, it is planned to build the second stage of the association with specialization in the production of bleached cellulose. Thinning wood, wood waste and deciduous wood can be used as raw materials.

Paper and cardboard are produced in small factories in Dobrush, Shklov, Chashniki, Slonim, Pukhovichi, Borisov and other cities and towns. Expanding the production of paper and cardboard at domestic enterprises will make it possible in the future to reduce import volumes. For this purpose, technical re-equipment of the industry is being carried out.

Conclusion

Currently, the products of the forestry complex have a huge impact on the development of related industries: construction, fuel and energy industries, mechanical engineering, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, but have low competitiveness in the world market. An analysis of the study of the forest complex of the Republic of Belarus showed that the age structure of forests is unfavorable and its condition may negatively affect the development of the complex as a whole. When studying foreign experience in forestry management, it was revealed that an effective form of increasing competitiveness is the cluster approach, which is successfully used in Finland.

Thus, for more rational and effective further activities, the forestry complex needs to solve a number of problems:

b change the nature of forest use and increase the production of products from forest raw materials with a high share of added value;

b plan export supplies of wood products in accordance with the state of mature forest stands for the coming years;

b consider the possibility of reorganizing the forestry management structure using a cluster approach.

Posted on Allbest.ru

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From school we hear(but, unfortunately, we don’t always realize) that a lot of forests is good, but cutting them down is bad, so we need to hand over waste paper.

However, deforestation, i.e., the use of primary raw materials, does not exhaust the entire list of environmental problems of the forest industry, which includes logging, wood processing, and pulp and paper.

In the same way, recycling does not solve all these problems: cellulose, sawdust, etc. We propose to consider in more detail some of the “problematic” aspects of interaction between the forest industry and the environment.

Losses of wood raw materials during harvesting and processing

Resource conservation involves both reducing forest industry waste and reducing losses due to improper storage and transportation. Non-use of potential secondary raw materials can also be considered losses. For example, with cut-to-length logging, which is widespread today, waste remains at the cutting site.

Outdated technologies make processing waste from the logging industry financially costly, although such raw materials are actively used in bioenergy in some countries.

What to do? Use modern technologies, which would help to maximally involve waste in the industrial cycle (as an option, use combined technologies logging), focus on the experience of companies positioning their production as environmentally friendly and resource-saving.

Significant volumes of water consumption

Certainly, we're talking about about pulp and paper enterprises, which are one of the most water-intensive industries in the national economy. To produce 1 white sheet of paper in the usual A4 format, 10 liters of water are needed.

Subsequently, the same water, in the form of waste, returns to natural environment, however with a noticeably deteriorated composition. The source of water pollution is the use of chlorine products to make paper snow-white; cooking wood using sulfite and sulfate methods.

What to do? Firstly, do not forget about waste paper, since processing 1 ton of this raw material makes it possible to save 20 thousand liters of water. Secondly, introduce technologies that use a closed water circulation system. Thirdly, switch to chlorine-free production technologies.

Note that in some countries, an eco-image, which is sometimes formed at the expense of quality, allows you to earn more. Unfortunately, this has not yet been observed in Russia, the reason for this is the lack of environmental awareness among domestic consumers.

Continuing the topic of water use and pollution, we move on to the woodworking industry (furniture industry, production of fiberboards, plywood and others), which, like the pulp and paper industry, “endows” wastewater big amount harmful substances.

All impurities in wastewater from woodworking complexes can be divided into: suspensions, emulsions (they make the water cloudy), colloidal solutions (they are responsible for changing the color of water), molecular solutions (change taste qualities water, its smell), ionic solutions that cause excessive mineralization of water. Due to industry, pollution of water bodies is observed both physical, chemical, biological, and thermal.

Heated wastewater , bringing excess heat into water bodies, they have a detrimental effect on flora and fauna, which leads to the death of some species. Where do such warm effluents come from? From workshops for the production of fiberboard and chipboard, plywood and from any enterprises in the industry where there are boiler rooms.

What to do? Scientific and technological progress offers modern treatment facilities, and the motivation for entrepreneurs to purchase them should be the realization that we have one planet and we all have to live on it.

Still, this problem cannot be crossed off our list, even though everyone knows about it. It is no secret that trees are the lungs of our planet. It is also no secret that forests can be regenerated, but due to timber harvesting, primary forests are replaced by secondary forests, and they are often less productive, so the logging area will again have to be expanded in the future.

Environmental problems are not always associated with the scale of deforestation; sometimes they are hidden in the cutting methods. For example, selective logging causes less environmental damage, but is more financially expensive.

What to do? Still, it is better not to stop searching for a worthy alternative to wood and not to forget about recycling. Develop and implement forest management concepts that would be based on a balance between “cutting and restoration” of forests and timber reserves.

It is probably impossible to find an industry that does not cause harm environment; It’s just that some industries are more harmful to the environment, some less so.

Since we humans cannot abandon industrial complexes, we must minimize negative impact to nature, in the context of the forest industry, this is not so difficult to do, because forests are still resources that can be restored, and pollution from such an industry can also be reduced if the achievements of scientific and technical progress are used.

Watch the video: Far East Russia: development of an environmentally sustainable forest industry