The percentage of forests in the world. The geographic picture of the world Manual for universities Kn. I: General characteristics of the world. Global problems of humanity. The value and use of forest resources

: wood, sap, cork, mushrooms, fruits, berries, nuts, medicinal plants, hunting and commercial resources, etc., as well as useful properties of the forest - water protection, climate control, anti-erosion, health improvement, etc. Forest resources are renewable resources. The world's forest resources are characterized by two main indicators: the size of the forest area (4.1 billion hectares, or about 27% of the land area) and standing timber (350 billion m3), which, thanks to constant growth, annually increase by 5.5 billion. m 3. However, forests are reduced for arable land and plantations, for construction. In addition, wood is widely used for firewood and wood products. As a result, deforestation has become rampant. The area of ​​forests in the world is annually decreasing by at least 25 million hectares, and the world timber harvest in 2000 should reach 5 billion m 3. This means that its annual growth rate will be fully utilized.

Largest area forests preserved in Eurasia. This is about 40% of all the world's forests and almost 42% of the total timber stock, including 2/3 of the timber of the most valuable species. Australia has the least forest cover. Since the sizes of the continents are not the same, it is important to take into account their forest cover, i.e. ratio of forested area to total area. According to this indicator, South America takes the first place in the world. In the economic assessment of forest resources, such a characteristic as timber reserves is of paramount importance. On this basis, the countries of Asia, South and North America are distinguished. Leading positions in this area are occupied by countries such as Russia, Canada, Brazil and the United States. Bahrain, Qatar, Libya, etc. are characterized by a virtual absence of forests.

The world's forests form two vast forest belts - northern and southern. The northern forest belt is located in a temperate and partly subtropical climate zone. It accounts for half of all the world's forests and almost the same share of all timber reserves. The most forested countries within this belt are Russia, USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden. The southern forest belt is located mainly in the tropical and equatorial climate... It also accounts for about half of the world's forested areas and total timber reserves. They are concentrated mainly in three regions: the Amazon, the Congo Basin and South-East Asia.

Recently, there has been a catastrophically rapid deforestation of tropical forests. In the 80s. 11 million hectares of such forests were cut down annually. They are under threat of complete destruction. Over the past 200 years, the forest area has decreased at least 2 times. Every year, a forest is destroyed on an area of ​​125 thousand km 2, which is equal to the territory of countries such as Austria and Switzerland combined. The main reasons for deforestation are: expansion of agricultural land and deforestation for the purpose of using wood. Forests are cleared due to the construction of communication lines. The green cover of the tropics is most intensively destroyed. In most developing countries, logging is carried out in connection with the use of wood for fuel, and forests are burned to obtain arable land. Forests in highly developed countries are decreasing and degrading from air and soil pollution. There is a massive drying out of the tops of the trees, due to their damage by acid rain. The consequences of deforestation are unfavorable for pastures and arable lands. This situation could not go unnoticed. The most developed and at the same time low-forest countries are already implementing programs for the preservation and improvement of forest lands. So, in Japan and Australia, as well as in some western European countries ah, the area under forest remains stable and there is no depletion of the stand.

Table 3

The country	Forest area			Forest cover,% of the country's area
	million hectares	in% to the forest area of ​​the world	per capita (ha)
Russia	797,1	23,0	5,6	46,6
Brazil	544	16	2,9	64,3
Canada	310,1	9,1	8,9	33,6
USA	303,1	8,9	0,9	33,1
China	164	4,8	0,1	17,5
Australia	155	4,5	6,7	20,1
DRC	135	3,9	2,0	59,6
Indonesia	105	3,0	0,4	58,0
Worldwide: Square	3.4 billion hectares	100	0,54	29,7
Stock volume	386 billion cubic meters m.

Source: Forest resources of the world, M., 2006; Agriculture, hunting and hunting economy, forestry in Russia. Stat. Sat. Section 11. M., 2011. Population taken from www.prb.org, 2011.

Each inhabitant of the planet has an average of 0.5 hectares of forests, in Russia - 5.6 hectares (3rd place after Canada and Australia, where these indicators are 8.9 and 6.7, respectively). Standing timber per capita on average in the world is 55 m3, in Russia - 582 m3 (in Canada - 574 m3). The forest cover of the territory of Russia is 46.6%.
The forests of Russia, which are under the jurisdiction of forest management bodies, are represented by three types of main forest-forming species. The largest stocks of conifers - 70.8% of the total forested area, or 79.2 billion m3, among which the most common are larch - 258 million hectares, pine - 114 million hectares, spruce - 77 and Siberian cedar pine - 37 million hectares, and also fir. 16.7% reserves
54
are represented by soft-leaved (birch, aspen, linden, poplar, willow, alder). Hardwood (stone birch, oak, beech, ash, maple, elm and other elm, hornbeam, white acacia, saxaul) account for only 1.8 billion m3, or 2.4%. The group "other tree species and shrubs" occupies 10.1% of the forested area.
Forest riches concentrated mainly in the eastern regions of the country. Thus, Eastern Siberia accounts for 34% of the Russian forest reserves (the Irkutsk region and Krasnoyarsk region), The Far East - 26% (the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Khabarovsk Territory, Amur Region and Primorsky Territory are distinguished); Western Siberia - 13% (Tyumen region is allocated). In the North of the European part 10% of reserves are concentrated, in the Urals - 6% (Fig. 2.6).

Rice. 2.6. Forest resources of Russia. Compiled by the author. Agriculture, hunting and hunting economy, forestry in Russia. Stat. Sat. Section 11. Moscow, 2011. Section "Forest resources and timber harvesting" in the atlas "Russia as a system". M., 1997

55
The most important indicator of economic, environmental and social role forests is their distribution into groups by economic value and functional features(Fig. 2.7): group - water protection, soil protection, reserved and other forests in which deforestation is prohibited (forest belts, nature reserves, forest parks, health resorts, etc. - about 23% of the forest fund area); group - multipurpose forests in sparsely populated areas with limited exploitation of woodlands - about 8% of the forest fund area; Group III - many exploited forests forest zones ah in which it is carried out economic activity and most of the forest plantations are reproduced with human participation - 69%. Over the past 30 years, noticeable changes have taken place in the structure of forests: the share of Group III forests has significantly decreased.
Annual average timber growth in Russia in last years is about 1.2 m3 / ha. At the same time, the maximum values ​​of the increment (3-4 m3 / ha) are typical for the subzone of deciduous forests of Central Russia and subtropical forests of the North Caucasus.
The age structure of Russian forests is dominated by mature and over-mature stands, located mainly in the Asian part. According to available estimates, only 55% of the total forest area is of industrial interest, that is, profitable in industrial exploitation, and the predominant part of this forest area, located in the European North and along the Trans-Siberian Railway, has been significantly depleted as a result of intensive forest use over the past century.
Water resources. Russia possesses huge reserves of fresh water.
The average long-term renewable water resources of Russia, according to new modern data, are estimated at 4324 km3 / year (according to Roskomstat data for 2011 - 4331.7 km3), of which 4118 km3 are formed on the territory of the country, and adjacent territories.
The total values ​​of water resources in Russia are quite large, however, despite this, many regions of Russia have a large


Rice. 2.8. Water resources

serious regional problems with water supply to the economy and population. The reason is the extremely uneven distribution of water resources over the territory of the country, which is not consistent with the needs for them, their very large temporary variability, especially in the southern regions. For example, in terms of the size of local water resources, the Southern and Far Eastern FDs differ by almost 30 times (Table 4).
The Far Eastern and Siberian FDs are very well provided with water resources, and the Ural and Northwestern FDs are somewhat less supplied with water; The most densely populated districts - Privolzhsky, Central and South - have limited water resources.
The differences in water resources by the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are even greater. The largest total water resources are in the Krasnoyarsk Territory and Yakutia (950 and 899 km3 / year, respectively), the smallest are in Kalmy
Water resources of Russia by federal districts
Table 4

Federal district	Local aquatic resources, km3 / year	Variability of local water resources, Gv *	Water inflow from adjacent territories, km3 / year	Potential water supply with local water resources, thousand m3 / year per person
Central	108	0,22	22,3	2,8
North West	554	0,09	65,0	39,7
Yuzhny	53,3	0,16	270	2,32
Privolzhsky	173	0,21	113	5,55
Ural	385	0,18	217	31,1
Siberian	1277	0,08	59,1	63,6
Dalnevos accurate	1566	0,08	295	234
rf	4118	0,06	206	28,31

* Coefficient of variation Cv characterizes the variability of the annual runoff; the greater the value of this coefficient, the greater the variability of the runoff.

Source: Zh.A. Balonishnikov. Water resources and their use in the administrative regions of Russia: modern and prospective assessments. GGI, St. Petersburg. Eco-bulletin InEkA, No. 4 (135), 2009.
kiya, Ingushetia, Belgorod, Kurgan and Kursk regions: 1.64, respectively; 1.85; 2.71; 3.78 and 3.66 km3 / year (Table 5).
About 10 regions and republics have water resources less than 8 km3 / year. Thus, the absolute values ​​of water resources of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation differ hundreds of times. Water resources and water supply to the economic regions of Russia are given in table. 6.
Water supply in Russia per unit area is approximately 250 thousand m3 / year. Russia is inferior in this indicator to Brazil and Norway, India and is on a par with China, the United States and Canada. Water supply per capita in Russia is 28.5 thousand m3 / year. Differences in specific water availability by economic regions of the country are given in
Table 5.
Water resources and potential water availability of the population of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation located in extremely different physical and geographical conditions

Regions	Water resources, km3 / year			Potential water availability per inhabitant. thousand m3 / year
	local	inflow	total nye	local resources	total resources
Very low water resources			ds and water availability
Kalmykia	1.41	0.23	1.64	4.86	4.45
Belgorod region	2.5	0.20	2.71	1.66	1.69
Kurgan region	1.03	2.72	3.78	1.0	3.66
Kursk region	3.54	0.06	3.66	2.85	2.79
Oryol region	3.43	0.66	4.09	4.0	4.71
Very large water resources and water availability
Krasnoyarsk region	735	215	950	247	320
B. Taimyrskiy A.O.	295	620	915	7370	22800
Sakha (Yakutia)	566	332	899	594	944
Tyumen region	344	243	587	106	180
YaNAO	203	381	584	398	1145

Source: materials by Zh.A. Balonishnikova.

Water resources and water supply in the regions of Russia.
Table 6.

Economic district	Water resources. km3 / year		Water supply with total runoff. thousand m3 / year
	Local formation drain	Total runoff	Per 1 km2 of territory	On the 1 inhabitant
Russia	4043	4270	250	28.5
Northern	494	511.6	349	90.6
Northwest*	47.7	89.4	455	11.6
PEER	88.6	112.6	232	3.9
CCR	16.1	21.0	125	2.7
Volgo-Vyatka	47.8	151.8	576.5	18.2
Volga region	31.5	270	503	17.3
North Caucasus	44.0	69.3	195	4.3
Ural	122.7	129	156.6	6.6
Zap. Siberia	513	585	241	44.7
East Siberia	1097	1132	273	136.0
Far East	1538	1812	290	297.0

* With the Kaliningrad region.
Source: Materials of the Institute of Water Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

tab. 7. More than 80% of this volume falls on subjects with water consumption of more than 0.5 km / year.
The cost of the country's water resources is currently estimated at about $ 800 billion (Table 7).
Table 7
Valuation of water resources in Russia

Water bodies (water source)	Water volume, km3	Share,%	The notional cost of 1 m3 of water	Conditional general price
Average long-term river flow (per year)	4270	8,42	1 conv. units	1 conventional unit
Lakes	26504	52,37	0,8	5
Swamps	2500	4,94	0,6	0,33
Glaciers	17000	33,59	0,97	4
Glaciers and snowfields	28	0,05	0,97	0,0
Groundwater (forecast)	317	0,63	3,7	0,3
Total:	50613	100

Source: Alekseevsky N.I., Gladkevich G.I. Water resources in the world and in Russia for 100 years. Analyte. yearbook “Russia in the World Around”. M., 2003.

Currently, the Russian Federation uses 72.6 km3 / year of fresh water3.
Among the 2000 fresh and salt lakes of the country, Baikal is especially famous, the deepest lake on Earth (1637 m). The fresh water reserves in Baikal are gigantic (23 thousand km3) and account for over 19% of the world's fresh water reserves (all fresh lakes in the world contain 123 thousand km3 of water).
Uneven territorial distribution, large intra-annual and long-term variability of river flow complicate the rhythmic supply of the population and economy of the country with water of the required quality. This problem is being solved by creating reservoirs, 40 of which are among the largest (with a volume of more than 1 km3), not counting many small ones. The largest volume of fresh water is contained in the reservoirs of Eastern Siberia (398 km3). Brother-
60
The reservoir, together with the Krasnoyarsk, Ust-Ilimsk, as well as the Zeysk in the Far East and the Samara in the Volga region, are the largest in the world. Russia possesses a huge resource base of drinking and technical groundwater, including a significant amount of proven reserves: the resource potential is estimated at more than 800 mln. m3 / day (more than 300 km3 / year), explored operational reserves - more than 30 km3 / year, mineral - 0.2 km3 / year, thermal - 0.07 km3 / year. Nowadays, many big cities(Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod) use surface waters for household and drinking water supply due to the high depletion of underground water supply sources. On the territory of Russia, 620 deposits of mineral medicinal underground waters with operational reserves of more than 300 thousand m3 / day have been explored, including about 70% prepared for industrial development. The largest number of mineral healing groundwater deposits has been explored in the Southern, Central and Volga Federal Districts.
Recreational and tourist potential. In recent years, Russia has been one of the ten leading countries in terms of income from international tourism. There are great resources of educational tourism in Russia. Particularly attractive in this respect are the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, the ancient Russian cities of Russia, the southern part of Siberia, Primorye. The most famous route is the "Golden Ring of Russia" (Fig. 2.9), which passes through the ancient Russian cities that store unique, of special value, monuments of Russian culture and history. The list of cities that make up the Golden Ring includes Vladimir, Suzdal, Sergiev Posad, Rostov the Great, Yaroslavl, Kostroma. All stages of the development of ancient Russian architecture are represented in cities and villages.
The UNESCO World Heritage List includes: the architectural ensemble of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, the Kremlin, Pokrovsky and Spaso-Evfimiev monasteries in Suzdal; the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kieksha, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl in the Vladimir Region and the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals in Vladimir and many others (Fig. 2.10). The country has large resources for the development of health

Rice. 2.9. Gold ring of Russia. Source: http://read.ru/blogs/tag/

Rice. 2.10. The architectural ensemble of the Kizhi churchyard. Karelia

62
vivny (North Caucasus, Bashkiria) and sports tourism (Kola Peninsula, Karelia, Subpolar and Polar Urals, Altai, Sayany, Baikal and Transbaikalia).
One of the important elements of the recreational potential of settlements, especially large cities, is landscape architecture. Examples of valuable landscape architecture are the palace ensembles of the Moscow region (Arkhangelskoye, Kuskovo), the suburbs of St. Petersburg (Petrodvorets, Pavlovsk, Pushkin), some new residential areas.
Specially protected natural areas (SPNA) are of great importance in the natural recreational potential of Russia. In Russia, there are more than 100 state nature reserves with a total area of ​​33,152 thousand hectares (about 1.6% of the territory), including 6474 thousand - of the sea area. The system of Russian state nature reserves is widely recognized in the world: 21 of them have the international status of biosphere reserves, and they have been issued the corresponding UNESCO certificates, 7 are under the jurisdiction of the World Convention for the Preservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage, 10 are under the jurisdiction of the Ramsar Convention, 4 have diplomas of the Council of Europe. Among the most famous is the Sikhote-Alin Mountain Range, which contains an array of some of the most biologically diverse and unusual temperate forests in the world. The reserve is of great importance for the survival of many endangered species - for example, the Amur tiger. The unique "Volcanic region of Kamchatka", the world famous Baikal, "Virgin Komi forests" (the largest massif of forests preserved in Europe that never knew an ax and a saw), "Ukok Peace Zone" in Altai, which are under the auspices of UNESCO.
Marine bioresources. Fishing is one of the types of nature management, which consists in catching fish and other seafood - sea animals, invertebrates, algae.
Fish and fish products represent an important element of a balanced diet, a source of about 1/4 of animal protein food. It is not surprising that 72-75% of the world's catch is destined for human food, the rest is processed
63
in fishmeal, nutritional supplements, fish fat, used for livestock feed or in pharmaceuticals.
The main types of marine fisheries are shown in table. 7.
Marine fishery products: ten main types
Table 7

Source: The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), 2011.

The main fishing areas of the world are the northwestern, southeastern and centralwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, as well as the northwestern East End Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 2.11).
In terms of catch of fish and seafood, Russia is in 8th place in the world (Fig. 2.12).
The volume of world fishery production reached 74.5 million tons, and together with aquaculture - 145 million tons (excluding China - 92) (Fig. 2.13, 2.14).
Inland waters make a significant contribution to the total world volume of fishery production, which reached 10.2 million tons (Table 8). Asia accounts for two thirds of the world's volume. Russia ranks 14th among other countries.
In the modern world, there is a tendency to increase fish resources through the use of advances in biotechnology for growing fish and crustaceans in coastal waters. An important sector for such production of protein-rich foods is ac-


Rice. 2.11. Major offshore fishing areas.

Rice. 2.12. Marine and inland fishing. Top ten producing countries. In the same place

Millions of Tony

Rice. 2.13. World products of fisheries and aquaculture. In the same place

Rice. 2.14. World products of fishing. Ibid.

Fishing in inland waters (leading countries), 2008, thousand tons
Table 8.

	The country	Catch volume		The country	Catch volume
1.	China	2248	8.	Nigeria	304
2.	Bangladesh	1060	9.	Tanzania	282
3.	India	953	10.	Brazil	243
4.	Myanmar	815	11.	Egypt	238
5.	Uganda	450	12.	Thailand	231
6.	Cambodia	365	13.	DRC	230
7.	Indonesia	323	14.	Russia	217

Source: ibid.

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a vaccine, the share of which in the total volume of fishery and fish farming production is more than 36%. As part of aquaculture, the production of edible fish (anadromous and marine fish) is growing faster than others. The rest is accounted for by molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic animals. The cultivation of aquatic plants, especially algae, is also successfully developing in this sector. On a per capita basis, aquaculture production has grown more than 10-fold since 1970. Leaders - Norway, China, Japan, USA.
In Russia commercial fish are divided into salmon (Salmonidae), sturgeon (Acipenseridae) and partial. Important commercial fish are herring (Clupeidae) and cod (Gadidae). Fish from the Cyprinidae family are of great commercial importance. For stocks of crabs, pollock, sturgeon Russia takes 1st place in the world, and 2nd for herring, cod, flounder, navage, salmon. For other objects of marine fishing - perch, sprats, halibut - Russia's reserves are also large. The leaders in catch are Kamchatka and Primorsky Territories and Sakhalin (720-475 thousand tons). Fish stocks of the Russian 200-mile economic zone with proper management and appropriate control over fisheries, they can produce about 4.4-4.8 million tons annually.
The use of the raw material base of the fish industry in Russia has a number of features associated with the seasonality of fishing, the mobility of aquatic biological resources, the difficulty of predicting their reserves and determining the rational share of their withdrawal without prejudice to reproduction. Marine biological resources are concentrated mainly in the risky fishing zone - in the harsh northern seas: the Barents, Okhotsk, Bering, which causes periodic fluctuations in their numbers. The state of fish stocks is affected by “mono-fishing”, that is, the concentration on certain currency-intensive species that are in high demand on the market: crabs, sturgeon, cod, pollock and others, which leads to the underutilization of other fish species and damages fish stocks. "Beach"
67
Russian marine fisheries - the so-called "emissions", when the fishermen, in pursuit of profit, choose large fish, throwing overboard all the other, having a lower market value. In addition, in the 200-mile Far Eastern zone of Russia, and primarily in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, fishermen have been fishing for a long time under special intergovernmental agreements. foreign countries, including those outside the Far Eastern region. V different years foreign ships seize from 200 thousand to 600 thousand tons of fish and seafood. All this also causes significant damage to fish stocks.
According to the experience of other countries (the USA, China, Norway), Russia needs to expand the reproduction and cultivation of fish in the coastal zone, to strengthen research work on the study, production, conservation and reproduction of aquatic biological resources by specialized scientific, fishing, and fish protection organizations.
Despite these problems, Russia retains a significant potential of aquatic biological resources and natural competitive advantages in the production of fish and seafood.
Mineral resources. The total value of Russia's mineral resource base in terms of explored reserves of all types of minerals is at least $ 28 trillion, but the estimate of their profitable part is only $ 1.5 trillion, of which fuel and energy resources account for 71.9%.
In addition to a wide range of the most important types of mineral raw materials, the Russian mineral resource complex has a well-developed infrastructure and powerful scientific and technical potential. This complex plays an important role in the economy and politics, ensures a stable supply of mineral resources to the sectors of the economy. By the end of the 20th century, enterprises of the mineral resource complex provided more than 30% of the country's GDP, more than 50% of foreign exchange earnings, about 50% of state budget revenues (including taxes and indirect deductions).
68
niy). The cost of raw materials extracted from the subsoil is annually from $ 100 billion to $ 110 billion. Of these, about 80% are energy resources (gas, oil, coal, uranium).
The investment capacity of the subsoil of the Russian Federation, taking into account the explored reserves and forecast resources for export-oriented mineral raw materials, amounts to $ 147-170 billion, of which $ 100-110 billion falls on oil and gas fields, 14-19 billion - on precious metals, 12-17 billion - for diamonds. However, despite the significant investment attractiveness of Russia's subsoil, real investments in the exploration and development of mineral deposits remain insignificant.
The State Fund has about 20 thousand deposits of the main types of minerals, of which one third is being developed. Russia remains the leading country in the world in terms of reserves of fuel and energy resources - oil, gas and coal. Its total hydropower potential is 2,500 billion kWh, and it is the second largest in the world after China.
Huge reserves of fuel and energy resources are distributed extremely unevenly across the territory of Russia. The main consumers of energy are located in the European part of the Russian Federation, and more than 80% of proven fuel reserves are concentrated in the eastern regions of Russia (including 83% of oil, 84% natural gas and more than 90% of coal), which determines the distance of transportation and an increase in the cost of production.
The place of Russia in terms of oil reserves in the world is shown in Fig. 2.15. Oil from the deposits of the main production area - the Tyumen region (Table 10) - belongs mainly to the type of light oil, characterized by a low content of sulfur and paraffin. The main reserves are concentrated at depths of 1.5-3.5 km. About 55% are hard-to-recover reserves in deposits complicated by tectonic faults.
The main share of the reserves is at the disposal of vertically integrated companies (VICs) OJSC NK Lukoil, OJSC Surgutneftegaz, OJSC Sibneft and OJSC Tyumen Oil Company.

Share (in%) and place of Russia in the world in reserves and production
certain types of fuels and minerals
Table 9

Useful fossils	Reserves, 2010		Booty, 1991		Production, 2011		Obespe parity, years
	share, %	place	share, %	place	share,%	place
Oil	6,6	7	13,3	2	12,9	1	21
Natural gas	23,7	1	29,1	1	19,0	1	70
Coal	18	2	4,3	3	4,3	6	more than 500
Uranus	11,4	3	n / a	n / a	6,6	6	n / a
Iron ore	26,3	1-2 (together with Brazil)	10	4	4,3	5	more than 500
Bauxites	4,2	6	4,4	6	2,8	7	more than 100
Copper	3,3	11-12	7,5	4	4,7	6	more than 25
Nickel	13,7	1	27,1	1	more than 20	1	about 30
Zinc	6,2	6	6,6		1,5	14	more than 90
Lead	8,1	3	5,2		less than 1	16	250
Tungsten	10	3	14,3	2	more than 3	3	120
Molybdenum	2,1	9	n / a	n / a	2	7	60
Titanium	n / a	2-3	n / a	n / a	23	2	n / a
Cobalt	2,51	7-8	n / a	n / a	9	4	over 30
Gold	9,4	2	6,3	5	6,7	6	35
Silver	10,5	1	n / a	n / a	1,3	5	50
Diamonds		1-2		3	more than 20	2	n / a
Platinum	13	2	n / a	n / a	more than 25	2	n / a
Apatite and phosphorite	11 and 3.1	1 7	n / a	n / a	6,8 (phosp. conc.)	4	n / a
Potassium	31,4	2	n / a	n / a	20,0	2	n / a

Sources: www.mineral.ru; Oil and Gas Journal Russia; Statistical Review of World Energy 2011; Russian Oil Output Hits Post-Soviet Record in 2010, http: //www.uralgold. ru; www.mineral.ru; Reference materials on the geography of the world economy. M., 2013.



Rice. 2.15. Anamorphosis of the distribution of proven oil reserves by regions of the world (2007). Source: http: // altz-gamer

For the Volga-Ural oil province, which until the early 1980s. was the main region in terms of production, characterized by high depletion of reserves (in Bashkortostan, it is almost 83%). It is dominated by medium and heavy oils (with a density above 0.87 g / cm3), as a rule, medium and high sulfur (sulfur content - more than 2%), concentrated mainly in small fields. The main license holders are OJSC NK Lukoil, OJSC Tatneft, OJSC ANK Bashneft, OJSC NK Rosneft and OJSC Gazprom. The development of new fields is moving eastward: to Eastern Siberia - Vankorskoye (Krasnoyarsk Territory, launched by Rosneft since 2009), Verkhnechonskoye in the Irkutsk Region, Sakhalin (Odoptu, Chayvo, etc.). At the same time, in 2008, Lukoil put into operation the Yuzhno-Khylchuyu field, and in 2012 - the Priobskoye field in the Nenets Autonomous District in the north of European Russia.

71
At least 20% of Russian oil reserves are concentrated on the shelves of the Barents, Kara, East Siberian, Chukchi and Okhotsk seas.
Table 10
The largest oil fields in Russia, neighboring countries and the world
and production of oil and gas condensate, million tons, 2010

Country	Place of Birth	Mining
Russia
	Priobskoe (KhMAO)	OK. 40
	Samotlorskoe (KhMAO)	29,5
	Romashkinskoe (Tatarstan)	15,1
	Fedorovskoe (KhMAO)	12,5
	Krasnoleninskoe (KhMAO)	10,0
	Tevlinsko-Russkinskoe (KhMAO)	9,5
	Sugmutskoe (Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District)	OK. 9
	Vatyeganskoe (KhMAO)	8,3
	Mamontovskoe (KhMAO)	7,6
	Lyantorskoe (KhMAO)	7,5
Near Abroad
Azerbaijan	Azeri (sea)	16
Kazakhstan	Tengiz	13
Kazakhstan	Karachaganak (gas condensate)	10
Kazakhstan	Kashagan East and West	Production since 2013
Far abroad
Saudi Arabia	Gavar	250
Mexico	Cantarelle	86,7
Kuwait	Big Burgan	80
China	Daqing	43,4
Iraq	Rumaila	40
Iran	Ahvaz	35
UAE	Zakum	27,5
Algeria	Hassi Messaoud	22
Brazil	Marlin	20
Norway	Ekofisk	15,8
USA	Prudhoe Bay	12,6
Qatar	Al-shahin	12
Norway	Troll II	10,8
Indonesia	Dope	9
Canada	Khybernia	8,9

Source: materials of the Ministry of Natural Resources, 2012.



Rice. 2.16. Proven gas reserves. Anamorphosis of the Earth's proven natural gas reserves. Source: http://www.neftegazpress.ru/analisis

The development of oil fields in remote and inaccessible regions of the country requires the introduction of fundamentally new technologies to contain the growth of costs for its production.
The explored reserves of natural gas in Russia amount to 48.5 trillion m3 - 23.7% of the world (Fig. 2.16). About 2/3 of the explored and almost half of the preliminary estimated reserves are concentrated in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District. The European part of the country accounts for about 10%.
Less than a third of the explored reserves are classified as highly efficient reserves that can be developed using proven production technologies in domestic practice and located in the territory covered by the existing gas transmission system. Ethane-containing reserves account for about 30% of proven reserves
The largest gas fields in Russia
Table 11.

Field	Balance reserves, trillion m3	Development year	Subsoil user
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District
Nadym-Pur-Tazovsky district
Urengoyskoe	5,94	1978	OOO Gazprom dobycha Urengoy
Yamburgskoe	4.29	1986	OOO Gazprom dobycha Yamburg
Zapolyarnoye	3.49	2001	OOO Gazprom dobycha Yamburg
Kharampurskoe	0.77		LLC "Rosneft-Purneftegaz"
Yuzhno-Russkoe	0.69		Severneftegazprom
Severo-Urengoyskoe-1	0.33	1987	OOO Gazprom dobycha Urengoy
Severo-Urengoyskoe-2	0.33	2001	OOO Gazprom dobycha Urengoy
Bearish	0.58	1972	OOO Gazprom dobycha Nadym
Komsomolskoe	0.54	1992	LLC "Rosneft-Purneftegaz"
Yamal Peninsula
Bovanenkovskoe	4.37	2007	OOO Gazprom dobycha Nadym
Kharasaveyskoye	1.26	2012	OOO Gazprom dobycha Nadym
Kruzenshternovskoe	0.96		OOO Gazprom dobycha Nadym
South Tambeyskoe	1.02	2020	Yamal LNG
North-Tambeyskoe	0.72	2020	Yamal LNG
Kara Sea		(Priyamalsky shelf)
Leningradskoe	0.07		OOO Gazprom dobycha shelf
Rusanovskoe	0.24		OOO Gazprom dobycha shelf
	Ba	rentsevo sea
Shtokman	254	OOO Gazprom dobycha shelf
Orenburg region
Orenburg	0.86	1974	OOO Gazprom dobycha Orenburg
Astrakhan region
Astrakhan	2.62	1986	OOO Gazprom dobycha Astrakhan
Former Evenki Autonomous Okrug
Yurubcheno-Tokhomskoe	0.13		OJSC "East Siberian Oil and Gas Company"
The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
Chayandinskoe	0.38		Gazprom
Irkutsk region
Kovykta	1.50	2008	Gazprom
Sakhalin shelf (Sea of ​​Okhotsk)
Lunskoye	0.45	2007	Sakhalin Energy Investment Co Ltd.

Source: www.mineral.ru

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gases in which, in addition to methane, there is also a valuable chemical raw material - ethane, propane, butanes and heavier hydrocarbons. These are deposits of the Caspian Sea region, the Ural-Volga region, deeper horizons of deposits in Western Siberia, Paleozoic deposits of Eastern Siberia and Of the Far East... About 13% of Russia's natural gas reserves contain helium; in terms of its reserves, the country is in second place in the world after the United States. The main reserves of helium are concentrated in the fields of Eastern Siberia and the Far East.
Of the more than 800 natural gas fields recorded in Russia, the 24 largest (with reserves of more than 500 billion m3) account for more than 73% of the explored reserves; 15 of them (about 55% of reserves) are located in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District (Table 11).
About 60% of the reserves are controlled by OJSC Gazprom (1st place in the world).
The development of new fields will be carried out on the Yamal Peninsula, in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, on the shelves of the Kara, Barents and Okhotsk Seas, projects for which are highly capital-intensive, and completely new technologies will be required for the Arctic shelf fields.
Russia has colossal total reserves of coal, and in the category A + B + C1 (proven reserves) it is second only to the United States (157 billion tons). Almost half of this amount (about 48%) falls on coal and anthracite, the rest - on brown coal. The main reserves are concentrated in just a few largest swimming pools located in the eastern regions of the country (80% in Siberia, mainly in Kuznetsk and Kansko-Achinsk). The Pechora and Donetsk basins (meaning the Russian part of Donbass) account for only 9.5% of the reserves.
More than 20% of this category (A + B + C1) are coking coals (Fig. 2.17), more than half of which is located within Kuzbass. There are also significant reserves of coking coal in the Pechora and South Yakutsk basins. Coal seams in the Pechora basin are characterized by low thickness, occur at great depths. Less significant is the Ulughem Basin in Tuva.
A third of Russian coal reserves do not meet the quality standards accepted in the world practice (ash content, sulfur content, gas and explosion hazard).

About 50% of Russia's industrial reserves correspond to world quality standards for coal (ash content no more than 15%, sulfur content less than 1%). The main coal basins in Russia are given in table. 12.
The Kansk-Achinsk lignite basin in the Krasnoyarsk Territory contains about 23% of Russian coal reserves. The coals here lie at a shallow depth. The largest developed fields are Berezovskoye, Borodinskoye, Nazarovskoye. The main subsoil user is OJSC Krasnoyarskugol. The Pechora coal basin in the Komi Republic (2.3% of Russian reserves) is of great regional importance.
The Eastern Donbass in the Rostov region (3.4% of Russian reserves), despite the difficult mining and geological conditions and the high cost of coal mining, is unique, since most of the reserves and 95% of anthracite production in the country are concentrated here. The production is carried out mainly by LLC “Company“ Rostovugol ”and OJSC“ Gukovugol ”.
In the Khabarovsk Territory (Bureinsky Basin) and in Primorye (Razdolnensky Basin), hard coal is mined by open pit mining. Since 2002, new fields have been developed in the Irkutsk Region, where the Golovinsky open-pit mine began work and the Zheronsky open-pit mine is being prepared for commissioning, and in the Sakhalin Region, where Leonidovskoye OJSC began developing a new area at the Leonidovskoye field.
In terms of explored uranium reserves, Russia ranks third in the world (11.4%), behind Australia (27.9%) and Kazakhstan (17.3%). About 63% of uranium is concentrated in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in the Elkon ore region (Fig. 2.18).
Uranium ores in Russia are poorer than foreign ones. In Russian underground mines, they contain only 0.18% uranium, while Canadian underground mines produce ores with up to 1% uranium, Nigerian ores - 0.43%, Australian ores - 0.15% on average.
The reserves of the Dalmatovskoye deposit in the Kurgan region are small, and the reserves of the Streltsovsky ore region in Transbaikalia are close to depletion. Pilot development of the Khiagda deposit in the Republic of Buryatia (JSC Khiagda) is underway.
Russia is the largest exporter of nuclear fuel (about 17% of its supplies to the world market). Russian uranium products are purchased in more than 50 countries around the world.


Rice. 2.18. Areas of uranium ore occurrence, main deposits, volume of resources and share in the reserves of the Russian Federation (%). Source: www.mineral.ru

The solution of the problem of providing the Russian nuclear industry with natural uranium can be facilitated by the development of uranium deposits abroad. A joint venture between JSC Atomredmetzoloto and the Kazakh company NAC Kazatomprom operates in Kazakhstan at the Zarechnoye field, which it owns. Raw materials are processed in Russia. JSC Atomredmetzoloto implements similar projects in Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Namibia, South Africa, Australia, Canada, Mongolia.
In addition to fuel and energy resources, Russia possesses large reserves of many metallic minerals, various raw materials for the chemical industry, as well as non-metallic minerals.
By the number of proven reserves iron ore Russia ranks 1st in the world (more than 26% of the world), the balance reserves of the Russian Federation exceed 100 billion tons. Two-thirds of the reserves and resources are concentrated within the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly. Powerful mineral

Rice. 2.19. Distribution of proven reserves of iron ores by constituent entities of the Russian Federation,%

a raw material base is also available in the Urals, Siberia and the Far East (Fig. 2.19). The explored reserves are dominated by poor and medium-quality ores, containing 16-40% iron; the share of high-grade ores with an iron content of 60% that do not require beneficiation is 12%. In terms of the amount of explored high-grade ores, Russia is inferior to Australia and is comparable to Brazil. About 45% of proven reserves are concentrated in seven unique large fields, which account for about 84% of production.
The main deposits of the Kursk magnetic anomaly - Mikhailovskoye (Kursk region), Stoilenskoye, Lebedinskoye, Yakovlevskoye, Stoylo-Lebedinskoye (Belgorod region) - are unique in terms of reserves (from 2.4 billion to 8.5 billion tons). Their ores contain 33 to 40% iron; there are also ores that do not require enrichment. The licenses for the development of the deposits were issued by OJSC Mikhailovsky GOK, OJSC Stoilensky GOK, OJSC Lebedinsky GOK.
The Gusevogorskoye deposit of complex vanadium-titanium-magnetite ores in the Sverdlovsk Region is unique in terms of reserves. The ores are easy-dressing, but the content of iron, mined here along the way, is very low - less than 16%. The operating license is held by OJSC Kachkanarsky GOK-Vanadium. Kovdor apatite-magnetite deposit in the Murmansk region in the
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himself belongs to the large. Iron is mined along with zirconium and phosphorus, its average content is low - from 11 to 21%. The license for its development was issued by Kovdorsky GOK JSC. The ores of the large Kostomuksha deposit in the Republic of Karelia are of low quality (about 30% iron), but easy to concentrate. The subsoil user is OJSC GOK Karelsky Okatysh.
The balance reserves of manganese ores in Russia are insignificant - only about 3.1% of the world. The world leaders - Ukraine (42.4%), South Africa (19.8%), Kazakhstan (8.1%), Gabon (4.3%) and Georgia (4.2%) - account for almost 80% of the reserves. The bulk of Russian reserves are concentrated in Western Siberia (the Usinskoye and Durnovskoye deposits in the Kemerovo region) and the Komi Republic (the Parnokskoye deposit of high-quality iron-manganese ores with a manganese content of 31%). The main consumer is the Serovskiy Ferroalloy Plant. The Tyninskoye and Berezovskoye fields in the Sverdlovsk region are prepared for production. In the undeveloped area of ​​the Krasnoyarsk Territory, there is the Porozhinskoye field. In the future, it is possible to develop deposits in the Jewish Autonomous Region (Yuzhno-Khinganskoye and Bidzhanskoye deposits), as well as the Vortex deposit of iron-manganese nodules in Gulf of Finland... About 90% of Russian reserves are represented by refractory carbonate ores with an average manganese content of 20% (rich ores of foreign countries contain 40-50% manganese and more).
The balance reserves of chrome ores in Russia are 0.5% of the world. Most of the reserves are concentrated in Karelia (Aganozerskoe) and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Rai-Iz). The ores are mostly of low grade. The average content of Cr2O3 is less than 27% (in South Africa - 37%, in Zimbabwe - 43%, in Kazakhstan - 50%). Currently, the main source of chromite raw materials in the country is the Saranovskoye deposit in Perm region... The holder of the mining license is OJSC Saranovskaya mine Rudnaya.
The country has a diverse and rich raw material base for the development of non-ferrous metallurgy. Balance reserves of copper are 3.3% of the world. They are mainly concentrated in the Norilsk ore region, the Urals and Transbaikalia (Fig. 2.20).
The average copper content in Russian deposits is relatively low - 1.06%, but the ores have a multicomponent composition

Rice. 2.20. Distribution of proven reserves copper ore by constituent entities of the Russian Federation,%. Source: Ministry of Natural Resources www.mineral.ru

becoming and, in addition to copper, may contain nickel, cobalt, platinoids, gold, zinc and other valuable components, which determines the high profitability of their mining even in the extreme conditions of the Far North. More than 40% of the explored reserves are concentrated in three copper-nickel deposits on the Taimyr Peninsula - Oktyabrsky, Talnakhsky and Norilsk-I. The deposits are complex, the main components of the ores are nickel and copper, the average copper content is from 0.5 to 4.87%. Licenses for these deposits are at the disposal of OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel.
The Udokan copper sandstone deposit is located in the Trans-Baikal Territory, the explored reserves of which are very large (22.6% of Russian), the average copper content is 1.56%. The deposit is located in a poorly developed area. The license for its development has not yet been issued. Numerous copper-pyrite deposits with zinc have been explored in the Middle and Southern Urals. The largest of them is Gaiskoe in Orenburg region(8% of Russian reserves). The average copper content in ores is 1.3%. The license is owned by Gaysky GOK OJSC. Deposits in Bashkortostan (Podolskoe), Sverdlovsk (Safyanovskoe) and Chelyabinsk regions (Uzelginskoe) also play an important role. All these deposits, except for Podolsk, are being developed.
In terms of nickel reserves, Russia is in 1st place in the world, cobalt - in 3rd. The overwhelming majority of cobalt reserves are associated with nickel deposits, in the ores of which cobalt is an associated component. The explored reserves of nickel and cobalt are localized mainly in the Norilsk region (about 66% of the balance reserves of

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kel of Russia), the Murmansk region and the Urals. The ores are of high quality, which ensures their profitable mining even in the Arctic. The main object of development in recent years has been high-grade ores with a nickel content of up to 3.65%, cobalt - up to 0.1%. More than 98% of the balance reserves of the Norilsk region are licensed and are at the disposal of OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel.
In the ores of sulfide copper-nickel deposits of the Murmansk region, in the Pechenga ore region, more than 18% of the Russian balance reserves of nickel are localized, of which 13% is associated with the Zhdanovskoye deposit. Licensed reserves in this area are also at the disposal of OJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel. Licensed balance reserves of nickel in the Urals are owned by OJSC Kombinat Yuzhuralnickel and OJSC Ufaleinickel.
Lead reserves are accounted for in almost 100 deposits. Many of the domestic deposits are significantly inferior in ore quality to similar foreign objects. Thus, the average lead content in the ores of the Kholodninskoye deposit is 0.6%, while, for example, in the ores of the unique, now mined Australian Broken Hill deposit — 5.5%. In addition, Russian deposits are often found in difficult climatic, mining and technical and hydrogeological conditions, and some cannot be developed for environmental reasons. The largest (Ozernoye and Kholodninskoye in the Republic of Buryatia and Gorevskoye in the Krasnoyarsk Territory) contain more than two-thirds of Russia's explored reserves. The Nikolaev lead-zinc deposit in the Primorsky Territory is much smaller, its ores are not rich, but it provides more than half of the production of lead ores. The subsoil user is Dalpolymetal JSC. The objects of the North Caucasus (the Dzhimidonskoye deposit in North Ossetia in the Sadonsky ore region) remain important.
In terms of proven reserves of zinc (6.2% of the world), Russia ranks 6th in the world. Balance reserves are recorded in more than 120 fields. For the share of eight large deposits- Kholodninsky and Ozerny in the Republic of Buryatia, Korbalikhinsky in Altai Territory, Gaysky, Uzelginsky, Uchalinsky and Novouchalinsky in the Urals and Gorevsky in Krasnoyarsk Territory - account for two thirds
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proven reserves of Russia. The ores of many domestic deposits are noticeably inferior in quality to foreign ones due to the lower content of useful components (as a rule, it does not rise above 5%, while, for example, in Australia, the zinc content in ores averages 6.4%).
The highest quality of ores among the developed deposits is distinguished by the Korbalikhinskoye polymetallic pyrite in the Altai Territory (the company OJSC "Siberia-Polymetal"). In the Urals region, zinc is extracted along with copper during the development of complex ores (Gaiskoe copper-zinc). The license for the development of the Gayskoye deposit is held by the companies JSC Gaysky GOK and JSC Uchalinsky GOK. The development of a number of large deposits is complicated by unfavorable climatic, mining and technical and hydrogeological conditions, environmental issues and remoteness from the centers of metallurgical processing.
In Russia, unlike other countries of the world, raw materials for the aluminum industry are not only bauxite, but also nepheline ores. The balance reserves of bauxite in Russia are quite large, but only 52% of them are suitable for profitable mining. In terms of the amount of economically recoverable reserves, Russia ranks 9th in the world. The main part of the balance reserves of bauxite (92%) is concentrated in the European part of Russia; 81% are reserves of categories A + B + Cr. In total, more than 50 deposits are taken into account by the State balance of the Russian Federation. Seven main fields (Kalinskoye, Novokalinskoye, Cheremukhovskoye, Krasnaya Shapochka in the Severo-Uralsky bauxite-bearing region of the Sverdlovsk region, Iksinsky in the Arkhangelsk region, Vezhayu-Vorykvinsky in the Komi Republic, Vislovsky in the Belgorod region) contain 70% of the explored reserves of bauxite in Russia.
In terms of the volume of proven reserves of tin, Russia ranks 7th in the world. More than 95% is concentrated in hard-to-reach and poorly developed regions of the Far East. In terms of quality, Russian ores are significantly inferior to raw materials from a number of foreign countries. The share of easy-dressing placer ores accounts for only about 12% of reserves, while in such tin-mining countries as Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand - up to 100%. The average tin content in the ores of the explored primary deposits in Russia is 0.32%,
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countries - 0.74%. Due to poor quality and poor washability, difficult economic and geographical conditions, the share of profitable reserves is less than 25% of the explored. Explored reserves are concentrated in more than 200 deposits. The main ones are Churpunnya, Tirekhtyakh and Deputatskoye in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), objects of the Komsomolsk ore region in the Khabarovsk Territory and the Khinganskoye deposit in the Jewish Autonomous Region.
The Tirekhtyakh placer contains more than 4% of the explored reserves of tin in Russia. The Churpunnya primary deposit, small in terms of reserves, contains rich, easy-dressing cassiterite-quartz with tungsten ores with an average tin content of more than 2.5%. OJSC “Deputatskolovo” holds licenses for both deposits. The Korennoye Deputatskoye deposit includes significant reserves of rich, but refractory ores with an average tin content of more than 1%; the deposit is in the state reserve. The licenses for the development of the Festivalnoye, Perevalnoye and Pravourmiyskoye deposits are currently owned by the Novosibirsk Tin Plant OJSC. The Khinganskoye deposit of easy-dressing cassiterite-quartz ores is being developed by JSC Khinganskoye tin. The Tigrinoe deposit (Primorsky Territory) has been put on the state balance sheet. Russia's tungsten resources are almost entirely concentrated in the North Caucasus, Eastern Siberia and the Far East. In terms of proven reserves (10% of the world), Russia ranks third in the world after China (49.7%) and Canada (10.4%). The deposits are mostly complex; the ores also contain molybdenum, copper, bismuth, gold, silver, tellurium, tin, beryllium and scandium. The ores are mostly poor: the average tungsten content in them is only 0.15%, while in the ores of China - 0.33%, Canada - 0.3-1.32%, South Korea and Bolivia - 0.8-0 , 9%, Australia - more than 1%. Deposits with rich ores, containing 3.5% of proven reserves, include Vostok-2 and Lermontovskoe (Primorsky Territory) and the vein Bom-Gorkhon (Zabaikalsky Territory). The Tyrnyauz skarn deposit in Kabardino-Balkaria is very large, but its ores are of low quality. The ores of the Bom-Gorkhon deposit are easy to concentrate, but in terms of reserves, it is classified as small. The Kholtosonskoye field in Buryatia ranks second in terms of reserves in the world after the Xihuashan field in China.
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The object is currently in reserve. Despite the large volumes of proven reserves, the mineral resource base of tungsten in Russia is of low quality and, given the current state of the mining sector, cannot meet the needs of the Russian industry for raw materials. The problem is aggravated by the need to transport concentrates from the eastern regions to processing plants in the European part of the country and the Urals.
In terms of proven reserves of molybdenum, Russia is among the top ten countries in the world (2.1% of the world). Almost 87% is contained in the ores of the molybdenum deposits proper. Most of the explored reserves are concentrated in the south of Eastern Siberia (Sorskoye in the Republic of Khakassia, developed by Sorsk Mining and Processing Plant LLC, and Zhirekenskoye in Transbaikalia, operated by Zhireken Mining and Processing Plant JSC). Here, preparation for the development of a large complex (molybdenum, tungsten, lead, zinc, gold, silver) Bugdainsk deposit is being carried out by the Priargunskoye industrial mining and chemical association OJSC. The asset also includes a large Orekitkanskoye deposit in the Republic of Buryatia with rich ores, the explored reserves of which make up almost 20% of Russian ones. A significant part of the reserves is in the North Caucasus (Tyrnyauz deposit in Kabardino-Balkaria, developed by OJSC Tyrnyauz tungsten-molybdenum combine). An additional raw material for the production of molybdenum can be dumps and tailings, huge volumes of which have been accumulated at the operating mines.
Russia has large reserves of titanium dioxide, ranking third in the world after China and Australia. About 58% of reserves are concentrated in the Komi Republic (Yaregskoye oil-titanium OJSC "Yarega oil-titanium company"), another 40% - in the Trans-Baikal Territory (Chineyskoye and Kruchininskoye, OJSC "Zabaikalinvest"), Murmansk and Chelyabinsk regions (Medvedevskoye, OJSC "Zlatoustovskoe mining administration "). There are also known deposits in Central Russia: Central (Tambov region) and Lukoyanovskoe (Nizhny Novgorod region, OOO Geostar), as well as Beshpagir titanium-zirconium in the Stavropol Territory, Tarskoe in the Omsk region (OJSC Zirkongeologiya), Tugan - in Tomsk (JSC "Tomskneftegazgeologia"). Titanium ores in Russia are
85
but poorer than in the main countries - producers of titanium concentrates (Canada, Norway, Australia).
In terms of the amount of balance reserves of niobium pentoxide, Russia ranks second in the world after Brazil. More than 65% of ores are concentrated in Eastern Siberia (Beloziminskoe deposit in the Irkutsk region, Ulug-Tanzekskoe in the Tyva Republic, Katuginskoe in the Chita region). About 30% falls on the Murmansk region (Lovozerskoye deposit, CJSC Lovozerskaya mining and processing company). The Tatar apatite ore deposit in the Krasnoyarsk Territory is being developed for niobium (subsoil user - OJSC Stalmag, a subsidiary of OJSC Severstal). Perspekivno Tomtor deposit in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The main part of ferroniobium is used in the production of low-alloy structural steels used in bridge, ship and automotive industries, as well as in the production of large-diameter pipes for gas and oil pipelines. The demand for niobium in Russia is very low, but it will obviously grow, since even without taking into account the construction of new pipelines, only for the manufacture of pipes to replace those that have served their life, at least 1000 tons of niobium are required per year.
The bulk of the explored reserves of tantalum are concentrated in three deposits: Ulug-Tanzekskoye (37%) in the Tyva Republic, Lovozerskoye (23%) in the Murmansk region and Katuginskoye (14%) in Transbaikalia. Preparations are underway for the development of the Vishnyakovskoye tantalum deposit in the Irkutsk region.
The balance reserves of rare earth metals are concentrated mainly in poor complex apatite and rare-metal ores of the Lovozersk deposit in the Murmansk region, very small in the Transbaikal Territory (Katuginskoe deposit). The unique in terms of content, the Tomtor field in the northwest of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is located in a remote, underdeveloped area.
In terms of balance reserves of gold, Russia ranks third in the world after South Africa and the United States; according to the forecasted - the second after South Africa. The basis of the mineral resource base is formed by the deposits of Siberia and the Far East, in which up to 75% of the balance reserves of industrial categories are concentrated. More than half is concentrated in large and super-large fields (Table 13).

Major deposits of gold in Russia
Table 13

		Stocks (A + B + C1), t
Sukhoi Log (Irkutsk region)	Gold-sulfide quartz, Unallocated fund	1378,9	2,1
Natalkinskoe (Magadan region)	Gold-sulfide quartz, JSC "Mine im. Matrosov "	1262,8	1,7
Nezhdaninskoe (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)	Gold-sulfide quartz, OJSC Yuzhno-Verkhoyan. s / ext. company"	219,9	5
Olympiadinskoe (Krasnoyarsk Territory)	Gold- antimonite, CJSC ZDK Polyus	215,1	4
Berezovskoe (Sverdlovsk region)	Gold-sulfide quartz, LLC "Berezovskoe Ore Management"	63,1	1,9
Klyuchevskoe (Trans-Baikal Territory)	Gold-sulfide-quartz, Zapadnaya-Klyuchi Mine CJSC	51	2,3
Multi-vertex (Khabarovsk Territory)	Gold-adularia-quartz, LLC "Mnogovershinnoe"	48,3	10,5
Mayskoe (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug)	Gold- antimonite, LLC "ZRK" Mayskoye "	44,4	15
Khakandzhinskoe (Khabarovsk Territory)	Gold-adularia-quartz, JV OJSC "Okhotsk GGK"	35,4	7,2
Svetlinskoe ( Chelyabinsk region)	Gold-quartz-sulphide, CJSC "Yuzhuralzoloto Group of Companies"	34,3	2,7

The name of the deposit and its location	Geological type and subsoil user	Stocks (A + B + C1), t	Gold content in ores, g / t
Darasunskoe (Trans-Baikal Territory)	Gold-quartz-sulphide, LLC "Darasunsky mine"	31,5	14,8
Vorontsovskoe (Sverdlovsk region)	Gold-sulfide, CJSC "Gold of the Northern Urals"	30,7	8,4
Berezitovoe (Amur region)	Gold-sulfide, LLC "Berezitovy mine"	30,3	3
Baleyskoe (Transbaikal region)	Gold-adularia- quartz, Unallocated fund	28,8	2,1
Karalveemskoe (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug)	Gold - sulfide - quartz, OJSC "Mine" Karalveem "	28,1	32,4
Amethyst (Kamchatka Territory)	Silver-gold, DP CJSC Koryakgeoldob. "Amethyst"	26,4	15,3
El Dorado (Krasnoyarsk region)	Gold-quartz-sulphide, LLC "Sovrudnik"	22,9	3
Zun-Kholbinskoe (Republic of Buryatia)	Gold - sulfide - quartz, LLC "Buryatzoloto"	22,2	10,6
Aginskoe (Kamchatka Territory)	Gold and silver, CJSC "Kamgold"	22,0	41,4
Pokrovskoe (Amur region)	Gold-adularia-quartz, Pokrovsky Rudnik OJSC	18,8	4,2
Bolshoi Kuranakh River (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)	Alluvial placer, JSC "GDK" Aldgold "	17,5	241 mg / cubic meter

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the total forest area in the world exceeds 3.4 billion hectares, or 27% of the earth's land area. The FAO estimates are based on the determination that all ecological systems with a tree cover density of at least 10% in developing countries and at least 20% in developed countries identified as forests.

In addition, according to the adopted methodology of forest classification, 1.7 billion hectares of land occupied by trees and shrubs should be added to this area. More than half of the world's forest area (51%) is located in four countries: Russia - 22%, Brazil - 16%, Canada - 7%, USA - 6%

The FAO estimates the total timber stock in the world's forests by compiling data for 166 countries that cover 99% of the world's forest area. It amounted to 386 billion cubic meters in 2000.

The total amount of aboveground woody biomass in the world is estimated at 422 billion tons. About 27% of the aboveground woody biomass is concentrated in Brazil and about 25% in Russia (due to the area).

The average amount of woody biomass per hectare of forests on the planet is 109 tons / ha. Maximum amount woody biomass per hectare is recorded for South America as a whole. The largest stock of timber per hectare is also noted here (in Guatemala - 355 m3 / ha). Central European countries also have very high timber stocks per hectare (in Austria - 286 m3 / ha).

The Global Forest Assessment is based on information provided by each country to FAO in a recommended format. It is also customary to combine these data according to the zones of forest growth: tropical, temperate and boreal zones on the basis of the conditional division of the earth's surface into physical-geographical zones.

Forest zones are called natural areas land boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical, subequatorial and equatorial belt, in the natural landscapes of which forest trees and shrubs prevail. Forest zones are widespread in conditions of sufficient or excessive moisture. The most typical for the growth of forests is a humid or humid climate. According to the geomorphological classification, the climate of areas with excessive moisture is considered to be humid, when precipitation exceeds the amount of moisture that goes for evaporation and percolation into the soil, and excess moisture is removed by river runoff, which contributes to the development of erosional landforms.

The typical vegetation of landscapes with a humid climate is a forest. There are two types of humid climate: polar - with permafrost and phreatic - with groundwater.

The world's rainforests cover an area of ​​1.7 billion hectares, which is about 37% of the land area of ​​countries located in the tropical zone of our planet. In the tropical zone, subequatorial monsoon forests, equatorial rainforests, tropical evergreen, tropical deciduous and semi-deciduous forests, including mangroves and savannas.

All the forests of this belt of the earth develop on the so-called red earth - ferralite soils, which formed on the weathering crust of the ancient land of the earth, which has undergone deep weathering (ferrallitization), as a result of which almost all primary minerals are destroyed. The humus content in the upper horizon of these soils is from 1-1.5 to 8-10%. Sometimes ferruginous crusts are formed on the soil surface.

Ferralite soils are common in South and Central America, Central Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Northern Australia. After clearing the forests on these soils, hevea plantations are created to collect natural rubber, oil or coconut palms, as well as a classic set of tropical crops: sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, banana, pineapple, tea, black and white pepper, ginger, etc. culture.

Forest zones of the temperate zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres include the taiga zone, the zone mixed forests, zone of deciduous forests and monsoon forests of the temperate zone.

A characteristic feature of the forest zones of temperate zones is the seasonality of natural processes. Coniferous and deciduous forests with a relatively simple structure and a small variety of vegetation cover are widespread here. Podzolic and brown earth types of soil formation prevail.

Temperate forests cover an area of ​​0.76 billion hectares in five regions of the world: eastern North America, most of Europe, eastern Asian subcontinent, a small part in the Middle East and Patagonia (Chile).

Boreal forests grow in the latitudinal zone between the arctic tundra and temperate forests. The total area of ​​forest land in the boreal belt of the planet is estimated at 1.2 billion hectares, of which 0.92 billion hectares of closed forests, including 0.64 billion hectares of forests called exploitable.

Boreal forests grow mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. Their total area in North America and Eurasia is almost 30% of the total forest area of ​​the planet.

In total, the area of ​​boreal forests is 82.1% of the total forest area of ​​the six countries in which they grow. In Canada, boreal forests are 75% of forests, in the USA (Alaska) - 88%, in Norway - 80%, in Sweden - 77%, in Finland - 98% and in Russia - an average of about 67%.

Tropical forests are characterized by a thick weathering crust and intense runoff. The subzone of permanently moist forests is dominated by evergreen forests with exceptional species diversity on red-yellow lateritic soils. In the subzone of seasonally humid forests, along with evergreen forests, deciduous forests on red ferralite soils are widespread.

Equatorial rainforest zones are common on both sides of the equator in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the islands of Oceania. In zones equatorial forests there is almost no seasonal rhythm of natural processes, moisture is abundant, temperatures are constantly high, rivers are rich in water, soils are lateritic podzolized, along the sea coasts there are mangrove communities.

The forest that grows here is commonly known as the evergreen rain forest. a tropical forest... This forest has become a symbol of the struggle for forest conservation and conservation biological diversity, since it is a multi-layer arboreal formations growing in conditions of year-round moisture and has a high density of animal population, especially in the upper layers of the forest.

Less than 1 billion hectares (718.3 million hectares) of such forests remain on the globe, mainly in Brazil, i.e. about 41% of the total rainforest area or about 16% of the planet's forest area.

Subequatorial monsoon forests are common in Central and South America, Africa, southern Asia and northeastern Australia. In these zones, the climate is characterized by the dominance of equatorial monsoons. The dry season lasts 2.5-4.5 months. The soils are red-colored lateritic. Mixed deciduous-evergreen and deciduous forests prevail.

Humid tropical evergreen, semi-deciduous and deciduous forests are the predominant vegetation in the eastern sectors of the continents within tropical belts Northern and Southern Hemispheres (southern Florida, Central and South America, India, Madagascar, Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania and the Malay Archipelago. oceanic trade winds.

According to the Forest Information System (FORIS), created by FAO, of the total area of ​​tropical forests (1756.3 million hectares), plain forests account for 88%, mountain forests - 11.6%, and alpine areas not occupied by woody vegetation - 0.4%. Among the lowland tropical forests, the largest area is occupied by rainforest evergreen tropical forests (718.3 million hectares in 1990), the forest cover of these territories is 76%. They are followed by humid tropical deciduous forests, whose area is 587.3 million hectares (forest cover 46%). Dry deciduous tropical forests occupied only 238.3 million hectares (forest cover 19%). The area of ​​mountain forests was 204.3 million hectares (forest cover 29%).

Land released from the virgin rainforest for agricultural use is losing fertility very quickly. For several years, abandoned agricultural lands have been overgrown with the so-called secondary tropical forest; secondary after the virgin.

The most typical feature of the secondary tropical forest is the depleted and fairly uniform ecological characteristics of the species composition of trees - edificators.

The species of trees in the secondary rainforest are characterized by relative light-love, rapid growth, and the ability to effectively disperse seeds, i.e. less dependence on consort relationships with seed-distributing animals than the trees of the primary rainforest. But as the secondary forest develops, it is more and more approaching in its appearance to the parent formation.

The rainforests are heterogeneous. The total number of woody plants in tropical forests exceeds four thousand. At the same time, the number of the main forest-forming tree species exceeds 400 species. Therefore, the rainforest is a complex mosaic of evergreen, semi-evergreen (semi-deciduous), mixed, deciduous and coniferous forests, which is formed under the influence of orographic and edapho-climatic factors.

The edapho-climatic types of tropical forest formations such as savannas, bamboo thickets, and mangrove forests stand out.

Unlike other forest formations, the species composition of natural mangrove forests is small. The mangroves proper, which determine the specific appearance of this formation, are the species of two families Rhizophoraceae (genera Rhizophora and Bruguiera) and Verbenaceae (genus Avicennia); The core of the formation is formed by 12-14 mangrove species.

It is believed that with the help of mangrove forests there is not only consolidation, but also an increase in the land of the countries of the Pacific region.

These include: wood, mushrooms, berries, medicinal plants, fruits, etc. Also, part of these resources can be considered their useful properties, such as protection from natural disasters and soil erosion, health improvement, climate regulation, etc.

The value and use of forest resources

Forests cover more than 26% of the land surface, or just over 3.8 billion hectares. The world's total forest resources are negatively impacted by deforestation, resulting in a global net loss of forests of about 8 million hectares per year. However, in parallel with deforestation, in some regions there is an increase in forest areas, due to natural processes or the planting of new plantings.

World forest resources map

Ecology and problems of using forest resources

Deforestation began thousands of years ago, and timber was used to build ships and houses. However, over the past 20 years, more than 300 million hectares of rainforest (more than India's area) have been destroyed for Agriculture, mining or urban development. Due to the vigorous activity of people, forest resources have lost about 50% of the area, which in itself significantly disrupts the global carbon cycle.

Estimates from the World Resources Institute have shown that at the current rate of deforestation, about 40% of modern intact forests will disappear within 10-20 years. Their loss will reduce the number of trees absorbing carbon dioxide, and, in addition, the cut trees will release the accumulated carbon.

Reasons for the disappearance of forests

The main reasons for the loss of forests are:

• agricultural activity (growing agricultural products, cattle breeding, etc.);
• logging industry;
• mining and oil production;
• construction of large dams for hydroelectric power plants (which lead to the flooding of vast forests);
• unreasonable policies that increase the export of forests;
• global warming (deforestation contributes to global warming, and this, in turn, leads to the disappearance of forests that are not able to adapt to climate change);
• forest fires (6-14 million hectares of forests disappear annually from fires);
• illegal deforestation (it accounts for almost 70% of the total deforestation);
• use of forests for heat generation (mainly in undeveloped regions).

What are the consequences of deforestation?

Deforestation (and destruction of their natural functions) causes many serious problems:

• Loss of trees exacerbates global warming

Protection and rational use of forest natural resources includes the following steps:

Regulated and planned felling of trees

Commercial tree felling is one of the main causes of deforestation. Although trees are considered an inexhaustible and renewable natural resource, when exploited on a very large scale, their restoration may not be possible.

With this approach, only mature and useless trees are used for felling, and the area of ​​the felled area does not exceed 1/10 of the total. Then, young trees are planted in their place, which will perform all the necessary functions much better.

Forest fire control

The destruction or loss of forests by fires is fairly common. This is due to the flammability of the trees and the difficulty in controlling and extinguishing the fire. Sometimes, a fire starts due to natural factors (lightning strike, friction of trees in strong winds or abnormal heat), however, in most cases, this happens due to the intentional or unintentional participation of people.

In order to save forests from fires, it is necessary to adopt the latest fire fighting techniques, which include complex actions and special training of firefighters, as well as the maximum provision of modern equipment.

Reforestation and afforestation

Whenever trees are cut down, the treeless area is reforested. In this case, both natural and artificial methods can be used. Likewise, any wooded area that has been destroyed by fire or mining must be rehabilitated.

In addition to all this, it is necessary to introduce promising afforestation programs. New forest areas will not only increase the total area of ​​forest resources, but also help create an ecological balance. For afforestation, trees must be selected according to local geographic conditions.

Control of deforestation for agricultural and residential purposes

Most of the modern agricultural lands and lands under settlements were once forests, which were cleared of trees and began to be actively used. Currently, this process has reached a stage where further deforestation will damage the entire ecosystem. To preserve forests, it is necessary to develop an alternative method that will not harm ecological system and at the same time, satisfy all the necessary needs of humanity.

Protecting forests

Active government involvement in forest conservation

To preserve forests at the state level, it is necessary to introduce regional and national programs for rational use and protection of forests, identify areas for reforestation, regulate commercial use of forests, establish National Parks, encourage afforestation, and create short- and long-term concepts for efficient forest use.

Forests are a source of construction materials and raw materials for multi-purpose purposes; source of biological resources.

The world's forest resources are characterized primarily by indicators of forest cover, forest area and standing timber.

The forest area indicator reflects the size of the area covered by forests, including per capita. Forest cover shows the ratio of forest area to common area country. Standing stock is usually determined by multiplying the average amount of wood (in cubic meters) from 1 m 2 by the area occupied by forests.

The total area of ​​forests in the world is 4 billion hectares. The largest area of ​​forests is preserved in Eurasia. This is about 40% of all the world's forests and almost 42% of the total timber stock, including 2/3 of the timber of the most valuable species. Australia has the least forest cover. Since the continents vary in size, it is important to take into account their forest cover. According to this indicator, South America takes the first place in the world. In the economic assessment of forest resources, such a characteristic as wood reserves is of paramount importance. On this basis, the countries of Asia, South and North America are distinguished. Leading positions in this area are occupied by countries such as Russia, Canada, Brazil and the United States. Bahrain, Qatar, Libya, etc. are characterized by a virtual absence of forests. Most of the forested area falls on the countries of Latin America (930 million hectares), the CIS (810 million hectares), Africa (720 million hectares), North America (680 million hectares) and overseas Asia (540 million hectares). Here in some places (Asian part of Russia, Canada, tropical countries South and Southeast Asia, equatorial Africa, the countries of the Amazon basin and Central America) forests are located in huge continuous tracts (the forest cover is very high and sometimes reaches 75-95%).

In foreign Europe, forests occupy a relatively small area (160 million hectares) and are located mainly in its northern part (France, Germany, Finland, Sweden, Norway). The most wooded European countries are Finland (59%) and Sweden (54%). Wooded area Australia and Oceania are also small - 160 million hectares. This region of the world also has the lowest forest cover (20%).

The world's forests form two vast forest belts - northern and southern. The northern forest belt is located in a temperate and partly subtropical climate zone. It accounts for half of all the world's forests and almost the same share of all timber reserves. The most forested countries within this belt are Russia, USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden. The southern forest belt is located mainly in the tropical and equatorial climate zone. It also accounts for about half of the world's forested areas and total timber reserves. They are concentrated mainly in three regions: the Amazon, the Congo Basin and Southeast Asia.

Recently, there has been a catastrophically rapid deforestation of tropical forests. They are under threat of complete destruction. Over the past 200 years, the forest area has decreased at least 2 times. Every year, a forest is destroyed on an area of ​​125 thousand km 2, which is equal to the territory of countries such as Austria and Switzerland combined. The main reasons for deforestation are: expansion of agricultural land and deforestation for the purpose of using wood. Forests are cleared due to the construction of communication lines. The green cover of the tropics is most intensively destroyed. In most developing countries, logging is carried out in connection with the use of wood for fuel, and forests are burned to obtain arable land. Forests in highly developed countries are decreasing and degrading from air and soil pollution. There is a massive drying out of the tops of trees, due to their damage by acid rain. The consequences of deforestation are unfavorable for pastures and arable lands. This situation could not go unnoticed. The most developed and at the same time low-forest countries are already implementing programs for the preservation and improvement of forest lands. So, in Japan and Australia, as well as in some Western European countries, the area under forests

remain stable and stand depletion is not observed.

Forest is of great importance for life on Earth, it is a source of raw materials in various sectors of the economy (construction, woodworking, hydrolysis, pulp and paper industry, etc.) Wood is widely used both as fuel and in everyday life.

The forests of Russia, which is the world's leader in reserves (81.6 billion cubic meters or over 23% of the world's reserves) and the area (771.1 million hectares) of forest resources, cover almost half (45%) of the country's territory. Conifers prevail (larch, pine, spruce, cedar, fir), which account for 82% of all timber reserves in the country, 16% are soft-leaved (aspen, birch, alder) and 2% are hardwood (oak and beech) breed. Forests are mainly concentrated in the eastern regions - about 80% of their reserves fall on the share of Siberia and the Far East. The Krasnoyarsk Territory and the Irkutsk Region, the Khabarovsk and Primorsky Territories, and the Amur Region are especially rich in forest. The forests in these areas are not only large in reserves, but also have a high quality composition (larch, pine, cedar, rare broad-leaved species).

In the rest of Russia, the European North (Republic of Komi and Karelia, Arkhangelsk and Volgograd regions) and the Urals (Perm and Sverdlovsk region). Forests are actively exploited in all of the above-mentioned areas. Russia is ahead of many countries of the world in terms of forest area per capita. This figure is equal here to 3 hectares, while in the world as a whole it is 0.8 hectares, in foreign Europe - 0.3 hectares, foreign Asia - 0.2 hectares, in Africa - 1.3 hectares, North America - 2.5 hectares, Latin America - 2.2 hectares, Australia and Oceania - 6.4 hectares. Russia also stands out in terms of the size of harvesting and timber transportation.

In Russia, as well as in countries Northern Europe, North and Latin America, Asia and Africa, forests are very badly affected by deforestation (at present, around the world as a whole, the volume of logging approximately corresponds to the annual increase in wood - 3.6 billion m 3), forest fires, acid rain and other phenomena. As a result, the area of ​​forests on Earth is decreasing annually (up to 0.6% per year), which creates a real threat of their complete destruction.