Livonian War

The struggle of Russia, Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the "Livonian heritage"

Victory of the Commonwealth and Sweden

Territorial changes:

Annexation by the Commonwealth of Velizh and Livonia; Swedish annexation of Ingria and Karelia

Opponents

Livonian Confederation (1558-1561)

Don Army (1570-1583)

Kingdom of Poland (1563-1569)

Livonian Kingdom (1570-1577)

Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1563-1569)

Sweden (1563-1583)

Army Zaporozhye (1568-1582)

Rzeczpospolita (1569-1582)

Commanders

Ivan IV the Terrible Khan Shah Ali King of Livonia Magnus in 1570-1577

Former King Magnus after 1577 Stefan Batory

Frederick II

Livonian War(1558-1583) was fought by the Russian Kingdom for the territories in the Baltic and access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from the Livonian Confederation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

background

The Livonian Confederation was interested in controlling the transit of Russian trade and significantly limited the possibilities of Russian merchants. In particular, all trade exchange with Europe could be carried out only through the Livonian ports of Riga, Lindanise (Revel), Narva, and it was possible to transport goods only on the ships of the Hanseatic League. At the same time, fearing the military and economic strengthening of Russia, the Livonian Confederation prevented the transport of strategic raw materials and specialists to Russia (see the Schlitte case), receiving the assistance of Hansa, Poland, Sweden and the German imperial authorities in this.

In 1503, Ivan III concluded a truce with the Livonian Confederation for 50 years, according to which it had to annually pay tribute (the so-called "Yuryev tribute") for the city of Yuryev (Derpt), which previously belonged to Novgorod. Treaties between Moscow and Derpt in the 16th century traditionally referred to the "Yuryev tribute", but in fact it had long been forgotten. When the truce expired, during the negotiations in 1554, Ivan IV demanded the return of arrears, the refusal of the Livonian Confederation from military alliances with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, and the continuation of the truce.

The first payment of the debt for Dorpat was to take place in 1557, but the Livonian Confederation did not fulfill its obligation.

In 1557, in the city of Posvol, an agreement was concluded between the Livonian Confederation and the Kingdom of Poland, establishing the vassal dependence of the Order on Poland.

In the spring of 1557, Tsar Ivan IV set up a port on the banks of the Narva ( “The same year, July, a city was set up from the German Ust-Narova River Rozsen by the sea for the shelter of a sea ship”). However, Livonia and Hanseatic League European merchants are not allowed to enter the new Russian port, and they are forced to go, as before, to the Livonian ports.

The course of the war

By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Confederation was weakened by a defeat in a conflict with the Archbishop of Riga and Sigismund II Augustus. In addition, the already heterogeneous Livonian society was even more split as a result of the reformation. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after victories over the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the annexation of Kabarda.

War with the Livonian Confederation

Russia started the war on January 17, 1558. The invasion of Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. It was attended by 40 thousand people under the command of Khan Shig-Aley (Shah-Ali), governor of Glinsky and Zakharyin-Yuriev. They passed through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March. The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive the due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers for settlement with Moscow in order to stop the outbreak of war. However, by May, only half of the amount claimed had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired on the Ivangorod fortress, which violated the ceasefire agreement.

This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put in the field, not counting the fortress garrisons, no more than 10 thousand. Thus, its main military asset was the powerful stone walls of the fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.

Governors Aleksey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Focht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Virgin into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the city walls, the Russians rushed to the assault. They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having seized the guns located there, the warriors deployed them and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, the defenders of the castle themselves surrendered by the evening, on the terms of a free exit from the city.

The defense of the Neuhausen fortress distinguished itself with particular perseverance. She was defended by several hundred soldiers led by the knight von Padenorm, who for almost a month repelled the onslaught of the governor Peter Shuisky. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to keep the defense here, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Peter Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.

In July, P. Shuisky laid siege to Dorpat. The city was defended by a garrison of 2,000 men under the command of Bishop Hermann Weiland. Having built a shaft at the level of the fortress walls and installing guns on it, on July 11, Russian artillery began shelling the city. The cores pierced the tiles of the roofs of houses, filling up the inhabitants who were hiding there. On July 15, P. Shuisky offered Weiland to surrender. While he thought, the bombardment continued. Some towers and loopholes were destroyed. Having lost hope of outside help, the besieged decided to enter into negotiations with the Russians. P. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city to the ground and to preserve its former administration for its inhabitants. July 18, 1558 Dorpat capitulated. The troops were stationed in abandoned houses. In one of them, the warriors found 80 thousand thalers in a cache. The Livonian historian bitterly narrates that, because of their greed, the Derptians lost more than the Russian Tsar demanded from them. The funds found would be enough not only for the Yuryev tribute, but also for hiring troops to protect the Livonian Confederation.

In May-October 1558, Russian troops took 20 fortress cities, including those that voluntarily surrendered and became subjects of the Russian Tsar, after which they went to their winter quarters, leaving small garrisons in the cities. The new energetic master Gotthard Ketler took advantage of this. Gathering 10,000 army, he decided to return the lost. At the end of 1558, Ketler approached the Ringen fortress, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers under the command of governor Rusin-Ignatiev. A detachment of governor Repnin (2 thousand people) went to help the besieged, but he was defeated by Ketler. However, the Russian garrison continued to defend the fortress for five weeks, and only when the defenders ran out of gunpowder, the Germans managed to take the fortress by storm. The entire garrison was killed. Having lost a fifth of his troops near Ringen (2 thousand people) and spending more than a month on the siege of one fortress, Ketler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October 1558, his army retreated to Riga. This small victory turned into a big disaster for the Livonians.

In response to the actions of the Livonian Confederation, two months after the fall of the Ringen fortress, Russian troops carried out a winter raid, which was a punitive operation. In January 1559, the prince-voivode Serebryany at the head of the army entered Livonia. The Livonian army under the command of the knight Felkenzam came out to meet him. On January 17, at the Battle of Terzen, the Germans were completely defeated. Felkenzam and 400 knights (not counting ordinary soldiers) died in this battle, the rest were captured or fled. This victory opened wide the gates to Livonia for the Russians. They freely passed through the lands of the Livonian Confederation, captured 11 cities and reached Riga, where they burned the Riga fleet on the Dyunamun raid. Then Courland lay on the path of the Russian army and, having passed it, they reached the Prussian border. In February, the army returned home with huge booty and a large number of prisoners.

After the winter raid of 1559, Ivan IV granted the Livonian Confederation a truce (the third in a row) from March to November, without consolidating his success. This miscalculation was due to a number of reasons. Moscow was under serious pressure from Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark, which had their own views on the Livonian lands. From March 1559, Lithuanian ambassadors urged Ivan IV to stop hostilities in Livonia, threatening, otherwise, to take the side of the Livonian Confederation. Soon, the Swedish and Danish ambassadors addressed with requests to stop the war.

With its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade on the Baltic Sea then grew from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant. Reval merchants, having lost the most important item of their profits - income from Russian transit, complained to the Swedish king: “ We stand on the walls and watch with tears as merchant ships go past our city to the Russians in Narva».

In addition, the presence of Russians in Livonia affected the complex and intricate pan-European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent. So, for example, the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus wrote to the English Queen Elizabeth I about the importance of the Russians in Livonia: “ The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because here, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him ... military experts come, through which he acquires the means to defeat everyone ...».

The truce was also driven by disagreements over foreign strategy within the Russian leadership itself. There, in addition to supporters of access to the Baltic Sea, there were those who advocated the continuation of the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. In fact, the main initiator of the truce of 1559 was the roundabout Alexei Adashev. This grouping reflected the mood of those circles of the nobility who, in addition to eliminating the threat from the steppes, wanted to receive a large additional land fund in the steppe zone. During this truce, the Russians struck at the Crimean Khanate, which, however, did not have significant consequences. More global consequences had a truce with Livonia.

Truce of 1559

Already in the first year of the war, in addition to Narva, Yuryev (July 18), Neishloss, Neuhaus were occupied, the troops of the Livonian Confederation were defeated near Tirzen near Riga, Russian troops reached Kolyvan. The raids of the Crimean Tatar hordes on the southern borders of Russia, which happened already in January 1558, could not tie down the initiative of the Russian troops in the Baltic.

However, in March 1559, under the influence of Denmark and representatives of the major boyars, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, a truce was concluded with the Livonian Confederation, which lasted until November. Historian R. G. Skrynnikov emphasizes that the Russian government, represented by Adashev and Viskovaty, “should have concluded a truce on the western borders,” as it was preparing for a “decisive clash on the southern border.”

During the armistice (August 31), the Livonian Landsmeister of the Teutonic Order, Gotthard Ketler, concluded an agreement in Vilna with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II, according to which the lands of the order and the possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under “clientella and patronage”, that is, under the protectorate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the same year, 1559, Reval ceded to Sweden, and the Bishop of Ezel ceded the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to Duke Magnus, brother of the Danish king, for 30 thousand thalers.

Taking advantage of the delay, the Livonian Confederation gathered reinforcements, and a month before the end of the truce in the vicinity of Yuryev, its detachments attacked the Russian troops. Russian governors lost more than 1000 people killed.

In 1560, the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg (now Aluksne in Latvia) was taken; German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed.

During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Wilhelm von Furstenberg, was captured. In 1575, he sent a letter to his brother from Yaroslavl, where the land was granted to the former Landmaster. He told a relative that he "had no reason to complain about his fate."

Sweden and Lithuania, which acquired the Livonian lands, demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused and Russia found itself in conflict with the coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.

War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

On November 26, 1561, the German emperor Ferdinand I banned the supply of Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blocked the port of Narva and sent Swedish privateers to intercept merchant ships sailing to Narva.

In 1562, Lithuanian troops raided the Smolensk region and Velizh. In the summer of that year, the situation on the southern borders of the Muscovite state escalated, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to autumn.

The way to the Lithuanian capital Vilna was closed by Polotsk. In January 1563, the Russian army, which included "almost all the armed forces of the country," set out to capture this border fortress from Velikie Luki. In early February, the Russian army began the siege of Polotsk, and on February 15 the city surrendered.

According to the Pskov Chronicle, during the capture of Polotsk, Ivan the Terrible ordered all Jews to be baptized on the spot, and those who refused (300 people) ordered to be drowned in the Dvina. Karamzin mentions that after the capture of Polotsk, John ordered "to baptize all the Jews, and drown the disobedient in the Dvina."

After the capture of Polotsk, Russia's successes in the Livonian War began to decline. Already in 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). The boyar and a major military leader, who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A. M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania, he betrayed the king's agents in the Baltic states and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikie Luki.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to the military failures and unwillingness of eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.

Third period of the war

The Union of Lublin had serious consequences, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569 into one state - the Republic of Both Nations. A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden again aggravated, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of Both Nations for a long “kinglessness”, the creation in Livonia of the vassal “kingdom” of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed the scales to tip in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet Giray was destroyed and the threat of large raids was eliminated. Crimean Tatars(Battle of Molodi). In 1573 the Russians stormed the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near Lode Castle in western Estonia with a Swedish army of two thousand. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and baggage.

In 1575, the fortress of Sage surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov (now Pärnu in Estonia) surrendered to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Kolyvan.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to the Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, serious internal difficulties (the economic ruin looming over the country) negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia.

Fourth period of the war

Stefan Batory, who, with the active support of the Turks (1576), took the throne of the Republic of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, went on the offensive, occupied Wenden (1578), Polotsk (1579), Sokol, Velizh, Usvyat, Velikiye Luki. In the captured fortresses, the Poles and Lithuanians completely destroyed the Russian garrisons. In Velikiye Luki, the Poles exterminated the entire population, about 7 thousand people. Polish and Lithuanian detachments ravaged the Smolensk region, Seversk land, Ryazan region, south-west of the Novgorod region, plundered Russian lands up to the headwaters of the Volga. The devastation they caused was reminiscent of the worst Tatar raids. The Lithuanian voivode Filon Kmita from Orsha burned 2000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge full. The Lithuanian magnates Ostrozhsky and Vishnevetsky, with the help of light cavalry detachments, plundered the Chernihiv region. The cavalry of the gentry Jan Solomeretsky ravaged the environs of Yaroslavl. In February 1581, the Lithuanians burned Staraya Russa.

In 1581, the Polish-Lithuanian army, which included mercenaries from almost all of Europe, besieged Pskov, intending, if successful, to go to Novgorod the Great and Moscow. In November 1580, the Swedes took Korela, where 2 thousand Russians were exterminated, and in 1581 they occupied Rugodiv (Narva), which was also accompanied by a massacre - 7 thousand Russians died; the victors did not take prisoners and did not spare civilians. The heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582 by the garrison and the population of the city determined a more favorable outcome of the war for Russia: the failure near Pskov forced Stefan Batory to enter into peace negotiations.

Results and consequences

In January 1582, in Yama-Zapolny (near Pskov), a 10-year truce was concluded with the Republic of Both Nations (the Commonwealth) (the so-called Yam-Zapolsky peace). Russia abandoned Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border lands were returned to it.

In May 1583, a 3-year Plyussky truce with Sweden was concluded, according to which Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the adjacent territory of the southern coast were ceded. Gulf of Finland. Russian state once again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, and the northwestern regions were depopulated.

It should also be noted that the Crimean raids influenced the course of the war and its results: only for 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no significant raids.

The Livonian War of 1558-1583 became one of the most important campaigns of the times of Yes and of the entire 16th century, perhaps.

Livonian War: briefly about the prerequisites

After the great Moscow Tsar managed to conquer Kazan and

Astrakhan Khanate, Ivan IV turned his attention to the Baltic lands and access to the Baltic Sea. The capture of these territories for the Muscovite kingdom would mean promising opportunities for trade in the Baltic. At the same time, it was extremely unprofitable for the German merchants and the Livonian Order, who had already settled there, to allow new competitors into the region. The resolution of these contradictions was to be the Livonian War. We should also briefly mention the formal reason for it. They were served by the non-payment of the tribute that the Derpt bishopric was obliged to pay in favor of Moscow in accordance with the 1554 agreement. Formally, such a tribute has existed since the beginning of the 16th century. However, in practice, no one remembered about it for a long time. Only with the aggravation of relations between the parties did he use this fact as a justification for the Russian invasion of the Baltic.

Livonian war: briefly about the ups and downs of the conflict

Russian troops launched an invasion of Livonia in 1558. The first stage of the clash, which lasted until 1561, ended

crushing defeat of the Livonian Order. The armies of the Muscovite tsar marched through eastern and central Livonia with pogroms. Dorpat and Riga were taken. In 1559, the parties concluded a truce for six months, which was to develop into a peace treaty on the terms of the Livonian Order from Russia. But the kings of Poland and Sweden hurried to help the German knights. King Sigismund II, by a diplomatic maneuver, managed to take the order under his own protectorate. And in November 1561, under the terms of the Vilna Treaty, the Livonian Order ceases to exist. Its territories are divided between Lithuania and Poland. Now Ivan the Terrible had to confront three powerful rivals at once: the Principality of Lithuania, the Kingdoms of Poland and Sweden. With the latter, however, the Muscovite tsar managed to quickly make peace for a while. In 1562-63, the second large-scale campaign to the Baltic began. The events of the Livonian War at this stage continued to develop successfully. However, already in the mid-1560s, relations between Ivan the Terrible and the boyars of the Chosen Rada escalated to the limit. The situation worsens even more due to the flight of one of the closest princely associates of Andrei Kurbsky to Lithuania and his defection to the side of the enemy (the reason that prompted the boyar was the growing despotism in the Moscow principality and the infringement of the ancient liberties of the boyars). After this event, Ivan the Terrible finally hardens, seeing around him solid traitors. In parallel with this, defeats at the front also occur, which were explained by the prince's internal enemies. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united into a single state, which

strengthens their power. In the late 1560s - early 70s, Russian troops suffered a series of defeats and even lost several fortresses. Since 1579, the war has been taking on a more defensive character. However, in 1579 Polotsk was captured by the enemy, in 1580 - Great Bow, in 1582 the long siege of Pskov continues. The necessity of signing peace and respite for the state after decades of military campaigns becomes obvious.

Livonian war: briefly about the consequences

The war ended with the signing of the Plyussky and Yam-Zapolsky truces, which were extremely disadvantageous for Moscow. The exit was never received. Instead, the prince received an exhausted and devastated country, which found itself in an extremely difficult situation. The consequences of the Livonian War accelerated internal crisis which led to the Great Troubles of the early 16th century.

Introduction 3

1. Causes of the Livonian War 4

2. Stages of war 6

3.Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and exhausting, it brought many losses to Russia. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter. After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Therefore, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

aim of this work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

Reveal the causes of the Livonian War

Analyze its stages

Consider the results and consequences of the war

1. Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands, once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the hostility of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves Ivan the Terrible's aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them "intentions that are beneficial for Russia."

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible had an alternative - either to deal with the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains the contradictory common sense the decision of Ivan IV to fight on two fronts "strife" between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by the need of Russia to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization”, the carriers of which were not allowed into Russia by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes external position state only in terms of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not put up with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of troops.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned by the leaders of the Chosen Rada for quite a long time."

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that "the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes him key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal pretexts were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct links with the centers European civilizations, as well as in the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive decay of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Russia, prevented its external contacts. For example, the authorities of Livonia did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe, invited by Ivan IV, to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuryev tribute” (Yuryev, later called Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for it and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, in 1557 the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king.

2.Stages of the war.

The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed through all of Livonia (to Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of politicians grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga were transferred under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of sharp political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was dismissed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Esel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became subjects of Sweden. According to the Vilna Treaty of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: “Our sovereign of those cities of Livonia, which the king took as a guardian, is not fit to retreat, and it is more convenient for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that giving up Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Third stage. From 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Seimas in Lublin, Lithuania and Poland were united into a single state - the Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate their forces against the Muscovite state, because. were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, by neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic states.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia”. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military aid and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying Magnus to the tsar's niece, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was, according to Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and consequently, not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support for the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vise on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown to include Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. More intimately, the Tsar was preoccupied with the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of a correct, strategically deep understanding by the tsar of the alignment of forces in Europe and of his exact vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the near and far future. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, before it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

It was only after all this complicated diplomatic preparation that the tsar began direct military operations against Sweden. In July - August 1570, Russian troops in Livonia approached Reval, the capital of the Swedish Baltic states, and on August 21 began to besiege it. If Revel could be taken, then the entire coast to Riga would pass into the hands of the Russian troops. But after a 30-week siege, the Russian troops were forced to retreat on March 16, 1571. The failure was explained by the fact that Danish king Frederick II did not provide any support to Magnus, nominally at the head of the Russian troops, and, in addition, in the midst of the siege, he did the Swedes a favor: he concluded the Stettin Peace with them on December 13, 1570, thereby allowing them to free naval forces and send them to the besieged Revel.

Thus, the failure of Ivan IV consisted in the fact that for the second time in two or three years he was let down by allies who could not be relied upon: first Eric XIV, then Fredrik II. Thus, the entire carefully thought-out and timely diplomatic operation collapsed: the Russian-Danish alliance did not take place.

The aggression of the Crimea also played a significant role in disrupting the Russian offensive in the Baltic states: the main Russian forces, especially artillery, were thrown to the Crimean, southern front, since the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey with his 120,000-strong army reached the very walls of the Kremlin. The uprising of the Tatars and Mari in the Volga region further worsened the situation in the country. Under these conditions, Ivan IV was no longer up to active actions in the distant Baltic. The tsar had to agree to establish a truce with the Swedes, even if it was brief.

Since none of the clauses of the contractual Protocol (Record) on the truce of 1572 signed by the Swedish commissioners was completed before July, the Russian troops resumed hostilities in Livonia. During the entire period 1572-1576. military operations in Livonia were not of a serious nature. Major battles did not have. The case was limited to the siege of cities in Northern Estonia. In 1572, during the siege of Weissenstein (Paide), Malyuta Skuratov, a favorite of Ivan the Terrible, was killed.

In 1573-1575. more than military operations, Russian diplomacy intensified in the Livonian War. Ivan the Terrible concluded a long-planned alliance with Emperor Maximilian II and an agreement on the possible division of the Commonwealth. Russia was supposed to get Lithuania and Livonia, and Austrian Empire- Poland to the Bug and Poznan.

At the same time, in 1573, Ivan IV entered into negotiations with Sweden about peace, which Johan III did not want to go to, refusing personal meetings with Ivan the Terrible. Then Ivan the Terrible agreed to send an embassy to the frontier, to the Sestra River. Negotiations were conducted: from Russia - Prince Sitsky, from Sweden - Admiral Flemming. The Russian conditions were that Sweden would give up its part of Livonia in favor of Moscow, provide a detachment of landsknechts to the tsar to fight the Crimea (2000 people). In this case, the tsar gave Sweden the right to communicate with Moscow directly, and not through the governor in Novgorod. But the Swedes did not accept these conditions. Since at that time Poland was actively preparing to enter the Livonian War against Russia again, Ivan the Terrible made concessions to Sweden, just to get a short respite and prepare to meet new enemy pressure. The treaty did not formally apply to peace in Livonia, although the tsar hoped that the cessation of hostilities by the Swedes would affect all three fronts: Karelian, Ingrian and Livonian.

In 1573, the Russians stormed Paide, the stronghold of the Swedes in the Baltics. In 1575, the fortress of Sage surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. In January 1577, a 50,000-strong army under the command of boyar I.V. Sheremeteva the Lesser approached Jeglekht (21 km from Revel) and laid siege to it, standing without lifting the siege, until mid-February 1577. Only on March 10, Sheremetev turned from northern Estonia to southern Estonia, going to join the 100,000-strong army moving from Russia, where the tsar himself was. In June - July 1577, this army launched a broad offensive in the Dvina direction, capturing Marienburg, Lutsin, Rezhitsa, Dinaburg. At the same time, Magnus began to attack from Courland, going to join the Russian army. The combined forces captured the fortresses of Wenden (Kes, Cesis), Volmar (Valmiera) and were in a day and a half transition from Riga, when Ivan IV stopped the offensive, turned to Derpt, Pskov and returned to his Alexander Sloboda. In fact, all of Livonia to the north of Western Dvina(Vidzeme), except for Riga, which, as a Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare.

However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War: a purely diplomatic victory was still to be achieved, and this time the tsar was unable to do this - neither the Polish nor the Swedish sides wanted to sign a peace treaty. The fact is that by this time Russia had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. First, in October 1576, Emperor Maximilian II died, and hopes for the capture of Poland and its partition vanished. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, the former prince of Semigradsky, one of the best commanders of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark completely disappeared as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stefan Batory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.

Fourth stage. In 1575, the period of "royallessness" (1572-1575) ended in the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory was elected king. Stefan Batory, Prince of Semigradsky, was supported by the Turkish Sultan Murad III. After the flight of King Henry of Valois from Poland in 1574, the Sultan sent a letter to the Polish lords demanding that the Poles should not choose the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian II as king, but choose one of the Polish nobles, for example, Jan Kostka, or, if a king from others powers, then Bathory or the Swedish prince Sigismund Vasa. Ivan the Terrible, in a message to Stefan Batory, hinted more than once that he was a vassal Turkish Sultan, which provoked a sharp answer from Batory: “how dare you remind us so often of bezsurmyannost, you, who prevented your blood from us, whose prodkov mare’s milk, which sunk into the manes of the Tatar scales licked ...”. The election of Stefan Batory as king of the Commonwealth meant the resumption of the war with Poland. However, back in 1577, Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, except for Riga and Reval, which was besieged in 1576-1577. But this year was last year Russia's successes in the Livonian War.

From 1579 Batory began a war against Russia. In 1579, Sweden also resumed hostilities, and Batory returned Polotsk and took Velikiye Luki, and in 1581 laid siege to Pskov, intending, if successful, to go to Novgorod the Great and Moscow. The Pskovites swore "for Pskov city to fight with Lithuania to death without any tricks." They kept their oath, repelling 31 attacks. After five months of unsuccessful attempts, the Poles were forced to lift the siege of Pskov. Heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582. the garrison and the population of the city determined a more favorable outcome of the Livonian War for Russia: the failure near Pskov forced Stefan Batory to enter into peace negotiations.

Taking advantage of the fact that Batory actually cut off Livonia from Russia, the Swedish commander Baron Pontus Delagardi undertook an operation to destroy isolated Russian garrisons in Livonia. By the end of 1581, the Swedes, having crossed the frozen Gulf of Finland on the ice, captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Vesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), and then moved to Riga, taking Haapsa-lu, Pärnu, and then the entire South (Russian ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In total, Swedish troops captured 9 cities in Livonia and 4 in Novgorod land in a relatively short period, nullifying all the long-term gains of the Russian state in the Baltic states. In Ingermanland, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in Ladoga - Korela.

3.Results and consequences of the war.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneously ongoing war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even on the concession of Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden to conclude a humiliating peace for the Russian state of Plus . Negotiations in Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

1. The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind it, only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland remained.

2. Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes.

3. Also, the Kexholm fortress in Karelia, along with the vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga, went to the Swedes.

4. Russian state was cut off from the sea, ruined and devastated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

Thus, the Livonian War had very serious consequences for the Russian state, and the defeat in it greatly affected its further development. However, one can agree with N.M. Karamzin, who noted that the Livonian War was “unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia.”

Conclusion.

Thus, after analyzing this topic, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The purpose of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries. The immediate cause for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute."

2. The Livonian war can be conditionally divided into 4 stages. The first one (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russo-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russo-Swedish war continued.

3. In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands, captured during the hostilities by the Polish king, were returned to it. Peace of Plus was concluded with Sweden. The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia.

List of used literature:

1. Vipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible.- M-L .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1944.

2. Volkov V.A. Wars and troops of the Moscow state. - M.: "Eksmo", 2004.

3. Karamzin N.M. History of the Russian state, T.9. - M .: "Eksmo", 2000 ..

4. Korolyuk V. D. Livonian War. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954.

5. Skrynnikov R. G. Ivan the Terrible. - M.: AST Publishing House LLC, 2006.

6. Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times, T.6. - M., 2001.

(before 1569)
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569)
Kingdom of Sweden
Danish-Norwegian union Commanders
Ivan the Terrible
Magnus Livonian		 Gotthard Ketler
Sigismund II August †
Stefan Batory
Eric XIV †
Johan III
Frederick II
the date
Place

territories of modern Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and North-Western Russia
Outcome

victory of the Commonwealth and Sweden
Changes

annexation of parts of Livonia and Velizh to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; to Sweden - parts of Estonia, Ingria and Karelia

Battles:
Narva (1558) - Derpt - Ringen - Tiersen - Ermes - Fellin - Nevel - Polotsk (1563) - Chashniki (1564) - Ezerishche - Chashniki (1567) - Revel (1570) - Lode - Pärnu - Revel (1577) - Weisenstein - Wenden - Polotsk (1579) - Sokol - Rzhev - Velikiye Luki - Toropets - Nastasino - Zavolochye - Padis - Shklov - Narva (1581) - Radziwill's raid - Pskov - Lyalitsy - Oreshek Treaties:


Livonian War

The war of Moscow Russia against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic. In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible hoped to conquer the East Slavic lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In November 1557, he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod to march into the Livonian lands. In December, this army, under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors, moved to Pskov. The auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov at that time began fighting from the region of Ivangorod at the mouth of the river Narva (Narova). In January 1558, the tsarist army approached Yuryev (Derpt), but could not take it. Then part of the Russian troops turned towards Riga, and the main forces headed for Narva (Rugodiv), where they joined up with Shestunov's army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and captured it the next day.

Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of the voivode Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and the duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the fortress of Syrensk. On June 2, the regiments were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads in order to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.

From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June, it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia was under Russian control. The army of the Order was inferior in number to the Russians by several times and, moreover, was scattered over separate garrisons. It could not oppose anything to the army of the Tsar. Until October 1558, Russian rati in Livonia captured 20 castles.

In January 1559, Russian troops wenttrip to Riga . Near Tirzen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken. The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians managed to recruit landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. However, failures continued to haunt them. In January 1560, the army of governor Borboshin took the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. Livonian Order as military force practically ceased to exist. In 1561, the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish king and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (Esel Island went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became the Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.

Poland and Sweden demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia.Ivan the Terrible not only did not fulfill this requirement, but also invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland, at the end of 1562. His army numbered 33407 people. The purpose of the campaign was the well-fortified Polotsk. On February 15, 1563, the city, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. When the war resumed, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus. However, the repressions that began against the leaders of the "chosen council" - the actual government until the end of the 50s, had a negative impact on the combat capability of the Russian army. Many governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent voivodes, PrinceAndrey Kurbsky , close to the Adashev brothers, who were members of the elected council, and feared for his life. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.

In 1569, as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state, the Commonwealth (Republic), under the leadership of the Polish king. Now Polish troops came to the aid of the Lithuanian army. In 1570, hostilities both in Lithuania and Livonia intensified. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan the Terrible decided to createown fleet . At the beginning of 1570, he issued a "letter of commendation" for the organization of a privateer (private) fleet, acting on behalf of the Russian Tsar, to the Dane Carsten Rode. Roda managed to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to the Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, in the same 1570, Russian troops tried to capture Reval, thereby starting a war with Sweden. However, the city freely received supplies from the sea, and Ivan had to lift the siege after seven months. The Russian privateer fleet never became a formidable force.

After a seven-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Tsar Ivan undertook a newtrip to Revel . However, this time the siege of the city was not successful. Then the Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Wolmar and several other castles. However, these successes were not decisive.

Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front worsened. In 1575, an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, was elected king of the Commonwealth. He managed to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Batory concluded an alliance with Sweden, and in the fall of 1578 the combined Polish-Swedish army defeated the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.

By the beginning of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan the Terrible had main armies of about 40,000 men, approximately equal in number. The Russian tsar, after the defeat at Wenden, was not confident in his abilities and offered to start peace negotiations. However, Batory rejected this proposal and launched an offensive against Polotsk. In autumn, the Polish army laid siege to the city and after a month-long siege captured it. Rati governor Sheina and Sheremeteva, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles also captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. Ivan the Terrible clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.

In 1580, Batory undertook a large campaign against Russia, capturing and ruining the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. Then the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardi captured the city of Korela and eastern part Karelian isthmus. In 1581, Swedish troops captured Narva, and the following year they occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting was transferred to the territory of Russia.

In September 1581, a 50,000-strong Polish army led by the king laid siege to Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded by a stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. True, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages, which provided covert communications between various defense sectors. The upper tiers of the towers were also connected by passages. The height of the walls was 6.5 m, and the thickness was from 4 to 6 m, which made them invulnerable to the then artillery. Inside the Great Walls there was the Middle City, also surrounded by walls, in the Middle City - the fortified Dovmont city, and in the Dovmont city - stone Kremlin. Above the level of the Velikaya River, the walls of the city of Dovmont rose 10 m, and the Kremlin - 17 m, which made these fortifications almost impregnable. The city had significant stocks of food, weapons and ammunition.

The Russian army was dispersed over many points, from where an enemy invasion was expected. The tsar himself, with a considerable gradual detachment, stopped in Staritsa, not daring to meet the Polish army marching towards Pskov.

When the tsar learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, the army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, who was appointed "great commander", was sent to Pskov. Seven other governors were subordinate to him. All the inhabitants of Pskov and the garrison were sworn in that they would not surrender the city, but would fight until last drop blood. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25 thousand people and was about half the size of Batory's army. By order of Shuisky, the surroundings of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find food and food there.

On August 18, the Polish army approached the city at a distance of 2-3 cannon shots. During the week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of the Russian fortifications and only on August 26 ordered his army to approach the city. However, the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian guns and retreated to the Cherekha River. Here Batory set up a fortified camp.
The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they rolled rounds to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, placing 20 guns, on the morning of September 6, they began to fire at both towers and 150 m of the wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were badly damaged, and a breach 50 meters wide was formed in the wall. But the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the breach.

On September 8, Polish troops launched an assault. The attackers managed to capture both damaged towers. However, shots from a large cannon "Bars", capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than one kilometer, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins, rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, led by Shuisky himself. The enemy could not hold the Pokrovskaya Tower - and retreated.

After the failure of the assault, Batory ordered digging to blow up the walls. The Russians managed to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, the rest of the Poles could not be completed. On October 24, Polish batteries began to fire at Pskov from behind the Velikaya River with red-hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city's defenders quickly put out the fire. Four days later, a Polish detachment with crowbars and picks approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the base of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there is another wall and a ditch that the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and pitch.

On November 2, Batory's army launched the last assault on Pskov. This time the Poles attacked western wall. Prior to that, for five days it was subjected to heavy shelling and was destroyed in several places. However, the defenders of Pskov met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back, never reaching the breaches.

By that time, the morale of the besiegers had fallen noticeably. But the besieged also experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break into Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.

On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began to prepare for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Caves Monastery, 60 km from Pskov, but the garrison of 300 archers, supported by monks, successfully repelled two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.

Stefan Batory, convinced that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoysky, and he himself left for Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops decreased by almost half - to 26 thousand people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, the death toll and desertion increased. Under these conditions, Bathory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Russia renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.

In 1583 it was signedPlus Armistice with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. For Russia there was only a small section of the Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva. However, in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and the Swedes resumed and this time were successful for Moscow. As a result, according to the Tyavzinsky treaty on "eternal peace", Russia regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But that was only small consolation. In general, Ivan the Terrible's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.

At the same time, sharp contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia facilitated the position of the Russian tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Russia. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory's campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly not enough to capture and hold a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. SimultaneouslyLivonian War showed that Sweden and Poland in the east had a formidable enemy that had to be seriously reckoned with.

After the conquest of Kazan, Russia turned its eyes to the Baltic and put forward plans for the capture of Livonia. For Russia, the main goal of the Livonian War was the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea. The struggle for supremacy at sea was between Lithuania and Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.

The reason for the start of the war was the non-payment of tribute by the Livonian Order, which they undertook to pay under the peace treaty of 1554. In 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia.

At the first stage of the war (1558-1561), several cities and castles were taken, including such significant ones as Narva, Derpt, Yuryev.

Instead of continuing the successfully launched offensive, the Moscow government granted the Order a truce and at the same time equipped an expedition against the Crimea. Taking advantage of the respite, the Livonian knights gathered military forces and, a month before the end of the truce, defeated the Russian troops.

Russia did not achieve results in the war against the Crimean Khanate and missed favorable opportunities for victory in Livonia. Moscow made peace with the Crimea and concentrated all its forces in Livonia.

The second stage of the war (1562-1578) for Russia passed with varying success.

The highest achievement of Russia in the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in February 1563, after which military failures followed.

In 1566, Lithuanian ambassadors arrived in Moscow with a proposal for a truce and so that Polotsk and part of Livonia remained behind Moscow. Ivan the Terrible demanded all of Livonia. Such demands were rejected, and the Lithuanian king Sigismund August resumed the war with Russia. In 1568, Sweden terminated the previously concluded alliance with Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. After the death of Sigismund Augustus in 1572, Stefan Batory took the throne.

The third stage of the Livonian War (1679-1583) began with the invasion of Russia by the Polish king Stefan Batory. At the same time, Russia had to fight with Sweden. On September 9, 1581, Sweden captured Narva, and after that, the continuation of the struggle for Livonia lost its meaning for Grozny. Realizing the impossibility of waging war with two opponents at once, the tsar began negotiations with Bathory on a truce in order to concentrate all forces on the recapture of Narva. But the plans for an attack on Narva remained unfulfilled.

The result of the Livonian War was the conclusion of two treaties that were unfavorable for Russia.

On January 15, 1582, Yam Zapolsky signed an agreement on a 10-year truce. Russia ceded all its possessions in Livonia to Poland, and Batory returned to Russia the fortresses and cities he had conquered, but retained Polotsk.

In August 1583, Russia and Sweden signed the Plyussky truce for three years. The Swedes retained all the captured Russian cities. Russia retained a section of the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the mouth of the Neva.

The end of the Livonian War did not give Russia access to the Baltic Sea.