The city was founded during the Livonian war. Livonian war consequences

Livonian War 1558 - 1583 - the largest military conflict of the XVI century. V Eastern Europe, which took place on the territory of present-day Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Leningrad, Pskov, Novgorod, Smolensk and Yaroslavl regions of the Russian Federation and Chernigov region of Ukraine. Participants - Russia, the Livonian Confederation (the Livonian Order, the Archbishopric of Riga, the Bishopric of Derpt, the Bishopric of Ezel and the Bishopric of Courland), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian, Poland (in 1569 the last two states united into the federal state of the Commonwealth), Sweden, Denmark.

The beginning of the war

It was launched by Russia in January 1558 as a war with the Livonian Confederation: according to one version, with the aim of acquiring trading ports in the Baltic, according to another, with the aim of forcing the Derpt bishopric to pay the “Yuryev tribute” (which was to be paid to Russia under the 1503 agreement for the possession of the former ancient Russian city of Yuryev (Derpt, now Tartu) and the acquisition of new lands for distribution to the nobles on the estate.

After the defeat of the Livonian Confederation and the transition in 1559 - 1561 of its members under the suzerainty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia, Sweden and Denmark, the Livonian War turned into a war between Russia and these states, as well as with Poland - which was in personal union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Russian and Zhemoytsky. The opponents of Russia sought to keep the Livonian territories under their rule, and also to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the event of the transfer of commercial ports in the Baltic to it. Sweden at the end of the war also set the goal of capturing the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Izhora land (Ingria) - and thereby cut off Russia from the Baltic.

Already in August 1562, Russia concluded a peace treaty with Denmark; with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian and with Poland, she fought with varying success until January 1582 (when the Yam-Zapolsky truce was concluded), and with Sweden, also with varying success, until May 1583 (before the signing of the Plyussky truce ).

The course of the war

In the first period of the war (1558 - 1561), hostilities took place on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia). Hostilities alternated with truces. During the campaigns of 1558, 1559 and 1560, Russian troops captured many cities, defeated the troops of the Livonian Confederation at Tirzen in January 1559 and at Ermes in August 1560 and forced the states of the Livonian Confederation to join major states Northern and Eastern Europe or recognize vassal dependence on them.

In the second period (1561 - 1572) hostilities took place in Belarus and the Smolensk region, between the troops of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Samogitian. On February 15, 1563, the army of Ivan IV captured the largest of the cities of the principality - Polotsk. An attempt to move further into the depths of Belarus led to the defeat of the Russians in January 1564 at Chashniki (on the Ulla River). Then there was a break in hostilities.

In the third period (1572 - 1578), hostilities again moved to Livonia, which the Russians tried to take away from the Commonwealth and Sweden. During the campaigns of 1573, 1575, 1576 and 1577, Russian troops captured almost all of Livonia north of Western Dvina. However, the attempt to take Revel from the Swedes in 1577 failed, and in October 1578 the Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish army defeated the Russians near Wenden.

In the fourth period (1579 - 1582), the king of the Commonwealth, Stefan Batory, undertook three major campaigns against Russia. In August 1579, he returned Polotsk, in September 1580 he captured Velikie Luki, and on August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582 he unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. At the same time, in 1580 - 1581, the Swedes took away Narva, which they captured in 1558, from the Russians and took possession of the Russian lands on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ingria. The siege of the Oreshek fortress by the Swedes in September - October 1582 ended in failure. Nevertheless, Russia, which also had to resist the Crimean Khanate, as well as suppress uprisings in the former Kazan Khanate, could no longer fight.

The results of the war

As a result of the Livonian War, most of the German states that emerged on the territory of Livonia (present-day Latvia and Estonia) ceased to exist in the 13th century. (with the exception of the Duchy of Courland).

Russia was not only unable to acquire any territory in Livonia, but also lost the access it had before the war to Baltic Sea(returned, however, by her already as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1590 - 1593). The war led to economic ruin, which contributed to the emergence of a socio-economic crisis in Russia, which then grew into the Time of Troubles. early XVI 1st century

The Commonwealth began to control most of the Livonian lands (Lifland and South part Estonia became part of it, and Courland became a vassal state in relation to it - the duchy of Courland and Semigalle). Sweden received the northern part of Estonia, and Denmark - the islands of Ezel (now Saaremaa) and Moon (Muhu).

The Livonian War of 1558-1583 became one of the most important campaigns of the times of Yes and of the entire 16th century, perhaps.

Livonian War: briefly about the prerequisites

After the great Moscow Tsar managed to conquer Kazan and

Astrakhan Khanate, Ivan IV turned his attention to the Baltic lands and access to the Baltic Sea. The capture of these territories for the Muscovite kingdom would mean promising opportunities for trade in the Baltic. At the same time, it was extremely unprofitable for the German merchants and the Livonian Order, who had already settled there, to allow new competitors into the region. The resolution of these contradictions was to be the Livonian War. We should also briefly mention the formal reason for it. They were served by the non-payment of the tribute that the Derpt bishopric was obliged to pay in favor of Moscow in accordance with the 1554 agreement. Formally, such a tribute has existed since the beginning of the 16th century. However, in practice, no one remembered about it for a long time. Only with the aggravation of relations between the parties did he use this fact as a justification for the Russian invasion of the Baltic.

Livonian war: briefly about the ups and downs of the conflict

Russian troops launched an invasion of Livonia in 1558. The first stage of the clash, which lasted until 1561, ended

crushing defeat of the Livonian Order. The armies of the Muscovite tsar marched through eastern and central Livonia with pogroms. Dorpat and Riga were taken. In 1559, the parties concluded a truce for six months, which was to develop into a peace treaty on the terms of the Livonian Order from Russia. But the kings of Poland and Sweden hurried to help the German knights. King Sigismund II, by a diplomatic maneuver, managed to take the order under his own protectorate. And in November 1561, under the terms of the Vilna Treaty, the Livonian Order ceases to exist. Its territories are divided between Lithuania and Poland. Now Ivan the Terrible had to confront three powerful rivals at once: the Principality of Lithuania, the Kingdoms of Poland and Sweden. With the latter, however, the Muscovite tsar managed to quickly make peace for a while. In 1562-63, the second large-scale campaign to the Baltic begins. The events of the Livonian War at this stage continued to develop successfully. However, already in the mid-1560s, relations between Ivan the Terrible and the boyars of the Chosen Rada escalated to the limit. The situation worsens even more due to the flight of one of the closest princely associates of Andrei Kurbsky to Lithuania and his defection to the side of the enemy (the reason that prompted the boyar was the growing despotism in the Moscow principality and the infringement of the ancient liberties of the boyars). After this event, Ivan the Terrible finally hardens, seeing around him solid traitors. In parallel with this, defeats at the front also occur, which were explained by the prince's internal enemies. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united into a single state, which

strengthens their power. In the late 1560s - early 70s, Russian troops suffered a series of defeats and even lost several fortresses. Since 1579, the war has been taking on a more defensive character. However, in 1579 Polotsk was captured by the enemy, in 1580 - Great Bow, in 1582 the long siege of Pskov continues. The necessity of signing peace and respite for the state after decades of military campaigns becomes obvious.

Livonian war: briefly about the consequences

The war ended with the signing of the Plyussky and Yam-Zapolsky truces, which were extremely disadvantageous for Moscow. The exit was never received. Instead, the prince received an exhausted and devastated country, which found itself in an extremely difficult situation. The consequences of the Livonian War accelerated internal crisis which led to the Great Troubles of the early 16th century.

In the 16th century, Russia needed access to the Baltic Sea. He opened trade routes and eliminated intermediaries: German merchants and the Teutonic Knights. But Livonia stood between Russia and Europe. And Russia lost the war with her.

The beginning of the war

Livonia, also known as Livonia, was located on the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. Initially, this was the name of the lands inhabited by Livs. In the 16th century, Livonia was under the control of the Livonian Order - military and political organization German Catholic knights.
In January 1558, Ivan IV began to "cut a window to Europe." The moment was chosen well. The chivalry and clergy of Livonia were divided, weakened by the Reformation, and the local population was tired of the Teutons.
The reason for the war was the non-payment of Moscow by the bishopric of the city of Dorpat (aka Yuryev, aka modern Tartu) "Yuryev tribute" from the possessions ceded by the Russian princes.

Russian army

By the middle of the 16th century, Russia was already a mighty power. Reforms, the centralization of power, the creation of special infantry units played an important role - archery troops. In service with the army was modern artillery: the use of a carriage made it possible to use guns in field conditions. There were factories for the production of gunpowder, weapons, cannons and cannonballs. New ways of taking fortresses were developed.
Before starting the war, Ivan the Terrible secured the country from raids from the east and south. Kazan and Astrakhan were taken, a truce was concluded with Lithuania. In 1557, the war with Sweden ended with victory.

First successes

The first campaign of the Russian army of 40 thousand people took place in the winter of 1558. The main goal was to get the voluntary concession of Narva from the Livonians. The Russians easily reached the Baltic. The Livonians were forced to send diplomats to Moscow and agreed to hand over Narva to Russia. But soon the Narva Vogt von Schlennenberg ordered the shelling of the Russian fortress of Ivangorod, provoking a new Russian invasion.

20 fortresses were taken, including Narva, Neishloss, Neuhaus, Kiripe and Derpt. The Russian army came close to Revel and Riga.
January 17, 1559 in major battle near Tiersen, the Germans were defeated, after which they again concluded a truce and again for a short time.
By autumn, the Livonian master Gotthard von Ketler enlisted the support of Sweden and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and opposed the Russians. Near Dorpat, the Livonians defeated the detachment of the governor Zakhary Ochin-Pleshcheev, then proceeded to besiege Yuryev, but the city survived. They tried to take Lais, but suffered heavy losses and retreated. The Russian counteroffensive took place only in 1560. The troops of Ivan the Terrible occupied the strongest fortress of the knights Fellin and Marienburg.

The war drags on

The successes of the Russians hastened the disintegration of the Teutonic Order. Reval and the cities of Northern Estonia swore allegiance to the Swedish crown. Master Ketler became a vassal of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II August. Lithuanians occupied more than 10 cities of Livonia.

In response to the aggression of Lithuania, the Moscow governors invaded the territory of Lithuania and Livonia. Tarvast (Taurus) and Verpel (Polchev) were captured. Then the Lithuanians "walked" through the Smolensk and Pskov regions, after which full-scale fighting along the entire border.
Ivan the Terrible himself led the 80,000th army. In January 1563, the Russians moved to Polotsk, besieged and took it.
The decisive battle with the Lithuanians took place on the Ulla River on January 26, 1564, and thanks to the betrayal of Prince Andrei Kurbsky, it turned into a defeat for the Russians. The Lithuanian army went on the offensive. At the same time, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray approached Ryazan.

The formation of the Commonwealth

In 1569, Lithuania and Poland became a single state - the Commonwealth. Ivan the Terrible had to conclude peace with the Poles and deal with relations with Sweden, where his enemy Johan III ascended the throne.
On the lands of Livonia occupied by the Russians, Grozny created a vassal kingdom under the leadership of the Danish prince Magnus of Holstein.
In 1572 King Sigismund died. The Commonwealth was on the threshold civil war. In 1577, the Russian army invaded the Baltics, and soon Russia gained control of the coast. Gulf of Finland but the victory was short-lived.
The turning point of the war occurred after the accession to the Polish throne of Stefan Batory. He suppressed the unrest in the country and, in alliance with Sweden, opposed Russia. He was supported by Duke Mangus, Elector August of Saxony and Elector Johann Georg of Brandenburg.

From offensive to defensive

On September 1, 1578, Polotsk fell, then the Smolensk region and the Seversk land were devastated. Two years later, the Poles again invaded Russia and took Velikiye Luki. Pali Narva, Ozerische, Zavolochye. Near Toropets, the army of Prince Khilkov was defeated. The Swedes occupied the fortress of Padis in Western Estonia.

Batory invaded Russia for the third time in 1581. His goal was Pskov. However, the Russians guessed the plans of the Poles. It was not possible to take the city.
In 1581 Russia was in difficult situation. In addition to the Poles, she was threatened by the Swedes and the Crimean Khan. Ivan the Terrible was forced to ask for peace on the terms of the enemy. The mediator in the negotiations was Pope Gregory XIII, who hoped to strengthen the position of the Vatican in the East. Negotiations were held in the Pit Zapolsky and ended with the conclusion of a ten-year truce.

Results

Ivan the Terrible's attempt to cut a window to Europe ended in failure.
Under the agreement, the Commonwealth returned to the Russians Velikiye Luki, Zavolochye, Nevel, Kholm, Rzheva Empty, the Pskov suburbs of Ostrov, Krasny, Voronech, Velyu, Vrev, Vladimirets, Dubkov, Vyshgorod, Vyborets, Izborsk, Opochka, Gdov, Kobyle settlement and Sebezh.
Moscow State handed over 41 Livonian cities to the Commonwealth.
The Swedes decided to finish off the Russians. In the autumn of 1581 they captured Narva and Ivangorod and forced them to sign peace on their own terms. The Livonian War is over. Russia lost part of its own territories and three border fortresses. The Russians left only a small fortress Oreshek on the Neva and a corridor along the river with a length of just over 30 kilometers. The Baltic remained unattainable.

Russian troops (1577) troops of the Commonwealth returned Polotsk and unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. The Swedes took Narva and unsuccessfully besieged Oreshek.

The war ended with the signing of Yam-Zapolsky (1582) and Plyussky (1583) truces. Russia was deprived of all the conquests made as a result of the war, as well as lands on the border with the Commonwealth and coastal Baltic cities (Koporye, Yama, Ivangorod). The territory of the former Livonian Confederation was divided between the Commonwealth, Sweden and Denmark.

In the Russian historical science since the 19th century, the notion of the war as a struggle of Russia for access to the Baltic Sea has been established. A number of modern scientists name other causes of the conflict.

The Livonian War had a huge impact on events in Eastern Europe and the internal affairs of the states involved. As a result, the Livonian Order ended its existence, the war contributed to the formation of the Commonwealth, and the Russian kingdom led to economic decline.

The disunity and military weakness of Livonia (according to some estimates, the Order could put up no more than 10 thousand soldiers in an open battle), the weakening of the once powerful Hansa, the expansionist aspirations of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, Sweden, Denmark and Russia led to a situation in which the existence of the Livonian Confederation was threatened .

Proponents of a different approach believe that Ivan IV did not plan to start a large-scale war in Livonia, and the military campaign of the beginning of 1558 was nothing more than a show of force in order to push the Livonians to pay the promised tribute, which is supported by the fact that Russian army it was originally planned to be used in the Crimean direction. So, according to the historian Alexander Filyushkin, on the part of Russia, the war did not have the character of a “fight for the sea”, and not a single Russian document contemporary with the events contains information about the need to break through to the sea.

Also important is the fact that in 1557 the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian Union concluded the Treaty of Pozvol, which grossly violated the Russian-Livonian treaties of 1554 and included an article on a defensive-offensive alliance directed against Moscow. In historiography, both contemporaries of those events (, I. Renner), and later researchers, had the opinion that it was that treaty that provoked Ivan IV to decisive military action in January 1558, in order not to give time to the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to mobilize their forces to secure their Livonia.

However, a number of other historians believe that the Treaty of Pozvol had little effect on the development of the situation in 1558 around Livonia. According to V. E. Popov and A. I. Filyushkin, the question of whether the Pozvolsky treaty was casus belli for Moscow is controversial, since it has not yet been substantiated by act material, and the military alliance against Moscow at that time was postponed for 12 years. According to E. Tyberg, in Moscow at that time they did not know at all about the existence of this agreement. V. V. Penskoy believes that in this matter it is not so important whether the fact of concluding the Pozvolsky Treaty was casus belli for Moscow, which, as the cause of the Livonian War, went in conjunction with others, such as the open intervention of Poland and Lithuania in Livonian affairs, the non-payment of the Yuryev tribute by the Livonians, the strengthening of the blockade of the Russian state, and so on, which inevitably led to war.

By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Order was even more weakened by the defeat in the conflict with the Archbishop of Riga and Sigismund II Augustus, who supported him. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, Bashkiria, the Great Nogai Horde, the Cossacks and Kabarda.

The Russian kingdom began the war on January 17, 1558. The invasion of Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. It was attended by 40 thousand people under the command of Khan Shig-Aley (Shah-Ali), governor M. V. Glinsky and D. R. Zakharyin-Yuriev. They passed through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March [ ] . The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive the due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers for settlement with Moscow in order to stop the outbreak of war. However, by May, only half of the amount claimed had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired on the Ivangorod fortress, which violated the ceasefire agreement.

This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put in the field, not counting the fortress garrisons, no more than 10 thousand people. Thus, its main military asset was the powerful stone walls of the fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.

Governors Aleksey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops laid siege to Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Vocht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Virgin into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards left the city walls, the Russians rushed to the assault.

“Very vile, terrible, hitherto unheard of, true new news, what atrocities the Muscovites are committing with captive Christians from Livonia, men and women, virgins and children, and what harm they are doing to them daily in their country. Along the way, it is shown what is the great danger and need of the Livonians. To all Christians, as a warning and improvement of their sinful life, it was written from Livonia and printed, Georg Breslein, Nuremberg, Flying Leaf, 1561

They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having seized the guns located there, the warriors deployed them and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, by the evening the defenders of the castle themselves surrendered on the terms of a free exit from the city.

The defense of the Neuhausen fortress distinguished itself with particular perseverance. She was defended by several hundred soldiers led by the knight von Padenorm, who for almost a month repelled the onslaught of the governor Peter Shuisky. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to keep the defense here, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue senseless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Peter Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.

In 1560, the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg (now Aluksne in Latvia) was taken; the German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed. During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order Wilhelm von Furstenberg was captured. In 1575 he sent a letter to his brother from Yaroslavl, where the land was granted to the former landmaster. He told a relative that he "had no reason to complain about his fate." Sweden and Lithuania, which acquired the Livonian lands, demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused, and Russia found itself in conflict with a coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.

In the autumn of 1561, the Union of Vilna was concluded on the formation of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia on the territory of Livonia and the transfer of other lands to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

On November 26, 1561, the German emperor Ferdinand I banned the supply of Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blockaded the port of Narva and sent Swedish privateers to intercept merchant ships sailing to Narva.

In 1562, Lithuanian troops raided the Smolensk region and Velizh. In the summer of the same year, the situation on the southern borders of the Russian kingdom [room 4] escalated, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to autumn. In 1562, in the battle near Nevel, Prince Andrey Kurbsky failed to defeat the Lithuanian detachment that invaded the Pskov region. On August 7, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Denmark, according to which the Tsar agreed to the annexation of the island of Ösel by the Danes.

At the proposal of the German Emperor Ferdinand to conclude an alliance and join forces in the fight against the Turks, the king said that he was fighting in Livonia practically for his own interests, against the Lutherans [ ] . The tsar knew what place the idea of ​​the Catholic counter-reformation occupied in the politics of the Habsburgs. By opposing the “Lutherian doctrine,” Ivan the Terrible touched a very sensitive chord in Habsburg politics.

After the capture of Polotsk, Russia's successes in the Livonian War began to decline. Already in the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). The boyar and a major military leader, who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A. M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania, he gave the king tsarist agents in the Baltic states and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to the military failures and unwillingness of eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at that time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.

A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden again aggravated, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Girey burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of Both Peoples of a long “kinglessness”, the creation in Livonia of the vassal kingdom of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed the scales to tip in favor of Russia. [ ]

In order to interrupt the growing trade turnover of Narva, which was under Russian control, Poland, and behind it Sweden, launched an active privateer activity in the Baltic Sea. In 1570, measures were taken to protect Russian trade on the Baltic Sea. Ivan the Terrible issued a "royal charter" (letter of marque) to the Dane Carsten Rode. Despite the short period of activity, Rode's actions were quite effective, they reduced Swedish and Polish trade in the Baltic, forced Sweden and Poland to equip special squadrons to capture Rode. [ ]

In 1575, the fortress of Sage surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov (now Pärnu in Estonia) surrendered to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Revel.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, serious internal difficulties (the economic ruin that was looming over the country) negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia. [ ]

Pro complicated relationship between the Moscow state and the Commonwealth in 1575, the Caesar's ambassador John Cobenzel testified: [ ]

Poles at dark night
Before the very cover,
With a mercenary squad
They sit in front of the fire.

Filled with courage
The Poles twist their mustaches
They came in a gang
Destroy Holy Rus'.

On January 23, 1577, the 50,000-strong Russian army again besieged Revel, but failed to take the fortress. In February 1578, Nuncio Vincent Laureo reported to Rome with anxiety: “The Muscovite divided his army into two parts: one is waiting near Riga, the other near Vitebsk.” By this time, all of Livonia along the Dvin, with the exception of only two cities - Revel and Riga, was in the hands of the Russians [ ] . In the late 70s, Ivan IV in Vologda began to build his navy and tried to transfer it to the Baltic, but the plan was not implemented.

In 1578, the Russian army under the command of Prince Dmitry Khvorostinin took the city of Oberpalen, occupied after the flight of King Magnus by a strong Swedish garrison. In 1579, the royal messenger Wenceslas Lopatinsky brought a letter to the tsar from Bathory declaring war. Already in August, the Polish army surrounded Polotsk. The garrison defended for three weeks, and its courage was noted by Batory himself. In the end, the fortress surrendered (August 30), and the garrison was released. Stefan Batory's secretary Heidenstein writes about the prisoners:

According to the establishments of their religion, they consider loyalty to the Sovereign to be as obligatory as loyalty to God, they exalt with praise the firmness of those who, to the last breath, retained the oath to their prince, and say that their souls, having parted with the body, immediately move to heaven. [ ]

Nevertheless, "many archers and other people of Moscow" went over to the side of Batory and were settled by him in the Grodno region. After Batory moved to Velikiye Luki and took them.

At the same time there were direct peace negotiations with Poland. Ivan the Terrible offered to give Poland all of Livonia, with the exception of four cities. Batory did not agree to this and demanded all the Livonian cities, in addition to Sebezh, and the payment of 400,000 Hungarian gold for military expenses. This infuriated Grozny, and he responded with a sharp letter.

Polish and Lithuanian detachments ravaged the Smolensk region, Seversk land, Ryazan region, south-west of the Novgorod region, plundered Russian lands up to the headwaters of the Volga. The Lithuanian voivode Filon Kmita from Orsha burned 2000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge full [ ] . The Lithuanian magnates Ostrozhsky and Vishnevetsky, with the help of light cavalry detachments, plundered

1) 1558–1561 - Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga;

2) 1561–1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577. However, the situation was complicated:

The weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen;

A change in the attitude of the local population towards the Russian troops as a result of military raids;

By going over to the side of the enemy, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who, moreover, knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible;

Devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars;

3) 1578–1583 - defensive actions of Russia. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Stefan Batory, elected to the throne, went on the offensive; since 1579, Russian troops fought defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikiye Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the voivode I.P. Shuisky), which lasted five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

The Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. the main task- the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea - has not been resolved.

Assessing the foreign policy of Russia in the XVI century. - the conquest of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates, the Livonian War (1558–1583), the beginning of the colonization of Siberia, the creation of a defensive line of the Muscovite state that protected against devastating raids, mainly from the Crimean Khanate, it is important to keep in mind that the greatest The country achieved foreign policy successes in the first period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (50-60s).

In addition, it must be emphasized that Russia's military policy was determined not only by its fundamentally natural desire to defend the young statehood, secure borders, overcome the syndrome of more than two hundred years of yoke, finally reach the Baltic Sea, but also by expansionist and predatory aspirations. generated by the very logic of the formation of a centralized state and the interests of the military service class.

Features of the political development of the Muscovite state in the XVI century.

Unlike Europe, where national centralized states were formed, the unification of the Russian lands into the Muscovite State did not yet mean their merger into a single political and economic whole.

Throughout the 16th century there was a complex and contradictory process of centralization, elimination of the specific system.

In the study of the features of the political development of the Russian state in the XVI century. some of the most controversial issues can be identified.

In domestic and foreign literature, there is no consensus on the definition of the state form, established in Russia. Some authors characterize this form as a class-representative monarchy, others - as a class.

Some define political system Russia in the 16th century as autocracy, understanding by it the despotic form of absolutism and even Eastern despotism.

The discussion is influenced by the following factors:

Firstly, demonization in assessing the personality and politics of Ivan the Terrible, which was initiated by N.M. Karamzin;

Secondly, the vagueness of the concepts of "autocracy", "absolutism", "oriental despotism", their relationship.

The formal-legal, or purely rational, definition of these concepts does not take into account the traditional power characteristic of the medieval worldview, which influenced the essence and form of statehood. Autocracy in the 16th century - this is the Russian national form of Orthodox estate statehood, a churched state, which cannot be identified either with varieties of Eastern despotism or with European absolutism, at least before the reforms of Peter I (V.F. Patrakov).

MM. Shumilov drew attention to the fact that the opinions of the authors differ in characterizing the Russian autocracy. So, according to R. Pipes, the autocratic system in Russia was formed under the influence of the Golden Horde. The American historian believes that since for centuries the khan was the absolute master over the Russian princes, then "his power and greatness almost completely erased the image of the Byzantine basileus from memory." The latter was something very remote, a legend; none of the specific princes had ever been to Constantinople, but many of them knew the road to Saray very well.

It was in Saray that the princes had the opportunity to closely contemplate the power, "with which one cannot enter into an agreement, which must be obeyed unconditionally." Here they learned to tax courts and trade deals, conduct diplomatic relations, manage a courier service, and crack down on recalcitrant subjects.

S.G. Pushkarev believed that the political structure of the Russian state was formed under the influence of the Byzantine church-political culture, and the power of the Moscow grand dukes (Ivan III, Vasily III) and tsars (with the exception of Ivan IV) was only formally unlimited. “In general, the Moscow sovereign was - not formally, but morally - limited by old customs and traditions, especially church ones. The Moscow sovereign could not and did not want to do what "did not happen."

Depending on the answer to the question about the essence of monarchical power in Russia, historians also speak differently regarding the political role of the Boyar Duma. So, according to R. Pipes, the Duma, having neither legislative nor executive power, performed only the functions of a registration institution that approved the decisions of the king. “The Duma,” he said, “did not have a number of important features that distinguish institutions that have real political power. Its composition was extremely unstable ... There was no regular schedule of meetings. There were no minutes of discussions, and the only evidence of the participation of the Duma in the development of decisions is the formula written in the text of many decrees: "The king indicated, and the boyars were sentenced." The Duma did not have a clearly defined sphere of activity.

In the XVI century. The Duma turned into a permanent government institution, where Duma people acted not only as advisers to the tsar on issues of legislation and administration, not only participated in the development of decisions, often discussing, and sometimes objecting to the tsar, but also managed central orders, carried out special assignments for central and local affairs. administration (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Another facet of the question of the essence of Russian statehood in the 16th century. - activities of zemstvo sobors in 1549–1550, 1566 and 1598, the study of their formation, functions and relationships with the tsar.

Attempts to solve this problem in the spirit of Eurocentric concepts that dominate historiography give polar, sometimes mutually exclusive points of view of researchers. Zemsky Sobors in Russia did not have a permanent composition, clearly certain functions unlike estate-representative authorities European countries. If the Parliament in England, the States General in France and other class-representative bodies arose as a counterbalance to the royal power and were, as a rule, in opposition to it, then the Zemsky Sobors never came into conflict with the tsar.

In historical studies, an opinion is often expressed about the class-representative nature of the Zemsky Sobors (S.G. Goryainov, I.A. Isaev, etc.). However, M.M. Shumilov believes that, apparently, Zemsky Sobors of the 16th century. were neither popular, nor class-representative institutions, nor advisory bodies under the tsar. Unlike the corresponding institutions of Western Europe, they did not interfere in public administration, did not seek any political rights for themselves, and did not even perform advisory functions. The participants of the first Zemsky Sobors were not elected representatives. Their composition was dominated by representatives of the upper capital nobility and merchants appointed or called by the government itself. Although in the work of the Zemsky Sobor of 1598, unlike the previous ones, elected representatives who vouched for their worlds also participated, but it was still not they who prevailed, but representatives of the government itself: holders of power of various degrees, officials, managers, "agents of military and financial institutions "(V.O. Klyuchevsky). All of them were convened to councils not to tell the government about the needs and desires of their constituents, and not to discuss socially significant issues, and not to give the government any powers. Their competence was to answer questions, and they themselves had to return home as responsible executors of conciliar obligations (in fact, government decisions).

Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with the opinion of some foreign and domestic historians about the underdevelopment of Zemsky Sobors. According to V.F. Patrakova, if the idea of ​​separation of powers is being formed in the West, then in Russia the idea of ​​conciliarity of power is developing on the basis of its spiritual, Orthodox community. Ideally, in the Councils a spiritual and mystical unity of kings and people was achieved (including through mutual repentance), which corresponded to Orthodox ideas about power.

Thus, in the XVI century. Russia has become a state with an autocratic political system. The sole bearer of state power, its head was the Moscow Grand Duke(tsar). In his hands concentrated all the power of the legislative, executive and judicial. All governmental actions were carried out on his behalf and according to his personal decrees.

In the XVI century. in Russia, the birth of an empire and imperial politics takes place (R.G. Skrynnikov). Almost all historians see in the oprichnina one of the factors that prepared the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.