from lat. classicus, lit. - belonging to the first class of Roman citizens; in a figurative sense - exemplary) - arts. direction and the corresponding aesthetic. theory, the emergence of which dates back to the 16th century, the heyday - to the 17th century, the decline - to the beginning of the 19th century. K. is the first trend in art in the history of modern times, in which aesthetic. theory preceded art. practice and dictated her own laws. Aesthetics K. normative and reduced to the following. provisions: 1) the basis of the arts. creativity is the mind, the requirements of which must be subject to all components of art-va; 2) the purpose of creativity is the knowledge of the truth and its disclosure in an artistic and visual form; there can be no divergence between beauty and truth; 3) art must follow nature, "imitate" it; what is ugly in nature must become aesthetically acceptable in art; 4) the claim is moral by its very nature and by the whole system of arts. works affirm the moral ideal of society; 5) cognitive, aesthetic. and ethical the quality of the claim-va dictate a certain. art system. receptions, to-rye the best way contribute to practical implementation of the principles of K.; rules good taste determine the features, norms and limits of each type of art and each genre within a given type of art; 6) art. the ideal, according to the theorists of K., is embodied in antique. claim-ve. Therefore the best way to achieve the arts. perfection - to imitate classical models. claims of antiquity. Name "K." comes from the principle of imitation of antique adopted by this direction. classics. K. is partly characteristic of ancient aesthetics: the theorists of imperial Rome came forward with demands to imitate the Greek. samples, be guided in the claim by the principles of reason, etc. The cult of antiquity re-emerges in the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity intensifies. culture, partly destroyed, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. Humanists studied the monuments of antiquity, seeking to find support in the pagan worldview of antiquity in the struggle against spiritualism and scholasticism of the Middle Ages. feud. ideology. "In the manuscripts saved during the fall of Byzantium, in antique statues dug out of the ruins of Rome, a new world appeared before the astonished West - Greek antiquity; the ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared before its bright images" (Engels F., see Marx K. and Engels F., Op. , 2nd ed., vol. 20, pp. 345–46). Critical importance for the formation of aesthetic The theory of humanism of the Renaissance had the study of treatises on the poetics of Aristotle and Horace, to-rye were accepted as a set of indisputable laws of art. In particular, it received great development already in the 16th century. the theory of drama, especially tragedy, and the theory of epic. poems, to which priority attention is paid in the surviving text of Aristotle's Poetics. Minturpo, Castelvetro, Scaliger, and other commentators on Aristotle laid the foundations for the poetics of Carnival and established the arts typical of this art. directions of the rules of composition of drama and epic, as well as other literature. genres. In picture art-wah and architecture is turning from the Gothic of the Middle Ages to the style of Antich. samples, which is reflected in the theoretical. works on claims, in particular Leon Battista Alberti. In the Renaissance, however, the aesthetic K.'s theory experienced only the initial period of its formation. It was not recognized as obligatory, and arts. practice has largely deviated from it. As in literature, drama, and depict. art-wah and architecture, arts. the achievements of antiquity were used to the extent that they corresponded to the ideological and aesthetic. aspirations of figures of art-va humanism. In the 17th century there is a transformation of K. into an indisputable doctrine, following a swarm becomes mandatory. If the initial stage of the formation of K. takes place in Italy, then the design of K. into a complete aesthetic. doctrine took place in France in the 17th century. Socio-political. the basis of this process was the regulation of all spheres of life, carried out by the absolutist state. Cardinal Richelieu created the Academy in France (1634), which was entrusted with monitoring the purity of the French. language and literature. The first document that officially approved the doctrine of K. was "The Opinion of the French Academy on the tragicomedy (P. Corneille)" Cid "" ("Les sentiments de l´Acad? Mie fran? Aise sur la tragi-com? Die du Cid", 1638 ), where the rules of the three unities in drama (the unity of place, time and action) were proclaimed. Simultaneously with the approval of K. in literature and the theater, he also conquered the spheres of architecture, painting and sculpture. In France, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is being created, at meetings of which the rules of K. are formulated and in plastic. claim-wah. France in the 17th century K. finds its classic. form not only by virtue of state. support, but also general character development of the spiritual culture of that time. The defining moment of the content of the claim-va K. was the idea of ​​establishing statehood. It arose as a counterbalance to feuds. separatism and in this respect was a progressive principle. However, the progressiveness of this idea was limited, because. it boiled down to an apology for the monarchic. autocracy. The bearer of the principle of statehood was the absolute monarch, and in his person the person was embodied. ideal. The seal of this concept lies on the entire claim of K., to-ry was even sometimes called later "court K.". Although the court of the king was indeed the center from where the ideological. directives to the lawsuit, K. as a whole was by no means only a noble-aristocratic. lawsuit. Aesthetics K. is under means. influenced by the philosophy of rationalism. Ch. French representative. rationalism of the 17th century. R. Descartes had a decisive influence on the formation of aesthetic. doctrine K. Ethic. K.'s ideals were aristocratic only in appearance. Their essence was humanistic. ethics, recognizing the need for a compromise with the absolutist state-tion. However, within the limits available to them, the supporters of K. fought against the vices of the nobility and monarchy. society and brought up the consciousness of morals. the responsibility of everyone to society, including the king, who was also portrayed as a person who abandoned personal interests in the name of the interests of the state. Such was the first form of the civic ideal available at that stage of societies. development, when the rising bourgeoisie was still not strong enough to oppose the absolutist state. On the contrary, using its ext. contradictions, primarily the struggle of the monarchy against the willfulness of the nobility and the Fronde, the leading figures of the bourgeois-democratic. cultures supported the monarchy as a centralizing state. beginning capable of moderating feud. oppression, or at least put it into some kind of framework. If in some types and genres of art and literature external pomposity, elation of form prevailed, then in others freedom was allowed. According to the nature of the estate state, art also had a hierarchy of genres, which were divided into higher and lower. Among the lower ones were comedy, satire, fable in literature. However, it was in them that the most democratic ideas were developed. trends of the era (Molière's comedies, Boileau's satires, La Fontaine's fables). But even in the high genres of literature (tragedy), both contradictions and advanced morals affected. ideals of the era (early Corneille, Racine's work). In principle, K. claimed that he created the aesthetic. a theory imbued with an all-encompassing unity, but in practice arts. the culture of the era is characterized by conspicuous contradictions. The most important of these was the constant discrepancy between the modern. content and antich. the shape into which it was squeezed. Heroes of classicist tragedies, despite the antich. names were French in the 17th century. by way of thinking, morals and psychology. If occasionally such a masquerade was beneficial for covering attacks against the authorities, then at the same time it prevented the direct reflection of modern. reality in the "high genres" classic. lawsuit. Therefore, the greatest realism is characteristic of the lower genres, to which the image of "ugly" and "base" was not forbidden. Compared with the many-sided realism of the Renaissance, K. represented a narrowing of the sphere of life covered by art. culture. However, the aesthetic theory K. deserves the merit of revealing the importance of the typical in the art-ve. True, the principle of typification was understood in a limited way, because its implementation was achieved at the cost of losing the individual principle. But the essence of life phenomena and human. characters receives in K. such an incarnation, which makes it really possible both cognitive and educate. the function of works. Their ideological content becomes clear and precise, the intelligibility of ideas gives the works of art a direct ideological. character. The lawsuit turns into a tribune of moral, philosophical, religious. and politic. ideas. Feudal Crisis. monarchy gives rise to a new form of anti-feud. ideologies - enlightenment. There is a new variation of this art. directions - the so-called. educational K., to-ry is characterized by the preservation of all aesthetic. principles of K. 17th century. The poetics of the Enlightenment C., as it was finally formulated by Boileau (the poetic treatise "The Art of Poetry" - "L´art po?tique", 1674), remains a code of inviolable rules for the enlighteners - the classicists, headed by Voltaire. New in K. 18th century. is primarily its socio-political. orientation. An ideal civil hero arises, who cares not for the welfare of the state, but for the welfare of society. Not serving the king, but caring for the people becomes the center of the moral and political. aspirations. The tragedies of Voltaire, Cato by Addison, the tragedies of Alfieri, to some extent, and Russian. 18th century classicists (A. Sumarokov) affirm life concepts and ideals that conflict with the principles of feuds. statehood and abs. monarchy. This civic stream in France is transformed in France on the eve of and during the first bourgeoisie. revolution in K. Republican. The reasons that led to the renewal of K. in the period of Franz. bourgeois revolutions were deeply revealed by Marx, who wrote: “In the classically strict traditions of the Roman Republic, the gladiators of bourgeois society found the ideals and artistic forms, the illusions they need in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle in order to keep their inspiration at the height of a great historical tragedy" ("The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte", see K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 8, p. 120). For republican K. period of the first bourgeois. Revolution was followed by K. Napoleonic Empire, who created the Empire style. All this was a historical masquerade covering the bourgeois. content of the social upheaval then taking place. K. 18th century freed from certain features of dogmatism inherent in the poetics of the 17th century. It was during the Enlightenment, in connection with a deeper study of art, the classic. antiquity cult of antiquity in plastic. the lawsuit is gaining especially great development. In Germany, Winckelmann, and then Lessing, establish that the aesthetic. the charm of the monuments of antiquity is connected with the political. building the Greek polis: only democracy and the psychology of a free citizen can give rise to such a beautiful art. Since that time in it. theoretical thought affirms the idea of ​​a connection between the aesthetic. ideal and political freedom, which was most clearly expressed in F. Schiller's "Letters on Aesthetic Education" ("?ber die? sthetische Erziehung lier Menschen, in einer Reihe von Briefen", 1795). However, for him this idea appears in an idealistically perverted form: civil freedom is achieved through aesthetic. education. This formulation of the question was associated with the backwardness of Germany and the lack of prerequisites for the bourgeois. coup. However, in this form, the late German. classicism, the so-called. Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller was a progressive, albeit limited, ideological art. phenomenon. In general, K. was an important stage in the development of artistic practice and theoretical. thoughts. In antique the shell was clothed with the advanced bourgeois-democratic. the ideology of the rise of the bourgeoisie. society. The fettering nature of the doctrinaire teachings of the classicists was already clear at the end of the 17th century, when Saint-Evremond rebelled against it. In the 18th century Lessing inflicted crushing blows precisely on the dogmatic. elements of K., while protecting, however, the “soul” of K., his beautiful ideal of a free, harmoniously developed person. This was the core of the Weimar classicism of Goethe and Schiller. But in the first third of the 19th century, after the victory and approval of the bourgeois. building in the West. Europe, K. is losing its significance. The collapse of enlightenment illusions about the advent of the kingdom of reason after the victory of the bourgeoisie. revolution makes clear the illusory nature of the classic. ideal in the realm of bourgeois. prose. Historical the role of the overthrow of K. was performed by the aesthetics of romanticism, which opposed the dogmas of K. The struggle against K. reached its greatest acuteness in France at the end of 1820 - early. 1830, when the romantics won graduate. victory over K. as art. direction and aesthetic. theory. This, however, did not mean the complete disappearance of K.'s ideas in the claim. At the end of the 19th century, as well as in the 20th centuries. aesthetic movements Zap. Europe there are relapses. ideas, the roots of which go back to K. They are anti-realistic. and aesthetic character ("neoclassical" tendencies in French poetry of the 2nd half of the 19th century) or serve as a mask for ideological. reactions, eg. in the theories of the decadent T. S. Eliot after the 1st World War. The most stable were aesthetic. K.'s ideals in architecture. Classic the style of architecture was repeatedly reproduced in architectural construction in the 1930s and 40s, for example. in the development of architecture in the USSR. Lit.: Marx K. and Engels F., On Art, vol. 1–2, M., 1957; Plekhanov G. V., Art and Literature, [Sat. ], M., 1948, p. 165–87; Kranz [E. ], Experience in Philosophy of Literature. Descartes and French Classicism, trans. [from French. ], St. Petersburg, 1902; Lessing G. E., Hamburg dramaturgy, M.–L., 1936; Pospelov G. N., Sumarokov and the problem of Russian. classicism, "Uch. Zap. Moscow State University", 1948, no. 128, book. 3; Kupreyanov E. H., On the issue of classicism, in the book: XVIII century, Sat. 4, M.–L., 1959; Ernst F., Der Klassizismus in Italien, Frankreich und Deutschland, Z., 1924; Peyre H., Qu'est-ce que le classicisme?, P., 1942; Kristeller P. O., The classics and Renaissance thought, Camb., (Mass.), 1955. A. Anikst. Moscow.

In the era of the reign of Peter the Great in Russia, the foundations of a new direction in literature began to be laid. Signs of classicism originated in Italy in the 16th century. Within a hundred years, the direction has reached its highest development in France during the reign of Louis 14, who claims

The origin of classicism and the general characteristics of the era

The ideological basis for the formation of a literary trend is the assertion of a strong state power. As the main goal, classicism set the glorification absolute monarchy. Translated from Latin, the term classicus means "exemplary". The signs of classicism in literature draw their origins from antiquity, and the work of N. Boileau "Poetic Art" (1674) becomes the theoretical basis. It introduces the concept of three unities and speaks of a strict correspondence between content and form.

Philosophical basis of classicism

The metaphysics of the rationalist Rene Descartes influenced the formation of this literary movement. The main conflict among the classics is the confrontation between reason and passions. In accordance with the division of all genres into high, medium and low styles of the art system were created.

The main features of classicism imply the use of (time, place and action) and normative poetics, because of which the natural development began to slow down. The estate-feudal hierarchy is reflected in the aristocratic character of classicism. Heroes are mainly representatives of the nobility, who are the bearers of virtue. High civic pathos and a sense of patriotism subsequently become the basis for the formation of other literary movements.

Signs of classicism in literature. Features of Russian classicism

In Russia, this literary trend begins to take shape at the end of the 17th century. that the works of Russian classicists reveal a connection with N. Boileau, classicism in Russia is significantly different. It began its active development after the death of Peter the Great, when the clergy and nobles tried to return the state to pre-Petrine times. The following features of classicism are inherent exclusively in the Russian direction:

  1. It is more humane, because it was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment.
  2. Affirmed the natural equality of all people.
  3. The main conflict was between the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.
  4. Russia had its own antiquity - national history.

Odic poetry of classicism, the work of Lomonosov

Mikhail Vasilyevich was not only a naturalist, but also a writer. He strictly observed the signs of classicism, and his classical odes can be divided into several thematic groups:

  1. Victoriously patriotic. "Ode on the Capture of Khotin" (1739) was attached to a letter on the rules of Russian poetry. Symbolism is widely used in the work and a collective image of a Russian soldier is introduced.
  2. Odes associated with the accession to the throne of the monarch, in which the signs of classicism are especially clearly traced. Lomonosov wrote works addressed to Empress Anna, Elizabeth, Catherine II. A laudatory ode seemed to the writer of the most convenient formal conversation with the monarch.
  3. Spiritual. In the 18th century, they called the transcription of biblical texts with lyrical content. Here the author spoke not only about personal experiences, but also about universal human issues.

Odes of Lomonosov

Mikhail Vasilievich adhered to writing works of an exceptionally high genre, which were characterized by a solemn language, use and appeals - these are the main signs of classicism in the ode. Lomonosov turns to heroic-patriotic themes, glorifies the beauties of the motherland and encourages people to engage in science. He had a positive attitude towards the monarchy and in "Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna" reflects this idea. Being Mikhail Vasilyevich, he directs his efforts to educate the entire part of the Russian population, therefore he gives his followers a rich literary heritage.

How to distinguish a classic piece? Signs of classicism in the comedy "Undergrowth"

Conditional division of characters into positive and negative

Use of speaking surnames

Skotinin, Vralman - negative characters; Milon, Pravdin - positive.

The presence of a hero-reasoner

Rule of three unities (time, place, action)

Events take place in Prostakova's house during the day. The main conflict is love.

Heroes behave according to the specifics of the genre - low and mean

The speech of Prostakova and other negative characters is vile, simple, and their behavior confirms this.

The work consists of actions (usually there are 5 of them) and phenomena, and the subject of conversation in classical comedy is the state. The author also observes these signs of classicism in The Undergrowth and The Brigadier.

The innovative nature of Fonvizin's comedies

Denis Ivanovich began his literary activity with translations European texts, managed to play roles in the drama theater. In 1762, his comedy "The Brigadier" was presented, and then "Korion". The signs of classicism are best seen in "Undergrowth" - the author's most recognizable work. The peculiarity of his work lies in the fact that he opposes government policy and denies existing forms landlord dominance. He sees the ideal monarchy, fenced by law, which allows the development of the bourgeois class and allows the value of a person outside of class. Similar views were reflected in his journalistic writings.

"Brigadier": idea and summary

Fonvizin manifests himself as a playwright when creating his comedies. The production of "The Brigadier" was a huge success with the audience due to the presentation of a collective image of the whole estate. The basis is the plot-love conflict. It is not easy to identify the main character, since each does not exist on its own, but complements the collective image of the Russian nobility. The love story, traditional for classical comedy, was used by the playwright for satirical purposes. All the characters are united by stupidity and stinginess, they are strictly divided into positive and negative - the main signs of classicism in comedy are clearly preserved. The playwright achieved the comic effect by the complete inconsistency of the behavior of the characters with common sense and moral standards. "Foreman" for Russian literature was a new genre phenomenon - it is a comedy of manners. Fonvizin explains the actions of the characters by the everyday environment. His satire is not specific, since he does not designate individual carriers of social vices.

The head of the brigade and his wife decide to marry their son Ivanushka to the clever and beautiful Sophia, the adviser's daughter, who, observing the behavior of this family, does not want to become related to them. The groom himself also does not have feelings for the bride, and when he finds out that she is in love with Dobrolyubov, he convinces his mother of this undertaking. An intrigue arises in the house: the foreman falls in love with the adviser, and the adviser with the foreman's wife, but in the end everything falls into place and only Sophia and Dobrolyubov remain happy.

"Undergrowth": idea and summary

In the work, the socio-political conflict becomes the main one. "Undergrowth" is the most recognizable comedy of classicism, the signs of which are three unities, a strict division into positive and negative characters, speaking names - Fonvizin successfully observes. For the author, there are two categories of nobles: malevolent and progressive. The theme of the poverty of serfdom in Russia sounds openly. The playwright's innovation is manifested in the creation of positive images, which, according to the plan, were supposed to have an educational effect, but he continues to retain the signs of classicism. In the comedy "Undergrowth" the character of Prostakova was a kind of discovery for Fonvizin. This heroine is an image of a Russian landowner - narrow-minded, greedy, rude, but loving her son. Despite all the typicality, it reveals individual character traits. A number of researchers saw features of enlightenment realism in comedy, while others drew attention to the normative poetics of classicism.

The Prostakov family plans to marry their mediocrity Mitrofanushka to the clever Sophia. Mother and father despise education and argue that knowledge of grammar and arithmetic is useless, however, they hire teachers for their son: Tsyfirkin, Vralman, Kuteikin. Mitrofan has a rival - Skotinin, Prostakova's brother, who wants to get married out of a desire to become the owner of villages with pigs. However, the girl is found worthy husband Mylon; Sophia's uncle, Starodum, approves of their union.

Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic trend. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as an example of an ideal, "correct" style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore, harmony and logic are inherent in almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism came to replace Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerisms, and an excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The attention of the architects was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and austerity characteristic of ancient architecture, especially Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The task of all objects created in the style of classicism is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time for harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental ancient architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by a regular layout and clear forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were respected.

The aesthetics of classicism was favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter, a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. Symmetry prevails in the classical composition, following the composition of antiquity. The color scheme consists mainly of light pastel colors, which serve to emphasize the architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, resorts appear.

In the 20s of the XIX century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic color. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

The development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive tendencies of social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of ​​the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal state system and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when a person developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of the figures of classicism, this was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

There are three stages in the development of classicism in the world:

  • Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
  • Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
  • Empire.

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural trend. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of the Baroque and quickly replaced it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) trends: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the reign of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feeling was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “estate classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism”. As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, logical accuracy. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. It should depict truth and virtue, engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are designed to contribute to the development of the individual, so that a person becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between various types arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as saturated shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines, a smooth pattern; the elements are repetitive and harmonious, and the forms are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on the roofs, rotundas. Often, antique ornaments were present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, no frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most common styles throughout the world. Throughout the entire period of its existence, many talented craftsmen appeared, and a large number of projects.

The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the work of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire - the "imperial style". This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the XIX century. after which it was replaced by eclectic currents.

In Britain, the “regency style” became the equivalent of the Empire style (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). One of the founders of the British architectural tradition is Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist.

The most characteristic interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon the details that do not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings appeared in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In Russia, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for the interior in the style of classicism were in fact the same as for architectural objects: solid structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time elegance. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simple and light. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture of the Classicism era was made of precious woods, the texture, which began to perform a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of better quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.

At present, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics can also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Consider the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period is the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural trend.

In France of the era of Classicism, various public institutions were built, among which were business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times is the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Souflo. Initially, the project was conceived as the church of St. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, but in 1791 she was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of the great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grand dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Parts of the building are clearly demarcated, you can see the transition from heavier forms to lighter ones. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combines functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the 1666 fire broke out; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant church. It has an elongated shape, like that of a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similarly to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a structure typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a building closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is a wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome is a lantern crowned with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see the statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower - 12, and in the right one there is the "Big Floor" - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the dial diameter is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral stands a monument to Anna, the English queen of a previous era. At her feet you can see the allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are flanked by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with a cross is 120 meters.

The wrought iron openwork lattice work of Jean Tijoux (end of the 17th century) and carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient art and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the later works of the master, one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers were popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.

Many talented architects, both Russians and those who came from abroad, worked in Russia during the era of classicism. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamot and the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and the Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoye Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and semi-precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into a forest.

If at the beginning of a new architectural period, a still unfamiliar style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century, original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classical Western forms and merging with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday came during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts revives the tradition of teaching its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

It has become big step forward in the field of organizing systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn's buildings, as well as the Pashkov House, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on top of a hill, its facade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was a more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in terms of its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend to it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the facade of the Admiralty, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Stock Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to the difficult task of preserving the design of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time it is combined with ensembles of previous eras.

Classicism in architecture and urban planning.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.

In Venice, Palladio, commissioned by the Church, completed several projects and built a number of churches (San Pietro in Castello, 1558; the cloister of the church of Santa Maria della Carita [now the Academy Museums]; the facade of the church of San Francesco della Vigna, 1562; San Giorgio Maggiore on the same name island, 1565 [completed by V. Scamozzi by 1610]; "Il Redentore", that is, [the church] of the Savior, on the island of Giudecca, 1576-1592; Santa Maria della Presentatione, or "Le Citelle"; Santa Lucia, taken apart in middle of the 19th century during the construction of the railway station). If Palladio's villas as a whole are united by the impression of harmony and tranquility of forms, then in his churches the main thing is the dynamics of forms, sometimes - agitated pathos.



Robert Adam (who worked in collaboration with his brother James) became the most sought after architect in Britain. Connoisseurs of beauty admired the freedom with which he combined classical elements that were previously considered incompatible. A fresh approach to the layout of familiar architectural techniques (thermal window, serliano) testified to Adam's deep penetration into the essence of ancient art. Buildings: Kedleston Hall, Sion House, Register House, Osterley Park.

Classicism in painting.

A few paintings by Agostino Carracci (the best of them are the frescoes in the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, made together with his brother Annibale, "Communion of St. Jerome" and "Ascension of the Virgin" in the Bologna Pinacothek) are distinguished by their correct drawing and light, cheerful coloring.

Agostino was a more famous engraver than his brother Annibale. Imitating Cornelis Court, he reached great heights in the art of engraving. The most famous of his engravings are: The Crucifixion (with Tintoretto, 1589), Aeneas and Anchis (with Barocchio, 1595), The Virgin and Child (with Correggio), The Temptation of St. Anthony", "St. Jerome" (with Tintoretto), as well as some engravings from his own work.

Claude Lorrain depicted with great skill the play of the sun's rays at various hours of the day, the freshness of the morning, the heat of midday, the melancholy shimmer of twilight, the cool shadows of warm nights, the brilliance of calm or slightly swaying waters, the transparency of clean air and the distance covered with light fog. In his work, two manners can be distinguished: the paintings relating to the early period of his activity are painted strongly, thickly, in warm colors; later - more smoothly, in a chilly tone. The figures that usually enliven his landscapes.

Lorrain, unlike Poussin, went beyond the metaphysical (read - academic) landscape. Light is always important in his work. He is the first to investigate the problem of sunlight, morning and evening; the first who was seriously interested in the atmosphere, its light saturation. His work influenced the development of the European landscape, in particular, William Turner

Classicism in music

The music of the Classical period, or the music of classicism, refers to the period in the development of European music between about 1730 and 1820 (see "Time Frames of Periods in the Development of Classical Music" for a more detailed discussion of issues related to the allocation of this framework). The concept of classicism in music is steadily associated with the work of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics and determined the direction of further development of musical composition.

A distinctive feature of Mozart's work is an amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of enduring significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many links with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless, it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.

Mozart is one of the greatest melodists. Its melody combines the features of Austrian and German folk songs with the melodiousness of the Italian cantilena. Despite the fact that his works are distinguished by poetry and subtle grace, they often contain melodies of a courageous nature, with great dramatic pathos and contrasting elements. The most popular operas were The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute.

Questions and tasks:

1) Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - art style and aesthetic trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

There are two stages in the development of classicism: the 17th century. and XVIII - early XIX century. In the XVIII century.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism gives great value social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

Painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, music - classicism is represented.

2) From a building-monument they come to a building that expresses a certain social function, the unity of such functions creates an urban organism, and its structure is the coordination of these functions. Since social coordination is based on the principles of rationality, urban plans become more rational, that is, they follow clear rectangular or radial geometric patterns that consist of wide and straight streets, large square or round squares. The idea of ​​the relationship between human society and nature is expressed in the city in the introduction of wide green areas, most often parks near palaces or gardens of former monasteries that became state after the revolution. The reduction of architecture only to the fulfillment of urban planning tasks entails the simplification and typification of its forms.

3) The architect of classicism rejects the "whipped cream" of the Baroque and insists on the standards of harmony, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. Actually, for him there was no question whether art is objective or not. Of course, objectively, but he himself serves eternity and everything immutable. Hence the alignment to the order system, the regularity of planning and symmetry. Man, as we remember, it sounds proud. And regularity and clarity is exactly what distinguishes the creation of man from the spontaneous asymmetry of nature. For buildings and parks, all this meant the appearance of rows of columns going into perspective, perfectly trimmed bushes and tens of meters of perfect sculptures. And curls, architectural folds and ruffles - from the evil one. The architect of classicism was most often a tourist and traveled to Italy and Greece to look at the ruins, the creations of Palladio, Scamozzi and the drawings of Piranesi, and then carried this knowledge to his own country. So, in particular, it happened with Inigo Jones, responsible for planting classicism in Britain, and with Robert Adam, who changed the face of Scotland. The Germans Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, having gone crazy over the beauty of the Parthenon, built up Munich and Berlin in the neo-Greek spirit with grandiose museum and other public buildings.

The French Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet created their own versions of classicism: the former more and more mastered the spaces around the building, while Ledoux and Boulet were carried away by the radical geometrization of forms. The French (and after them the Russians) in general of all Europeans turned out to be the most sensitive to the luxury of imperial Rome and, without hesitation, copied the triumphal arches and columns.

4) See question #3.

5) A distinctive feature of Mozart's work is an amazing combination of strict, clear forms with deep emotionality. The uniqueness of his work lies in the fact that he not only wrote in all the forms and genres that existed in his era, but also left works of enduring significance in each of them. Mozart's music reveals many links with different national cultures (especially Italian), nevertheless, it belongs to the national Viennese soil and bears the stamp of the creative individuality of the great composer.

6) Nicolas Poussin. Master of chased, rhythmic composition. One of the first to appreciate the monumentality of the local color.

Born in Normandy, he received his initial art education in his homeland, and then studied in Paris, under the guidance of Quentin Varen and J. Lallemand. In 1624, already a fairly well-known artist, Poussin went to Italy and became close friends in Rome with the poet Marino, who instilled in him a love for the study of Italian poets, whose works gave Poussin abundant material for his compositions. After Marino's death, Poussin ended up in Rome without any support. His circumstances improved only after he found patrons in the person of Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Cavalier Cassiano del Pozzo, for whom he wrote the Seven Sacraments. Thanks to a series of these excellent paintings, Poussin was invited to Paris in 1639 by Cardinal Richelieu to decorate the Louvre Gallery. Louis XIII elevated him to the title of his first painter. In Paris, Poussin had many orders, but he formed a party of opponents, in the person of the artists Vue, Brekier and Mercier, who had previously worked on decorating the Louvre. The school of Vue, which enjoyed the patronage of the queen, was especially intriguing against him. Therefore, in 1642, Poussin left Paris and returned to Rome, where he lived until his death.

Poussin was especially strong in the landscape. Taking advantage of the results achieved in this kind of painting by the Bologna school and the Netherlands living in Italy, he created the so-called "heroic landscape", which, being arranged according to the rules of a balanced distribution of masses, with its pleasant and majestic forms, served for him as a stage for depicting an idyllic golden age. . The landscapes of Poussin are imbued with a serious, melancholy mood. In the depiction of figures, he kept to the antiques, through which he determined the further path that the French school of painting followed after him. As a historical painter, Poussin had a deep knowledge of drawing and a gift for composition. In the drawing, he is distinguished by strict consistency of style and correctness.

"The Magnanimity of Scipio", "The Shepherds of Arcadia", "Tancred and Erminia".

The generosity of Scipio.

The painting is based on the capture of New Carthage (modern Cartagena), the Spanish stronghold of the Punians during the second Punic War, which Scipio captured along with countless treasures, hostages from the Spanish tribes and a large supply of provisions. In one day, by the way, captured.

Actually, Scipio's generosity consisted in the fact that he freed the hostages and organized their sending home, and also saved the honor of noble girls from these Spanish tribes, which won the friendship and favor of many Spaniards who went over to the side of Rome.

№21 Worldview foundations in educational culture. Enlightenment in Europe and America

The formation of a new ideology is associated with the formation of a new social stratum. Convinced of the ideas of rationalism, educated. Not aristocrats. They state the poverty and humiliation of the people, the decomposition of the upper strata and set themselves the goal of changing the situation, using a scientific worldview that can influence the mass mood. (Troublemakers-serfs they are)

They stand up for the recognition of the rights of the individual, so the natural law doctrines appear. They appear in the teachings of Hobbes, Locke, Grotius in the 18th century. Hobbes's original idea of ​​natural law is that the nature of man is evil and selfish. “Man is a wolf to man”, the natural state is “the war of all against all”. In this war, man is guided by his natural right - the right of force. Natural law is opposed by natural laws, which are the reasonable moral principle of man. Laws of self-preservation and satisfaction of needs. Since the war of all against all threatens humanity with self-destruction, there is a need to change the natural state to civil. There should be a social contract. People voluntarily cede part of their rights and freedoms to the state, agree on the observance of laws. So the natural right of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws. Thus, the state is a necessary condition of culture. Locke believed that the truth of social life does not lie in the state, but in the person himself. People unite in society in order to guarantee natural rights to man. This, according to Locke, is the right to life, property, work. Labor and property give people freedom and equality. The state is obliged to protect the free private life of a person. From the very beginning, natural law theories had an anti-church and anti-feudal orientation, since the natural origin of law is emphasized. Which opposes the theory of divine right in which religion is the source of the feudal state, social inequality. The term enlightenment is first used by Aviary. The priority in the development of education belongs to France. And Herder, together with Voltaire, came up with this hat - enlightenment. Kant wrote that enlightenment is a way out of a person's state of minority, in which he was of his own free will. Immaturity of one's own free will is one whose causes do not lie in a lack of reason, but in a lack of determination and courage to use it without the guidance of someone else. The motto of enlightenment according to Kant is to have the courage to use your own mind.

The ideas of enlightenment are based on the ideas of rationalism. It is no coincidence that literature and art glorify the mind, the power of the human mind - this is an optimistic worldview. Faith in the power of the human mind. Povillon - "Wonders of the Human Mind" At the center of the enlightenment concept of man is the idea of ​​a natural man, a huge role in its formation was played by Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe" - a man in a natural state. This is a story about the life of mankind, which has gone from savagery to civilization. It is the state of nature that educates Robinson. J.-J. took over from him. Rousseau. In a treatise on reasoning about the sciences and arts, he says that the natural person is enlightened, but not by the sciences and arts that despots need to break the resistance of people. Civilization was able to create only happy slaves, Rousseau contrasts them with the savages of America. They are invincible by hunting only. No yoke can be imposed on people who do not have needs. Rousseau also develops the concept of natural man in treatises on the origin and foundations of inequality between people, on the social contract. The origin of inequality is explained historically. Voltaire and Montesquieu sharply criticized the idea of ​​the sacredness of the power of the clergy. God discredited himself because for a long time the oligarchs used his name to deceive the people and strengthen their power. Then the enlighteners were engaged in the development of social utopias.

First, the reorganization of society is built, and then the theory of a universal society. Everyone tried to define the natural state of man, which was seen in the social reality of material well-being. Rousseau believed that in a state of material well-being, wealth, human abilities develop, ideas expand, feelings are ennobled, the soul rises.

Claude Helvetius formulated the concept of virtue, which he measured by utility, and not by self-denial, as was the case in Christian morality. That is, a person should enjoy life, and not serve God with self-denial characteristic of a Christian. This idea was supported by the English educator Bentham, who believed that virtue should be based on personal benefit, taking into account the public interests of society. Thus begins a new stage in the development of enlightenment, which as a whole has undergone evolution: from scattered attempts to establish the idea of ​​enlightenment, to the unification of the forces of enlighteners; from the deism of Walter to the atheism of Denis Diderot. From the idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy, a passion for the English system to the development of a revolutionary change in the French social order to the approval of the idea of ​​the republic, the principle of equality. The most important slogan is "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity". In general, enlighteners create a harmonious picture of the world, since it is optimistic. The idea of ​​universality, world culture is being formed. The most famous was Johann Herder. He affirms the equality of cultures of different peoples and eras. At the same time, the ground for the development of Eurocentrism appears. For a long time, Europeans did not know foreign cultures, and conquering the peoples of America and Australia, they acted as conquerors. Neglected the culture of enemies. Whereas with the development of the idea of ​​universality to compare cultures as equal, however, one's own turns out to be more important, higher than someone else's. The development of Rousseau's ideas by the French revolution testified to a new attitude towards man, therefore, socially, ideas began to appear that contradicted the ideas of slavery.

The Rights of Man by Thomas Pen came out in 1791.

"Defending the rights of women" Ounstonecraft 1792. Denmark was the first country to ban slavery. Then in 1794 France banned it. In 1807 slavery was abolished in the British Empire. Enlightenment ideas determined the development of American culture. Philadelphia becomes the center of education in America; the first library in America and the first legal journal were created here. The first medical school and hospital, the educational activities of Benjamin Franklin, who formulated the classical principles of bourgeois morality, are associated with this city. The hero of the new time is a person who owes everything only to himself. He is characterized by sobriety of mind, rationality, focus on real life, with its material joys. It is he who owns many aphorisms that speak of bourgeois culture, bourgeois morality: “Time is money”, “Thrift and work lead to wealth”, etc.

Enlightenment culture is based on the ideas of Cottan Mather and Jonathan Edwards.

The ideology of enlightenment contributed to the development of education. Enlighteners believe that education in the spirit of modern science, modern knowledge can improve people's lives, it is no coincidence that Diderot combined the efforts of Voltaire and Montesquieu to create explanatory dictionary or Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts.

Gradually, a more favorable situation for education is emerging in America than in the old world. This explains the appearance of the founding fathers of the republic.

Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. He became the American interpreter of Locke's teachings. He saw the purpose of the state - to protect human rights: the rights to life, property, freedom, happiness. The people can overthrow the state. The main thing is to properly distribute power. Freedom is intertwined with responsibilities.

Disappointment in the ideals of the Enlightenment was expressed by Jonathan Swift's novel "Gulliver's Travels" - a satire on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Swift questioned scientific progress.

The era of enlightenment lasted about 100 years, then comes the reaction to the results of the French Revolution. The thinking part of European humanity felt that the ideal of a person, formed by the culture of rebirth, does not correspond to reality.

№22,23 Romanticism as a cultural paradigm, Romanticism in Europe

In the 18th century, pre-romanticism was formed, a special role in the formation of which was played by J. - J. Rousseau, primarily with his famous confession. The age of reason spoke of the primacy of feeling, of the originality and uniqueness of each person. In Germany, romanticism feeds on the ideas of the Sturm und Drang literary and social movement. Creativity of the early Goethe, Schiller. Fichte's philosophy with its absolutization of creative freedom can be named as important sources. And Arthur Schopenhauer with his idea of ​​a blind, unreasonable will that creates the world according to its will. Reality seemed unfavorable, sometimes terrible, and this is not corrected by the mind. The worldview of romantics is irrational. The idea of ​​the existence of otherworldly forces is a product of fantasy, not controlled by the enlightening mind. This trend manifested itself in the work of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. It reflects new themes, calls into question the worship of the human rational principle, faith in the original humanity. Human affairs inspire deep doubts in the former assertions. Goya refuses to divide life into right and wrong, high and low. The experience of the new era, shaken by the revolution, wars, refuted the idea that the dark and the light beginnings are incompatible. Life turned out to be more complicated and everything that exists - the people, history, man, with his dreams, fantasies, are involved in a continuous process of change and formation. On the one hand, Goya shows courage, steadfastness, greatness of soul, on the other hand, he knows how to show crime, inhumanity. Romanticism arises as a reaction to the French Revolution, to the idea of ​​their cult of reason. And also the cause of its development is the national liberation movement. Initially, the term romanticism was used in the literature of the Germano-Roman peoples, later it covered music and the visual arts. The main thing for romantic art was the idea of ​​duality, that is, the comparison and opposition of the real and depicted worlds. Real life or the prose of life, with its lack of spirituality, utilitarianism, is regarded as an illusion unworthy of man, opposed to the true world. The affirmation of the deployment of a beautiful ideal as a reality realized at least in dreams is the main feature of romanticism. Modern reality is rejected as the repository of all vices, so the romantic runs away from it. Escape is carried out in the following directions:

  1. Going into nature, therefore nature is a tuning fork of emotional experiences, the embodiment of real freedom, hence the interest in the village, criticism of the city. Interest in folklore, ancient myths, legends, epos.
  2. Escape to exotic countries, not spoiled according to romantics bourgeois civilization.
  3. In the absence of a real territorial address of flight, it is invented, constructed in the imagination.
  4. Escape to another time. Most of all, romanticism seeks to escape into the Middle Ages. There is a beautiful knightly ideal.

It is in the life of the heart that romantics see the opposite of the heartlessness of the outside world. In painting, a romantic portrait, a self-portrait, develops. The heroes of the portraits are extraordinary creative personalities. Poets, writers who have an extraordinary inner world. The image of the inner world becomes dominant. One of the first image of a free person was embodied by the writer, poet Byron "The Journey and Pilgrimage of Child Harold". The image of a free person was called the Byronic hero. He has such features as loneliness, egocentric. Free from society, this hero is unhappy. Independence is dearer to him than comfort and peace. The theme of loneliness is reflected in the work of Caspar David Friedrich, when he depicts lonely human figures against the backdrop of nature. Hector Berlioz became the founder of French. In this regard, it becomes a fantastic symphony. Fantastic is the reflection of the inner world of the lyrical hero, a lonely, unrecognized runaway poet, tormented by unrequited love. Romantic worldview was expressed in two versions: 1) the world seemed to be an endless, faceless cosmic subjectivity. The creative energy of the spirit acts as the beginning of creating world harmony. This is characterized by a pantheistic image of the world, optimism, a sublime feeling. 2) Human subjectivity is considered, which is in conflict with outside world. This attitude is characterized by pessimism.

National forms of romanticism, in the presence of common features, are original. So German romanticism is serious, mystical. In Germany, the theory and aesthetics of romanticism (Fichte, Schopenhauer) took shape. At the same time, masterpieces in music and literature are born here, aimed at self-deepening. French romanticism is impetuous and freedom-loving. First of all, he manifested himself in genre painting. In historical and everyday painting, in the portrait genre, in romance. Sentimental sensual English novelism used fantastic, allegorical, symbolic forms of displaying the world, irony, and the grotesque.

Theodore Géricault was the founder of French Romanticism. He overcomes the influence of classicism, his works reflect the diversity of nature. Introducing the human being into the composition, Gericault strives for the most vivid disclosure of the inner experiences, emotions of a person. Having retained the classicist craving for generalization, heroic images, Gericault for the first time in French painting embodies an acute sense of the conflict of the world. He embodies the dramatic phenomena of modernity, strong passion. Gériot's early works reflected the heroism of the Napoleonic Wars. "Officer of the horse rangers of the imperial guard going on the attack", "Wounded cuirassier leaving the battlefield." Dynamism of composition and color. One of the central in the work of Gericault is "The Raft of the Medusa". It was written on a topical story about the lost frigate "Medusa". Gericault gives a historical, symbolic meaning to a private event. The work reveals a complex range of feelings. From complete despair to complete apathy and passionate hope for salvation. The idea of ​​a romantic artist as a free, independent person, a deeply emotional person. Géricault expressed in a series of his portraits. (Portrait of twenty-year-old Delacroix) and self-portraits. A series of portraits of the mentally ill is of significance. The tradition of Géricault was picked up by Eugene Delacroix. "Dante and Virgil" or "Dante's Boat") The same passion, protest against any violence marked his later works. "Massacre on Yose" or "Greece on the ruins of Messalongi") The events of the defense of the Greeks from the Turkish invasion are reflected. "Freedom on the Barricades", written on the theme of contemporary events. Its romantic, revolutionary symbolism is expressed by the allegorical figure of freedom, with developing knowledge in hand. A number of works are inspired by a journey through North Africa. "Algerian women in their chambers", "Jewish wedding in Morocco", "Lion hunt in Morocco". Delacroix was fond of racing and horses. Delacroix paints portraits of composers (Chopin, Paganini). The expression of romanticism in German painting was the work of K. D. Friedrich. Already in the early works, the complete mystical atmosphere of his art was determined. These are such paintings as "The Hun's Tomb in the Snow", the Cross in the Mountains", "The Monk by the Sea". He depicts the viewer as a figure, detachedly contemplating landscape distances. A mysteriously silent nature is revealed before this contemplative. Various symbols of the supernatural being. (Sea horizon, mountain peak, ship, distant city, crucifix, cross, cemetery) For Friedrich, nature is the bearer of deep, religious experiences. The landscape was used as a means of displaying deep emotional experiences. There are four ages of life in the program work. Figures of people of various ages are depicted on a deserted Arctic shore and four ships approaching the shore. So the artist displayed the passage of time, the passage of time, the doomed mortality of man. The scene itself against the backdrop of sunset evokes a keen sense of melancholic nostalgia. The title of another work speaks for itself "The Crash of Hope". The Pre-Raphaelites are a brotherhood of English painters. (Rosetti, Milles, Hunt). Economic crises, the revolutions of the 1840s did not affect England. This is the heyday of British capitalism. Aesthetic dictate of England. The name Pre-Raphaelites appeared due to the fact that members of the society bowed before the art of the Docinquecento. They rely primarily on the quattrocento, trecento. Pre-Raphaelite painting was a reaction to the pragmatism of the bourgeois world and was a criticism of capitalism from the standpoint of beauty. This is an attempt to create a better reality based on spiritual, physical, social harmony. The divine meaning of ideal beauty, the universal meaning of being, high spirituality are revealed in the nature surrounding a person and everyday life. Interest in the Middle Ages was due to the craving for religious renewal. "Bride" - Rosetti, the image of femininity appears. Hunt's paintings are permeated with symbolism. "The Hired Shepherd" A dead head is a symbol of retribution, an apple is a symbol of temptation. "Awakened Shame" Hunt. The "Light of the World" depicts the walking Christ. "Scapegoat" is an allegory of Christ in the desert. Milles "Christ in the parental home", the painting was otherwise called "carpentry workshop". Romanticism in America arose under the influence of European culture. There was a tendency to romanticize the American Revolution, which was presented as a path to the highest degree of development, putting the United States at the head of world progress. Thus the uniqueness of the path of America was affirmed. The biographical genre is developing. Washington was the first hero. The Father of American Biography is Gerard Sparks. He created 12 volumes about Washington, 10 volumes about Franklin. The rapid industrialization of the northern states destroyed the traditional.

№24 Value system and culture of industrial society

Democratic principles in the social structure, the development of experimental science and industrialization. It was created back in the 17th century. The result of the industrial revolution was the emergence of an industrial society. The ideals of which are labor, production, science, education, democracy. Saint-Simon dreams of a society organized like a huge factory headed by industrialists and scientists. The factory at that time changed the manufactory, leading to an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. The introduction of technical innovations was accompanied by the consolidation of enterprises, the transition to the production of mass, standardized products. Mass production led to urbanization. (growth of cities) The prospect of accelerated development of capitalism has demonstrated the United States. The process became all-encompassing and more homogeneous, there was a process of turning history into world history. The formation of culture as a unity, diversity of national cultures and art schools. Traditional countries, such as Japan, are also included in this process. The problem of cultural dialogue acquires a special color. A new system of values ​​is emerging. Sensitivity is based on usefulness, prosperity, comfort. Progress is identified with economic progress. At the same time, the principle of utility transforms the concept of truth. The bottom line is that it is convenient and useful. Utilitarian character acquires etiquette. Regulation of relations between free partners by means of sale and purchase. The seller must be polite and courteous, but the buyer is not. Attention is paid only to those who are useful. Relationships are formalized.

  1. Literary direction - often identified with the artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic principles, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed.

    It is customary to single out the following literary directions:

    a) Classicism
    b) sentimentalism,
    c) naturalism,
    d) romanticism,
    e) Symbolism,
    e) realism.

  1. Literary movement - often identified with a literary group and school. Denotes a set of creative personalities, which are characterized by ideological and artistic closeness and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary trend is a variety (as it were, a subclass) of a literary trend. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism, one speaks of a "philosophical", "psychological" and "civil" trend. In Russian realism, some distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the XVII-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

  1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, putting forward on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature”, which implies strict adherence to unshakable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
  2. Aesthetics is based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin "ratio" - reason), which affirms the view of piece of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically built.
  3. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable, generic, enduring features over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
  4. Social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
  5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; their scope is public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes are monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious ascetics) and “low” (comedy, satire). , a fable that depicted the private daily life of middle-class people). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the mundane was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
  6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited by the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time that the play should have narrated was one day), the unity of action meant that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the establishment of absolutism (classicism, with its concepts of "exemplary", a strict hierarchy of genres, etc., is generally often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière, etc. Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, classicism was revived in the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalist ideas, classicism falls into decay, the dominant style of European art becomes romanticism.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century in the work of the founders of new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West, merged into the pan-European literary development while retaining their national identity. Characteristic features of Russian classicism:

A) Satirical orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national-historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Kniazhnin, and others);
V) The high level of development of the ode genre (by M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) General patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

At the end of XVIII - early. XIX century Russian classicism is influenced by sentimentalist and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov and the civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - “sensitive”) is a trend in European literature and art of the 18th century. It was prepared by the crisis of enlightenment rationalism, was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, it basically preceded romanticism, passing on a number of its features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

  1. Sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
  2. In contrast to classicism with its enlightening pathos, the dominant of “human nature” was declared by feeling, and not by reason.
  3. He considered the condition for the formation of an ideal personality not "a reasonable reorganization of the world", but the release and improvement of "natural feelings".
  4. The hero of the literature of sentimentalism is more individualized: by origin (or convictions), he is a democrat, the rich spiritual world of a commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
  5. However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of spiritual impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took its most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed the earliest - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (naib, famous work - “Poor Liza”), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalist tendencies are quite clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Enlightenment trends;
d) Improving the literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular.

The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (a novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motifs predominate.

Romanticism

One of the largest trends in European and American literature of the late 18th-first half of the 19th century, which received global importance and distribution. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries. "romanticism" begins to be called a new literary movement.

The main signs of romanticism:

  1. Anti-Enlightenment orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and reached its highest point in romanticism. Socio-ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, a protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaic nature of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of "reason", irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen events, and the modern world order turned out to be hostile to human nature and personal freedom.
  2. The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world sorrow" (heroes of the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). The theme of the “terrible world” “lying in evil” was particularly clearly reflected in the “drama of rock” or “tragedy of rock” (G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. T. A. Hoffman, E. Poe).
  3. Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. Man for them is a microcosm, a small universe. Hence - the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality who opposes society, its laws or moral standards.
  4. "Two worlds", that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual insight, inspiration, which are subject to a romantic hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially vividly in: "The Golden Pot", "The Nutcracker", "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober") . Romantics opposed the classic "imitation of nature" creative activity the artist with his right to transform the real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
  5. "Local color" A person who opposes society feels spiritual closeness to nature, its elements. That is why romantics so often have exotic countries and their nature (the East) as the scene of action. The exotic wild nature was quite in line with the spirit of a romantic personality striving beyond the ordinary. Romantics were the first to pay close attention to the creative heritage of the people, and to its national, cultural and historical features. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the Romantics, was part of one big single whole - the "universe". This was clearly realized in the development of the historical novel genre (such authors as W. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

Romantics, absolutizing the creative freedom of the artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own romantic canons.

Genres developed: a fantastic story, a historical novel, a lyrical-epic poem, and lyrics reached an extraordinary flowering.

Classical countries of romanticism - Germany, England, France.

Beginning in the 1840s, romanticism in major European countries gave way to leading position critical realism and fades into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The birth of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - a nationwide upsurge after the war of 1812. All this led not only to the formation, but also to the special character of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K.F. Ryleev, V.K. fight.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

A) The accelerated development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the “running in” and the combination of various stages that were experienced in stages in other countries. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy combined with the classic orderliness of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphor for the sake of "harmonic accuracy" (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll are especially developed. Very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism was the development of the ballad (for example, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky). The contours of Russian romanticism were most sharply defined with the emergence of the genre of the lyric-epic poem (the southern poems of A. S. Pushkin, the works of I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a great epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way to create a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the unification of apparently independent (and partially published separately) works (“The Double or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “A Hero of Our time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Nights" by V. F. Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - “nature”) is a literary trend that developed in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristic features of naturalism:

  1. The desire for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, due to the physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as a direct domestic and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a naturalist studies nature, artistic knowledge was likened to scientific.
  2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it.
  3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself expressive enough. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in choosing material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and public indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism received particular development in France - for example, naturalism includes the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, the brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism did not become widespread; it played only a certain role at the initial stage of the development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among the writers of the so-called "natural school" (see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from the late Latin realis - real, real) is a literary and artistic movement of the 19th-20th centuries. It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called "Renaissance realism") or in the Enlightenment ("enlightenment realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore, ancient literature.

The main features of realism:

  1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
  2. Literature in realism is a means of man's knowledge of himself and the world around him.
  3. Cognition of reality comes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality ("typical characters in a typical setting"). The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.
  4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even in the tragic resolution of a conflict. The philosophical basis for this is gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, unlike, for example, romanticism.
  5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary trend was formed in the 30s of the XIX century. The immediate forerunner of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spiritual, emotional terms, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other trends of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against the idealization of social relations, for the national-historical originality of artistic images (the color of the place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism in the first half of the 19th century; in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged together - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, partly C. Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (Pushkin’s southern poems and Lermontov’s Hero of Our Time).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were still in the 1820s and 30s. laid down by the work of A. S. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Captain's Daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, fables by I. A. Krylov ), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. socio-critical. The aggravated socio-critical pathos is one of the main distinguishing features Russian realism - for example, "The Government Inspector", "Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol, the activities of writers of the "natural school". The realism of the second half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century, the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.