Most history textbooks say that in the XIII-XV centuries Rus' suffered from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, in Lately more and more often there are voices of those who doubt that the invasion took place at all? Did the huge hordes of nomads really flood the peaceful principalities, enslaving their inhabitants? Let's analyze historical facts, many of which may be shocking.

The yoke was invented by the Poles

The term "Mongol-Tatar yoke" itself was coined by Polish authors. The chronicler and diplomat Jan Dlugosh in 1479 called the time of the existence of the Golden Horde so. He was followed in 1517 by the historian Matvey Mekhovsky, who worked at the University of Krakow. This interpretation of the relationship between Rus' and the Mongol conquerors was quickly picked up in Western Europe, and from there it was borrowed by domestic historians.

Moreover, there were practically no Tatars in the Horde troops themselves. It’s just that in Europe they knew the name of this Asian people well, and therefore it spread to the Mongols. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan tried to exterminate the entire Tatar tribe by defeating their army in 1202.

The first census of the population of Rus'

The first census in the history of Rus' was carried out by representatives of the Horde. They had to collect accurate information about the inhabitants of each principality, about their class affiliation. The main reason for such an interest in statistics on the part of the Mongols was the need to calculate the amount of taxes that were levied on subjects.

In 1246, the census took place in Kyiv and Chernigov, the Ryazan principality was subjected to statistical analysis in 1257, the Novgorodians were counted two years later, and the population of the Smolensk region in 1275.

Moreover, the inhabitants of Rus' raised popular uprisings and drove out from their land the so-called "besermen", who collected tribute for the khans of Mongolia. But the governors of the rulers of the Golden Horde, called Baskaks, for a long time lived and worked in the Russian principalities, sending the collected taxes to Sarai-Batu, and later to Sarai-Berka.

Joint trips

The princely squads and the Horde warriors often made joint military campaigns, both against other Russians and against the inhabitants of Eastern Europe. So, in the period 1258-1287, the troops of the Mongols and Galician princes regularly attacked Poland, Hungary and Lithuania. And in 1277, the Russians participated in the military campaign of the Mongols in the North Caucasus, helping their allies conquer Alania.

In 1333 Muscovites stormed Novgorod, and in next year the Bryansk squad went to Smolensk. Each time, the Horde troops also participated in these internecine wars. In addition, they regularly helped the great princes of Tver, who were considered at that time the main rulers of Rus', to pacify the recalcitrant neighboring lands.

The basis of the horde was the Russians

The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the city of Saray-Berke in 1334, wrote in his essay “A Gift to those who contemplate the wonders of cities and the wonders of wanderings” that there are many Russians in the capital of the Golden Horde. Moreover, they make up the bulk of the population: both working and armed.

This fact was also mentioned by the white émigré author Andrei Gordeev in the book “History of the Cossacks”, which was published in France in the late 20s of the twentieth century. According to the researcher, most of the Horde troops were the so-called wanderers - ethnic Slavs who inhabited the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Don steppes. These predecessors of the Cossacks did not want to obey the princes, so they moved south for the sake of a free life. The name of this ethno-social group probably comes from the Russian word "roam" (to wander).

As is known from chronicles, in the Battle of Kalka in 1223, roamers fought on the side of the Mongol troops, led by the voivode Ploskynya. Perhaps his knowledge of the tactics and strategy of the princely squads was of great importance for defeating the combined Russian-Polovtsian forces.

In addition, it was Ploskinya who lured the ruler of Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich, along with two Turov-Pinsk princes, by cunning, and handed them over to the Mongols for execution.

However, most historians believe that the Mongols forced the Russians to serve in their army, i.e. the invaders forcibly armed the representatives of the enslaved people. Although this seems unlikely.

A senior Researcher Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences Marina Poluboyarinova in the book “Russian people in the Golden Horde” (Moscow, 1978) suggested: “Probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army stopped later. There were mercenaries who had already voluntarily joined the Tatar troops.”

Caucasian Invaders

Yesugei-bagatur, the father of Genghis Khan, was a representative of the Borjigin clan of the Mongolian tribe Kiyat. According to the descriptions of many eyewitnesses, both he himself and his legendary son were tall fair-skinned people with reddish hair.

The Persian scholar Rashid-ad-Din in his work "Collection of Chronicles" (beginning of the 14th century) wrote that all the descendants of the great conqueror were mostly blond and gray-eyed.

This means that the elite of the Golden Horde belonged to the Caucasians. Probably, representatives of this race also predominated among other invaders.

There were few

We are accustomed to believe that in the XIII century, Rus' was filled with countless hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Some historians speak of a 500,000-strong army. However, it is not. After all, even the population of modern Mongolia barely exceeds 3 million people, and given the brutal genocide of fellow tribesmen committed by Genghis Khan on the way to power, the size of his army could not be so impressive.

It is difficult to imagine how to feed the half-million army, which also traveled on horseback. Animals simply would not have enough pasture. But each Mongolian horseman led at least three horses with him. Now imagine a herd of 1.5 million. The horses of the warriors riding in the vanguard of the army would have eaten and trampled everything they could. The rest of the horses would die of starvation.

According to the most daring estimates, the army of Genghis Khan and Batu could not exceed 30 thousand horsemen. While the population of Ancient Rus', according to the historian Georgy Vernadsky (1887-1973), before the start of the invasion was about 7.5 million people.

Bloodless executions

The Mongols, like most peoples of that time, executed people who were not noble or respected by cutting off their heads. However, if the sentenced person enjoyed authority, then his spine was broken and left to die slowly.

The Mongols were sure that blood is the seat of the soul. Shedding it means complicating the afterlife of the deceased to other worlds. Bloodless execution was applied to rulers, political and military figures, shamans.

The reason for the death sentence in the Golden Horde could be any crime: from desertion from the battlefield to petty theft.

The bodies of the dead were thrown into the steppes

The method of burial of the Mongol also directly depended on his social status. Rich and influential people found peace in special burials, in which valuables, gold and silver jewelry, and household items were buried along with the bodies of the dead. And the poor and ordinary soldiers who died in battle were often simply left in the steppe, where their life path.

In the disturbing conditions of a nomadic life, consisting of regular skirmishes with enemies, it was difficult to arrange funeral rites. The Mongols often had to move on quickly, without delay.

It was believed that the corpse of a worthy person would be quickly eaten by scavengers and vultures. But if the birds and animals did not touch the body for a long time, folk beliefs this meant that a serious sin was listed behind the soul of the deceased.

How empires arise and where they disappear. The Mongol Empire was nothing outstanding compared to its predecessors, such as the Turkic Khaganate, the Tang Empire, the Hunnic state, which were many times larger than the Roman Empire at the peak of its power.

Everything that the Mongols could need: a nomadic lifestyle, bows and weapons, horse attack tactics, siege of fortresses, education and maintenance of the army had already been developed and tested for thousands of years by successful conquerors like the Huns, Turks, Khitan, Jurgeni, etc. It was not the Mongols who came up with the idea of ​​including the conquered peoples in their horde, even the word horde is borrowed, it was not the Mongols who began to use Chinese defectors in governing the state.

The Mongols were a kind of Romans who absorbed all the best from the surrounding peoples and lived by conquering and plundering the surrounding countries, brutally and decisively suppressing any resistance.

The Mongols, like the Romans or the same Chukchi (the cruelest aggressors of the north) sincerely did not understand why their racial and military superiority was being contested, in their minds God created the earth for them to own it, and the rest to serve them. Just like the previous empires, the Mongols fell victims of their own ambitions, the struggle for power of the pampered descendants of cruel and uncompromising conquerors and the hatred of the conquered peoples.

Temujin (name, Genghis Khan - his position) was born in the tract Delyun-Boldok, neither the year, nor even the date of birth is known. After the death of their father, for several years widows with children robbed by their fellow tribesmen lived in complete poverty, wandered in the steppes, eating roots, game and fish. Even in summer, the family lived from hand to mouth, making provisions for the winter. At this time, Temujin lived in the family of his bride (he was married to him from the age of 10, he had to live in the family of his father-in-law until he came of age) and then another relative seized the camp.

Temujin was beaten into stocks, but he fled and joined his family, acquiring future associates, due to friendship with noble families and successful predatory raids, differing in that he included the opponents' uluses in his own. In 1184, Temujin defeated the Merkits and founded his first small ulus two years later, having 3 tumens (in fact, it is not necessarily a tumen of 10,000 people, it was quite possible that they were tumens of 600 people, but for that time this figure was impressive), with with them he suffered his first defeat.

The Tatars fought with China and in 1196 Temujin defeated the Tatars, and the Chinese awarded him the title of "Jauthuri" (military commissar), and Toorila - "Van" (prince), from that time he became known as Wang Khan. Temujin became a vassal of Wang Khan, in whom Jin saw the most powerful of the rulers of Eastern Mongolia. In 1200, Temujin set out on a joint campaign against the Taijiuts, the Merkits came to the rescue, in this battle Temujin was wounded by an arrow, the well-aimed shooter Jirgoadai, who confessed that it was he who shot, was accepted into Temujin's army and received the nickname Jebe (arrowhead).

Having won numerous victories over the Tatars and Kereites, having subjugated the east of the Great Steppe, Temujina began to streamline his people-army. In the winter of 1203-1204, a series of reforms were prepared that laid the foundation for the Mongol state. In March 1206, a kurultai gathered near the headwaters of the Onon River, where Temujina was elected great khan with the title of Genghis Khan. The creation of the Great Mongol State was proclaimed.

The war with the Jin Empire was considered by the Mongols as sacred, as an act of blood feud and as a personal vendetta of Temujin to the Tatars, Jurchens, Chinese and others who managed to annoy him. The conflict with the Jin was preceded by serious military and diplomatic preparations, campaigns were undertaken to eliminate the intervention of potential Jin allies in the conflict. In 1207, two tumens were sent to the northern border under the command of the eldest son of Genghis Khan, Jochi and Subedei.

Many Siberian tribes, who were tributaries of the Kyrgyz, swore allegiance to the great khan. Having conquered many peoples without a struggle and having secured the northern border of the state, Jochi returned to his father's headquarters. At the beginning of 1208, a battle took place in the Irtysh valley, the Mongols defeated the Merkit princes, in 1209 the Tunguts were conquered, the Mongol troops gained experience in taking fortresses with the help of siege weapons and actions against the Chinese-style army, at the same time the Uighurs joined without a single shot.

The Mongols were well prepared, and the Qin waged a war on three fronts: in the south - with the Song Empire, in the west - with the Tanguts, and in the interior of the country - with the popular movement of the "Red Chefs". Since 1211, the Mongols have been invading Jin, besieging and capturing fortresses and a passage in the Great Wall of China, in 1213 they invaded directly the Chinese state of Jin, despite resistance (many months of fierce sieges, garrisons reached cannibalism, but did not give up), an epidemic of pestilence , in 1215 captured the capital.

While still at war with the Jin Empire, Genghis Khan sent ambassadors to the Khorezmshah with a proposal of an alliance, but the latter decided not to stand on ceremony with the Mongol representatives and ordered their execution.

For the Mongols, the execution of ambassadors was a personal insult and 1219 was the beginning of the conquest Central Asia. Having passed Semirechye, the Mongol army attacked the flourishing cities of Central Asia. The cities of Otrar and Sygnak on the Syr Darya, Khojent and Kokand in the Ferghana Valley, Dzhend and Urgench on the Amu Darya, and finally, Samarkand and Bukhara fell under the blows of the troops of Genghis Khan.

The state of Khorezm collapsed, Khorezmshah Mohammed fled, a pursuit was organized for him under the leadership of Jebe and Subedei. After Muhammad's death, Jebe and Subedei were given a new task. They ravaged Transcaucasia, then the Mongols managed to defeat the Alans by bribing their ally, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan, who himself soon had to ask for help against the Mongols from the Russian princes.

The Russian princes of Kyiv, Chernigov and Galich joined forces to jointly repel aggression. On May 31, 1223, on the Kalka River, Subedei defeated the Russian-Polovtsian troops due to the inconsistency in the actions of the Russian and Polovtsian squads. Grand Duke The Kievan Mstislav Romanovich Stary and the prince of Chernigov Mstislav Svyatoslavich died, and the Galician prince Mstislav Udatny, famous for his victories, returned home empty-handed.

During the return to the east, the Mongol army was defeated by the Volga Bulgars in the area Samarskaya Luka(1223 or 1224). After a four-year campaign, Subedei's troops returned to join the main Mongol troops.

Approximately sixty-five years old (no one knows the date of his birth) Temujin died in 1227 on the territory of the Tangut state immediately after the fall of the capital Zhongxing (the modern city of Yinchuan) and the destruction of the Tangus state. There is a version that Genghis Khan was stabbed to death by a young wife at night, whom he took by force from her husband. It is useless to look for the grave of the khan - they were buried secretly, relatives, they plowed up the ground and drove a herd of horses from above, therefore it is pointless to look for any burial mounds, the graves of khans (unless they accidentally stumble upon).

According to the will, Genghis Khan's third son Ogedei became the successor, he became the khan, but many were against it (if it were not for disagreements in the Mongol ranks, they would have conquered the whole world). In the spring of 1235, a great kurultai was convened in the Talan-daba area to sum up the results of difficult wars with the Jin Empire and Khorezm.

It was decided to conduct a further offensive in four directions. Directions: to the west - against the Polovtsians, Bulgars and Russians; to the east - against Korea (Korea); to the southern Chinese Song empire; Significant reinforcements were sent to Noyon Chormagan, who was operating in the Middle East.

In the photo: The Secret History of the Mongols, a document of the 13th century.

The lands that were to be conquered in the west were supposed to be included in the Ulus of Jochi, so Batu, the son of Jochi, stood at the head of the campaign. The most experienced Subedei, an expert on Eastern European conditions, was given to help Batu. Under the supreme command of Batu came military contingents from all the Mongol uluses: Baidar and Buri, the son and grandson of Chagatai, commanded the army of the Chagatai ulus, the sons of the great Khan Guyuk and Kadan - the army of the ulus Ogedei; the son of Tolui Mongke - the army of the Tolui ulus (indigenous yurt), the western campaign became a pan-imperial event.

In the summer of 1236, the Mongol army approached the Volga. Subedey defeated the Volga Bulgaria, Batu waged a war against the Polovtsians, Burtases, Mordovians and Circassians for a year. In December 1237, the Mongols invaded the Ryazan principality. On December 21, Ryazan was taken, after the battle with the Vladimir troops - Kolomna, then - Moscow. On February 8, 1238, Vladimir was taken, on March 4, in the battle on the Sit River, the troops of Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who died in battle, were defeated.

Then Torzhok and Tver were taken, and a seven-week siege of Kozelsk began. In 1239, the main part of the Mongol army was in the steppe, in the region of the lower Don. Small military operations were conducted by Mongke against the Alans and Circassians, Batu - against the Polovtsy.

About forty thousand Polovtsy, led by Khan Kotyan, escaped from the Mongols by fleeing to Hungary.

Uprisings were suppressed in the Mordovian land, Murom, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov were taken.

In 1240, the offensive of the Mongol army began in the south of Kievan Rus. Kyiv, Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky were taken.

The military council decided to launch an offensive against Hungary, which had given shelter to the Polovtsy of Kotyan. There was a quarrel between Batu and Guyuk and Buri, who returned to Mongolia.

In 1241 Baidar's corps operated in Silesia and Moravia. Krakow was taken, the Polish-German army was defeated at Legnica (April 9). Baidar moved through the Czech Republic to connect with the main forces.

At the same time, Batu carried out the ruin of Hungary. The Croatian-Hungarian army of King Bela IV was defeated on the river. Shio. The king fled to Dalmatia, a detachment of Kadan was sent to pursue him.

In 1242, the Mongols captured Zagreb and reached the shores of the Adriatic Sea near Split. At the same time, the Mongolian reconnaissance detachment reached almost Vienna.

In the spring, Batu received from Mongolia the news of the death of the great Khan Ogedei (December 11, 1241) and decided to retreat back to the steppes through Northern Serbia and Bulgaria.

In the summer of 1251, in Karakorum (one might say a huge yurt city, the capital in Mongolia), a kurultai was assembled to proclaim the great Khan Mongke, since Khan Guyuk, who had usurped power from the legitimate Shiramun, died trying to start civil war with Batu and engaged in executions of opponents. To support him, Batu sent his brothers Berke and Tuka-Timur with troops.

The conquest of the Middle East began in 1256 with the Hulagu campaign in the Middle East, in 1258 Baghdad was taken and destroyed, in 1260 the Mongols were defeated in the battle of Ain Jalut by the Egyptian Mamluks, the conquest of South China began, however, the death of Mongke in (1259 ) delayed the fall of the Song state.

After the death of the great Khan Mongke (1259), a struggle for supreme power broke out between his brothers Khubilai and Arig-Buga. In 1260, Khubilai was proclaimed great khan at the kurultai in Kaiping, Arig-Buga - in Karakorum. Hulagu, who fought in the Middle East, declared support for Kublai; Ulus ruler Jochi Berke supported Arig-Buga.

As a result, Khubilai defeated Arig-Bug, founded the Yuan Empire (according to tradition, copying the earlier empires of nomads who ruled China with the help of Chinese officials). Khubilai's empire was in normal relations with the Ulus of Jochi, which occupied the European part modern Russia, fought with the Chagatai ulus (approximately the territory of present-day Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan-Uzbekistan) and was in allied relations with the Khalugid state (conditionally the territory of Persia), and the rest fought among themselves, sometimes uniting.

Yuan included Mongolia, China, Korea, Tibet, twice unsuccessfully invaded Japan (1274 and 1281), tried to capture Burma, Indonesia. The Middle Eastern campaign of the Mongols under the command of Hulagu (1256-1260), even to some extent participated in the seventh crusade.

The Mongol Empire, which was at war with each other, was recreated in 1304 as a federation of independent states under the nominal supremacy of the great khan, Emperor Yuan, which did not prevent a constant civil war, vying for power. In 1368, the Mongol Yuan empire collapsed in China as a result of the Red Turban Rebellion.

In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place, weakening the influence of the Golden Horde on the territory of the Moscow principality. Standing on the Ugra River in 1480 led to the final rejection of even a symbolic tribute to the Horde. The period of feudal fragmentation and internecine wars in Central Asia led to the fall of the Chagatai ulus to early XVI century.

Paiza (not to be confused with a label), made of gold or silver, ranked according to images and functions, a kind of identity card, epaulette, pass and travel tickets.

Thus, the Mongols, having dissolved in the conquered peoples and cutting off the remnants of each other because of power, disappeared in a fairly short period of time, because even if we consider the existence of the Mongol Empire in 280 years, this is negligible by historical standards.

And considering that from the time of the invasion of the Ryazan principality in 1237 to the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, 143 years have passed, then there is no question of any “thousand-year yoke”. Yes, this is an unpleasant episode of history, but they invaded before (for a much longer period), invaded after that (for more a short time).

From the benefits of the Mongols for Rus': the scale of the Chinese-style state thinking, the cessation of the strife of the princes and the creation of a large unified state; advanced advanced weapons; orderliness of transport and mail; tax collection and population census, stemming from an advanced Chinese-style bureaucracy; termination crusades knights and their conservation in the Baltic states.

From harm: in addition to destruction and killings during raids, a large decline in the population from the slave trade; the impoverishment of the population from taxes and consequently the inhibition of the sciences and arts; strengthening and enrichment of the church - in fact the agent and conductor of Mongolian decisions. The Mongols did not leave any traces in the genetics of Russians, since there were few ethnic Mongols even in 1237, they were mostly conquered peoples from a neighboring principality or nearby lands.

It doesn’t make sense to consider the Mongol invasion a worldwide disaster, it’s like the Gallic War for Rome - an episode of history, in the same France or Britain they are also proud that they were conquered by the Romans, and the capitals are Roman bath-laundry plants for legionnaires.

Banknotes of the Mongol Empire - yes, even then the surviving print, naturally paper, circulation of the coin was prohibited.

The “Mongol-Tatar yoke” was invented by the Polish chronicler Jan Dlugosh (“iugum barbarum”, “iugum servitutis”) in 1479; for Poland, even such a brief acquaintance with the gigantic Mongol Empire was so terrible that it made one shake, and a year later the Russians from cannons drove the Mongols on the Ugra River.

Where did the Tatars come from? The Mongols destroyed their enemies, the Tatars, but the Tatars were known, so a mixture of different peoples preferred to be called a revered name, and the Mongols did not interfere. And then the Mongols and Tatars gradually turned into Tatars and Mongols, and since there were no Mongols left at all, soon there were only Tatars who had nothing to do with either ethnic Mongols, let alone Tatars.

Looking for "Mongolian" roots in modern Mongols is about the same as looking for "Roman" roots in modern Italians. It is pointless to somehow identify the lifestyle of modern, rather peaceful Mongols and those Mongols, any Mongol reveres Genghis Khan, there is a huge monument in Mongolia, Temujin looks from portraits on 5000 tugriks, but conquest campaigns are not started, although they can gather to buzz.

To look for genetic traces of the then Mongols in modern Russians or Tatars is as stupid as to look for genetic traces of the ancient Egyptians in modern Egyptians.

Speculation on the Mongols and Tatars only makes it possible to enrich oneself on the dubious content of books and programs, inflating interethnic conflicts that are completely unnecessary to anyone. There is no need to look for burial mounds and graves, it is pointless to look for burials of real Mongols, since they buried the noble Mongols so that there was no grave to be found, they plowed the field and let the herd pass, and the privates could simply be folded in a row, taking off their clothes. There are also Mongolian swords in museums, these sabers had a great influence on the armament of China, Korea and the same Japan, the Mongolian bow is world famous, as are the hardy, shaggy, unpretentious Mongolian horses.

Such is briefly the history of the Mongol Empire.

As it is written in most history textbooks, in the XIII-XV centuries, Rus' suffered from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, lately everything more people wondering if it even existed? Did the huge hordes of nomads really flood the peaceful principalities, enslaving their inhabitants? Let's analyze historical facts, many of which may be shocking.

The yoke was invented by the Poles

The term "Mongol-Tatar yoke" itself was coined by Polish authors. The chronicler and diplomat Jan Dlugosh in 1479 called the time of the existence of the Golden Horde so. He was followed in 1517 by the historian Matvey Mekhovsky, who worked at the University of Krakow. This interpretation of the relationship between Rus' and the Mongol conquerors was quickly picked up in Western Europe, and from there it was borrowed by domestic historians.

Moreover, there were practically no Tatars in the Horde troops themselves. It’s just that in Europe they knew the name of this Asian people well, so it spread to the Mongols. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan tried to exterminate the entire Tatar tribe, defeating their army in 1202.

The first census of the population of Rus'

The Horde held the first census in the history of Rus'. They wanted to get accurate information about the inhabitants of each principality, their class affiliation. The main reason for such an interest in statistics on the part of the Mongols was the need to calculate the amount of taxes that were levied on subjects.

The census took place in Kyiv and Chernigov in 1246, the Ryazan principality was subjected to statistical analysis in 1257, the Novgorodians were counted two years later, and the population of the Smolensk region - in 1275.

Moreover, the inhabitants of Rus' raised popular uprisings and drove out from their land the so-called "besermen", who collected tribute for the khans of Mongolia. But the governors of the rulers of the Golden Horde, called "Baskaks", lived and worked in the Russian principalities for a long time, sending the collected taxes to Saray-Batu, and later - to Saray-Berka.

Joint trips

The princely squads and the Horde often made joint military campaigns, both against other Russians and against the inhabitants of Eastern Europe. So, from 1258 to 1287, the troops of the Mongols and Galician princes regularly attacked Poland, Hungary, and Lithuania. And in 1277, the Russians participated in the military campaign of the Mongols in the North Caucasus, helping their allies conquer Alania.

In 1333 the Muscovites attacked the Novgorodians, and the following year the Bryansk squad attacked the Smolensk people. Each time, the Horde troops also participated in these internecine raids. In addition, they regularly helped the Grand Dukes of Tver, who were considered at that time the main rulers of Rus', to pacify the recalcitrant neighboring lands.

The basis of the horde was the Russians

The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the city of Saray-Berke in 1334, wrote in his essay “A Gift to those who contemplate the wonders of cities and the wonders of wanderings” that there are many Russians in the capital of the Golden Horde. Moreover, they make up the bulk of the population: both working and armed.

This fact was also mentioned by the white émigré author Andrei Gordeev in the book “History of the Cossacks”, which was written in France in the late 20s of the twentieth century. According to the researcher, most of the Horde troops were the so-called "roamers" - ethnic Slavs who inhabited the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and the Don steppes. These predecessors of the Cossacks did not want to obey the princes, so they moved south for the sake of a free life. The name of this ethno-social group probably comes from the Russian word "roam" (to wander).

As is known from chronicles, in the Battle of Kalka in 1223, roamers fought on the side of the Mongol troops, led by the voivode Ploskynya. Perhaps his knowledge of the tactics and strategy of the princely squads was of great importance for defeating the combined Russian-Polovtsian forces.

In addition, it was Ploskinya who lured the ruler of Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich, along with two Turov-Pinsk princes, by cunning, and handed them over to the Mongols for execution.

However, most historians believe that the Mongols forced the Russians to serve in their army. That is, the invaders forcibly armed the representatives of the enslaved people, which seems implausible.

And Marina Poluboyarinova, a senior researcher at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, wrote in the book “Russian people in the Golden Horde” (Moscow, 1978): “Probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army stopped later. There were mercenaries who had already voluntarily joined the Tatar troops.”

Caucasian Invaders

Yesugei-bagatur, the father of Genghis Khan, was a representative of the Borjigin clan of the Mongolian tribe Kiyat. According to the descriptions of many eyewitnesses, both he himself and his legendary son were tall fair-skinned people with reddish hair.

The Persian scholar Rashid-ad-Din in his work "Collection of Chronicles" (early XIV century) wrote that all the descendants of the great conqueror were mostly blond and gray-eyed.

We are accustomed to believe that in the XIII century, Rus' was filled with countless hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Some historians mention a 500,000-strong army. However, it is not. After all, even the population of modern Mongolia barely exceeds 3 million people, and given the brutal genocide of fellow tribesmen committed by Genghis Khan on the way to power, his army could not be so impressive.

It is difficult to imagine how to feed the half-million army, which, moreover, traveled on horseback. Animals simply would not have enough pasture. But each Mongolian horseman led at least three horses with him. Now imagine a herd of 1.5 million. The horses of the warriors riding in the vanguard of the army would have eaten and trampled everything they could. The rest of the horses would die of starvation.

According to the most daring estimates, the army of Genghis Khan and Batu could not exceed 30 thousand horsemen. While the population of Ancient Rus', according to the historian Georgy Vernadsky (1887-1973), before the start of the invasion was about 7.5 million people.

Bloodless executions

The Mongols, like most peoples of that time, executed people who were not noble or respected by cutting off their heads. However, if the sentenced person enjoyed authority, then his spine was broken and left to die slowly.

The Horde were sure that blood is the seat of the soul. Shedding it means complicating the afterlife path of the deceased to other worlds. Bloodless execution was applied to rulers, political and military figures, shamans.

The reason for the death sentence in the Golden Horde could be any crime: from desertion from the battlefield to petty theft.

The bodies of the dead were thrown into the steppes

The method of burial of the Mongol also directly depended on his social status. Rich and influential people found peace in special burials, in which valuables, gold and silver jewelry, and household items were buried along with the bodies of the dead. And the poor and ordinary soldiers who died in battle were often simply left in the steppe, where the life path of a particular person ended.

In the disturbing conditions of a nomadic life, consisting of regular skirmishes with enemies, it is difficult to arrange funeral rites. The Mongols often needed to hurry, because any delay in the steppe could end badly.

It was believed that the corpse of a worthy person would be quickly eaten by scavengers and vultures. But if birds and animals do not touch the body for a long time, according to popular beliefs, this meant that a serious sin was registered behind the soul of the deceased.

The fascinating history of Mongolia is full of various events; the republic has experienced literally everything over the several centuries of its existence. Of course, it's hard to believe now, but there were times when this small and inconspicuous country owned half of the world.

Nobody knows exactly when it started. history of Mongolia. According to official data, the first people lived here, back in the Paleolithic times. In the II millennium BC. e. on the territory of the country, the first large settlements were formed. Each tribe had its own name, internecine wars often broke out between them, which made them an easy target for the Chinese. Over time, small khanates united, now China began to increasingly take a defensive position. Yesterday's nomads began to expand the territories of their lands, and very soon became the conquerors of almost all of Asia, so it is not surprising that the original Mongolian culture so different and unique.

Capital of Mongolia

The current one is Ulaanbaatar. The modern city, which is home to about half of the country's population, is the most important economic and cultural center of the state. Historical and architectural sights attract more and more tourists to the city. In just a few years, Mongolia has become one of the tourist centers of Asia.


Population of Mongolia

The area of ​​the state is 1566 thousand km²; all the main lives in the capital of the country. As in any other country, Mongolia is undergoing a period of massive urbanization. About 3 million people live in the country. centuries old story country, sometimes sad, despite numerous wars, the ethnic composition has not changed much, 90% of the inhabitants are Mongols.


State of Mongolia

Throughout its history, the country has experienced many ups and downs, the last time it was recognized as independent in 1992. Modern Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. At the head of the state is the president, elected by the people by popular vote, for a term of 4 years.


Politics of Mongolia

The last few years, unstable. The government of the country is passing from one party to another, the country is desperately trying to end the current situation. The main task of the state is to establish at the moment, to establish internal stability, and foreign policy.


Mongolian language

The official one is Mongolian. Part of the population of the country also speaks Kazakh, Chinese, Korean, Russian, etc.

history of mongolia, history of mongolia bazhu noyon Türkiye

  • 1 Prehistory
    • 1.1 Paleolithic
    • 1.2 Neolithic and Copper Age
    • 1.3 Bronze Age
    • 1.4 Iron Age
  • 2 Ancient period
    • 2.1 Xiongnu (209 BC - 93 AD)
    • 2.2 Xianbei state (93 AD - 234 AD)
    • 2.3 Zhuzhan Khaganate (330 - 555)
    • 2.4 Turkic period (555 - 848)
      • 2.4.1 Turkic Khaganate (552 - 603)
      • 2.4.2 Eastern Turkic Khaganate (603 - 744)
      • 2.4.3 Uighur Khaganate (742 - 848)
    • 2.5 Khitan Khaganate (907 - 1125)
    • 2.6 Mongols (VI - XII)
  • 3 Middle Ages
    • 3.1 From the tribal system to the Mongol Empire of the XIII-XIV centuries
    • 3.2 Mongolia during the Northern Yuan Dynasty (1368 - 1691)
    • 3.3 Mongolia within the Qing Empire (1691 - 1911)
  • 4 New period
    • 4.1 Mongolia (1911-1921)
    • 4.2 Period of socialism (1921 - 1990)
    • 4.3 Modern Mongolia (1990 -)
  • 5 Notes
  • 6 Literature
  • 7 See also
  • 8 Further reading

prehistoric period

See also: Archeology in Mongolia, Prehistoric Ordos, and Prehistoric Central Asia

For the first time, hominids that did not become the ancestors of Homo sapiens, whose remains were found on the territory of Mongolia, are about 800 thousand years old.

Paleolithic

Cave drawings have been preserved since the Upper Paleolithic in the Northern Blue Cave (Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui) in Kobdo aimag and in the White Cave (Tsagaan Agui) in Bayankhongor aimag.

Neolithic and Copper Age

A Neolithic agricultural settlement was found on the territory of the Eastern Aimag. Findings from the same period from western Mongolia include only temporary settlements of hunters and gatherers.

According to anthropological characteristics, the population of the Copper Age was Mongoloid in the east of modern Mongolia and Caucasoid in the west.

Bronze Age

Spread of the slab grave culture

In the II millennium BC. e. during the Bronze Age, the influence of the Karasuk culture was felt in western Mongolia. Numerous deer stones and mini-mounds, known as "keregsuren" belong to this period; according to other theories, "deer stones" date back to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. Proto-Mongolian tribes living in Mongolia created the so-called culture of slab graves. The territory of settlement of tilers was unusually wide: from Baikal, in the north, to Ordos and the foothills of Nan Shan (possibly, Tibet) in the south, and from Khingan in the east, to the foothills of Altai in the west. The slab grave culture was the most eastern of the significant steppe cultures. Southern Siberia. The center of the dissemination of culture is Mongolia, Southern Siberia and Inner Mongolia. Monuments are found in Mongolia, in the southern Baikal and Transbaikalia from the Sayan to Manchuria, on the Lesser Khingan, the Weichan Plateau, in northwestern China (Xinjiang).

iron age

A large burial complex of the Iron Age of the 5th-3rd centuries, also used later, in the time of the Xiongnu, was excavated by archaeologists near Ulangom in the Ubsunur aimag.

Until the 20th century, some historians assumed that the Scythians came from Mongolia, which was also reflected in Russian literature (Alexander Blok: “Yes, we are Scythians! Yes, we are Asians!”). 6th-5th centuries BC e. the region of residence of the Scythians reached the west of Mongolia. The mummy of a 30-40 year old Scythian warrior, about 2500 years old, with blond hair, was discovered in the Mongolian part of the Altai Mountains.

ancient period

Xiongnu (209 BC - 93 AD)

Main article: Xiongnu Xiongnu

Among the Chinese, all the nomads in the north were known under the single name "beidi", that is, northern barbarians, however, there is reason to believe that not only the Mongols, but also the Manchus were among them.

Each nation received its name from the name of the ruling house, which it was ruled by. Waging constant internecine wars, the tribes of Mongolia sometimes concluded alliances among themselves, and usually made raids on China, which sent gifts to the leaders of the tribes and thereby paid off their invasions. When from 480 BC. e. China was divided into seven destinies, the nomads of Mongolia often served one destinies against others. This order of things taught the nomads to raid China even more, and the Chinese began to push them to the north with their combined forces.

Three centuries BC e. three strong destinies, having driven away the northern nomads, were strengthened from the side by their long walls, but after the unification of China under the rule of Qin Shi Huang, these separate walls were connected and constituted one Great Wall of China. At the nomads pressed to the north by 214 BC. e. Three strong khanates were formed: in Eastern Mongolia - Dunhu, in Central Mongolia - the largest, Xiongnu, from Ordos throughout Khalkha, and to the west of Ordos - Yuezhi. Mongolian scientists attribute the Xiongnu to the Proto-Mongols.

The ruler of the Xiongnu, Mode-shanyu (209-174), conquered the Dunhu (the ancestors of the modern Mongols), scattered the Yuezhi (Aryans) and united under his rule the entire space in Central Asia, founded the empire of the Huns, stretching from the borders of Manchuria in the east to the Kazakh steppes in the west and from the Great Wall in the south to the current borders of Russia in the north.

In 202, Mode began devastating raids on China, which ended with the Chinese court recognizing the Turan Khan as equal in rights and undertaking to marry off their princesses to him, sending a certain number of gifts annually. Under the successors of Mode, the Chinese who arrived with the princesses taught the Xiongnu rulers to govern on the basis of laws, collect taxes and keep written records. From 71 BC e. disagreements arose in the ruling house of the Huns, which significantly weakened it. The Huns rose somewhat again only under Khukhanye-shanyu (57-31) and existed independently for about another two and a half centuries; then southern regions their khanates succumbed to China, while the northern ones perished entirely from internal disagreements.

From the early proto-Mongolian tribes, the Xianbei tribal union stands out, which concluded with China in the middle of the 1st century AD. e. alliance against Northern Xiongnu. The Xiongnu inflicted the first serious defeat on the Xiongnu in 87 AD. e. At the beginning of the 2nd century, the Xianbei are already so strong that they raid China, but suffer constant setbacks.

Xianbei state (93 AD - 234 AD)

Main article: xianbi xianbi

In 141, the great Xianbei commander and Emperor Tanshihuai was born. He becomes emperor (elder) of the Xianbei at the age of 14, after 2 years he inflicts damage on the Dinlin people and a crushing defeat of the Xiongnu and forces them out of the Transbaikal steppe. In 166, Tanshihuai repels the Chinese who invaded the Xianbei lands. The first emperor of the Mongols died in 181. The Syanbei state of Toba-Wei lasted until the middle of the third century.

Juan Khaganate (330 - 555)

Main article: Juan Khaganate Juan Khaganate

The Jujan Khaganate is a state of nomadic Mongol-speaking peoples who dominated the steppes of Central Asia in 330-555. The court historian of the Northern Wei Dynasty reports that the ruling tribe was a branch of the Xianbei.

Professor of philology and traveler Matthias Castren suggested that in the 1st-2nd millennium AD. e. in the process of migration of peoples, the Samoyed tribes were driven out by the Turks from the Sayan Highlands to the north, where they laid the foundation for such peoples as the Nenets, Enets, Nganasans, and Selkups. Part of the Samoyeds who remained in the south, according to the "southern hypothesis", subsequently became part of such large peoples of southern Siberia as the Siberian Tatars, Tuvans, Khakasses, Shors, and others. The Turkic tribes that came from Western Siberia gradually displaced and assimilated other peoples. Some Mongols, Ugrians, Samoyeds were assimilated by Turkic migrants. middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. the Iranian-speaking Scythians who inhabited the territory of Central Asia were completely assimilated by the Turks.

In 552 the Turks defeated the Juan army and in 555 the Juan Khaganate ceased to exist. After the decline of the Juan state, part of the Juan went to the east and the other part remained in the territory of modern Mongolia.

Turkic period (555 - 848)

Turkic Khaganate (552 - 603)

Main article: Turkic Khaganate

After the Jurans, the Tyukues appeared on the scene, subjugating the entire northwestern region to their power, while the southeastern and southern steppes were first owned by the Mongol-speaking Khitans, then by the Kumosi; other houses arose that ruled under the auspices of the Chinese and received from them both their titles and support for their power. During the period of the Tang Dynasty (620-901), the Huihe tribe, or Uighurs, especially intensified.

Eastern Turkic Khaganate (603 - 744)

Main article: Eastern Turkic Khaganate

Eastern Turkic Khaganate (603 - 744) - the state of nomadic Turks. In 603, the Turkic Khaganate disintegrated into Western and Eastern.

Uighur Khaganate (742 - 848)

Main article: Uyghur Khaganate

The Uighur Khaganate is a Turkic state that replaced the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In 840, this state was destroyed after a twenty-year war by the Yenisei Kyrgyz. Under pressure from the Kyrgyz, the Uighurs migrated south to Xinjiang. The centers of their statehood continued to exist in the west of Gansu and in southern Xinjiang. A common name for all was adopted - the Uighurs. In 840, the Yenisei Kyrgyz founded the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Pursuing the remnants of the Uighurs, the Kyrgyz fought their way to the Irtysh and the Amur and invaded the oases of Xinjiang. The Indo-European people of the Tochars, who lived in Xinjiang, were assimilated by the newcomer Uighurs in the 9th century.

It is usually argued that the Yenisei Kyrgyz, unlike their steppe predecessors, after the defeat of their opponents, did not spread across the territory of Central Asia, but continued to live in the Minusinsk Basin. The Kyrgyz, having defeated the Uighurs, did not take advantage of the fruits of their victory. Therefore, the military victories of the Kyrgyz in Central Asia turned out to be short-lived. After their arrival, the steppes of Central Asia were engulfed in chaos and anarchy. Living far from world trade routes, they did not understand its significance. P.P. Azbelev notes the fact that almost no chronicle of the Kyrgyz Khaganate was recorded in the Chinese chronicle. Historians believe that the decline of the Uighur Khaganate ended the 300-year domination of the Turks and the Turks left the Mongolian plateau. The influence of the Kyrgyz Khaganate in Mongolia was insignificant.

Khitan Khaganate (907 - 1125)

Main article: Khitan Khaganate Khitan, Tatabs-Mongols, Xianbei state Togon (285-670), Toba-Mongol state Northern Zhou (557-581) in 565. Khitan Khaganate

The Khitan Mongols have been a significant force in Northeast China since the 5th century. And although they managed to defeat the armies of the Tang Empire, they were able to create a centralized state only by 907.

In 907, the Khitan ruler Ambagai (Yelü Ambagai) founded the Khitan Khaganate in Northeast China. At the end of 916, Ambagay made a large military campaign, as a result of which a vast territory fell under the rule of the Khitans - the entire southeastern part of modern Mongolia and the adjacent regions of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the PRC. After the conquest of northern China, the state of Khitan became a powerful empire, and in 916 Ambagai received the title of "Great Holy Wise and Great Enlightened Heavenly Emperor." Around these years, Ambagai founded the capital of his state (on the territory of the modern khoshun Bairin-Zuoqi of the Chifeng city district in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the PRC). The Khitan conquests in Central Asia were completed by 924 and the Khitan campaigns put an end to the hegemony of the Turks on the Mongolian plateau. Ambagai renamed his state Liao or the Great Iron State.

During the reign of Ambagai, the Khitan script was created.

In 925, the Khitans gathered a huge army not only from their warriors, but also from conquered peoples and allies to attack the state of Bohai. In a short time, they captured it, creating the Tungdan vassal state on the site of Bohai. The eldest son of Ambagai was placed at the head of the Dundan.

In the early 12th century, the formerly Khitan-controlled Jurchen rebelled and in 1115 they founded the Jin dynasty. The Jin-Liao War continued for 10 years. In 1122, the Song and Jin Empires of China formed a strategic alliance against the Liao. The Song Empire attempted to take offensive action against the Liao, but to no avail. Due to the passivity of the Sung army, the Khitans made an attempt to neutralize the Sung empire and secure their southern borders. Commander Yelü Dashi, a descendant of Ambagai, was appointed commander-in-chief of the Southern route. In 1123, the Tangut state of Western Xia intervened in the war on the side of the Khitans. The Tangut cavalry defeated several small detachments of the Jin, but in the decisive battle the Jurchens inflicted a crushing defeat on them. In 1123, at the suggestion of the Jurchens, the question of peace with the Tanguts was raised, to whom the Jin offered several Khitan regions (Northern Gansu and Western Inner Mongolia) for refusing to support the Khitans. Soon the Tanguts, convinced of the strength of the Jin armies, recognized the suzerainty of the Jin. The only allies of the Khitans were some Mongol tribes, including the Khamag Mongols. The weakened Khitan Empire was finally conquered in 1125 by the Jin troops. However, immediately after the end of the war, disagreements began between the former allies. The Song Empire was not going to fulfill the terms of the treaties, which led to the beginning new war. In 1125, two Jurchen armies launched an offensive against the Song Empire. The Chinese armies were huge, but consisted mainly of infantry, which could not fight on an equal footing with the Jurchen cavalry. In 1127, the Jurchens captured Kaifeng, incorporating northern China into their state. Many Mongol tribes that lived close to the border of the Jurchen Empire became vassals of the Jurchens.

Yelü Dashi at the beginning of 1124 proclaimed himself emperor of the new state of Northern Liao, but Northern Liao soon ceased to exist. Several hundred thousand Khitans under his command retreated to the west and for some time tried to continue the fight against the Jurchens, but were defeated. Yelü Dashi, together with his people, went to the west and they conquered lands for themselves in Central Asia, and formed the Kara-Kitai Khanate there (1124 - 1218).

Mongols (VI - XII)

Archaeological finds confirm that the Mongols lived in the steppes of Mongolia and Transbaikalia after the decline of the Zhuzhan Khaganate. To control them, the rulers of the Turkic Khaganates placed their henchmen from ethnic Turkic tribes in Western Transbaikalia. They own a few mounds of Turkic appearance compared to the graves of the local Mongol-speaking population. But by the end of the 1st millennium, the dominance of the Turkic tribes in the steppes of Central Asia ended, and the rise of the Mongol tribes began. From the 9th century or after the fall of the Uighur Khaganate, the influence of the Mongol tribes grew again, and by the end of the 9th-beginning of the 10th centuries, the Mongols spread to the former lands of the ancient Mongol states, to Khingan in the east to the upper reaches of the Irtysh and Yenisei in the west, from Baikal in the north to the Great Wall of China on South.

In the annals of the Tang dynasty, the name of the Mongols is found for the first time; they are called here "shiwei mongu". In the 10th and 11th centuries, according to the annals of the Sung dynasty, the nickname “shiwei” disappears, and the Mongols are referred to simply as “mengu”, “mongu” or “monguls”. It is very likely that this name originally belonged to one of the tribes of the Shiwei people, which, gradually rising, spread its name to other tribes that roamed in the 11th century in the north and east of Mongolia. The Mongols themselves remember that after the defeat by the Turks, the Mongols came to the area named as Ergune-kun, and then decorate their origin with legends. According to one myth, the Mongols descended from a gray wolf and a motley doe; another legend reports that the ancestor of the Mongols, Budanchar, was miraculously conceived by the widow of Alan-goa from a connection with a heavenly spirit. Some scientists associate the name "Ergene-kun" with the name of the river Ergune (Argun). The Mongols retreated east after the fall of the Juan Khaganate. Judging by the data of the Secret History of the Mongols, the Mongols who left Ergune-Kun returned to Burkhan-Khaldun in the VIII century. According to the "Secret Tale", the first ancestors of Genghis Khan Borte-Chino and Goa-Maral wandered to Burkhan-Khaldun, at the source of Onon.

According to N. N. Kradin and T. D. Skrynnikova, Ergune-kun became the center of the polity, the formation of which was associated with the interaction of the aboriginal population (Mongols) and Turkic-speaking migrants who came to this territory from the west.

Middle Ages

From the tribal system to the Mongol Empire of the XIII-XIV centuries

Main article: Mongol Empire Ancient Mongolian shishak

Bodonchar gained supremacy over neighboring tribes. His descendant in the eighth tribe Yesugei-bagatur extended his power over a significant area, and Yesugei's son Temujin made the name of the Mongols known to the whole world. Modern Mongols begin their history with it. Temujin, better known as Genghis Khan, was born on the banks of the Onon River at the beginning of the second half of the 12th century. He was still a child when his father died; this death served as a signal for the falling away of the tribes that until then recognized the power of Yesugei.

Mongol Empire in 1207

However, gradually Genghis Khan subjugated first small, then stronger tribes and in 1206 was proclaimed a great khan, taking the name of Genghis and giving the name "Mongol" to his people (it is believed that because he himself came from the ancient tribe of the Shiwei Mongols) . 1211-1215 Northern China was conquered up to the Yellow River; in 1220 the Mongols subjugate Bukhara and Khorezm, in 1221 and 1222 they subjugate Khorasan, Iraq and Armenia, and in 1223 they appear in the Black Sea steppes (the Battle of the Kalka). Genghis Khan died in 1227 and before his death he divided his empire between his four sons, of whom Ogedei was given the supreme administration of the state.

When writing this article, material from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1890-1907) was used.

In the spring of 1235, the Great Kurultai was convened in the Talan-daba area to sum up the results of the difficult wars with the Jin Empire and Khorezm. It was decided to conduct a further offensive in four directions. The best troops were sent to the west - against the Russians, Polovtsy, Bulgars and to the east - against Koryo (See. Mongol invasions to Korea). In addition, an offensive against the South Chinese Song Empire was planned, and significant reinforcements were sent to Noyon Chormagan, who was operating in the Middle East. As a result of the Western campaign in 1242, the Mongol troops reached the Adriatic Sea, but due to the death of Ogedei at the end of 1241, the Mongol military leaders returned to their historical homeland to elect a new Great Khan. After complex intrigues at the kurultai, which took place only in 1246, Guyuk was elected the Great Khan. Under Guyuk, the Mongol troops entered Tibet, and also expanded the Mongol possessions in Georgia and Armenia. However, Guyuk died in 1247, and a new Great Khan had to be chosen.

In 1251, a kurultai took place in Central Asia, at which Mongke was elected Great Khan. However, his opponents said that this election was illegal, since the kurultai was not held on the territory of Mongolia. A conflict broke out that escalated into the first armed struggle for the throne in the territory of the Mongol Empire. Mongke suppressed opponents and continued territorial expansion: the Mongols went to the Middle East and attacked the Chinese state of the Southern Song. Möngke died on a campaign against the Song in 1259.

With the death of Mongke, all military campaigns of the Mongols stopped. In 1260, at the kurultai in Kaiping, Khubilai was proclaimed the great khan, although earlier another kurultai in the capital of Mongolia - Kharkhorin proclaimed Arig-buga the great khan. The struggle between Khubilai and Arig Buga for supreme power in the Mongol Empire lasted until 1263. However, after this, enmity began between Khubilai and Kaidu, who ruled in Central Asia. In 1271, Kublai Khan proclaimed the founding of the Yuan Dynasty in Beijing. The decree formally extended not only to Kublai's inheritance (which also included Mongolia), but to the entire Mongol Empire. The latter actually broke up into a number of independent states - in addition to the Yuan (understood as the inheritance of Khubilai), there was the Golden Horde, the Hulaguid state and the Chagatai ulus. Formally, they recognized the suzerainty of Khubilai and his successors.

Main article: Yuan (dynasty)

Mongolia during the Northern Yuan Dynasty (1368 - 1691)

Main article: Northern Yuan

After the collapse of the Yuan Empire in 1368, the Mongol emperors returned to their historical homeland, where the nomadic economy prevailed, and the local feudal lords resisted the policy of centralization. Mongolia officially bore the name "State of Mongolia" (Mongol Uls)" and "Northern Yuan" (only some emperors used this name) during this period.

From 1388 to 1400, five khans changed on the Mongol throne, all of them died a violent death. The power of the great Mongol Khan became nominal, the affairs of the state were managed by such feudal lords as Nagachu and Arugtai. The descendants of Khubilai repeatedly lost power, which ended up in the hands of the descendants of Arig-buki and Ogedei. The Chinese emperors Zhu Yuanzhang and Yongle waged successful wars against the Mongols, moreover, on the territory of Mongolia itself. From the end of the XIV century, the Western Mongols - Oirats - sharply intensified.

The process of feudalization began among the Oirats later than among other Mongol tribes, but proceeded quickly. The Oirat rulers (taishi), having got rid of dependence on the Mongol khan, themselves turned to active actions. Toghon-taishi won a major victory over the eastern Mongols in 1434 and even tried to proclaim himself a great Mongol khan. His son Esen-taishi became the de facto ruler of all of Mongolia. In 1449, Esen defeated a half-million Chinese army and captured the emperor (see Tumu disaster). The Eastern Mongol feudal lords, led by Daisun Khan, made an attempt to get rid of the Oirat rule. However, in 1452 Esen won a decisive victory over the eastern Mongols, and in 1454 he proclaimed himself the great Mongol khan. This was a blatant violation of Mongol laws, for Esen was not a descendant of Genghis Khan. In 1455, Esen fell victim to civil strife.

Mongolian states in the 14th-17th centuries Mongolian Khaganate, Oirat Khanate and Moghulistan Mongolian states in the 14th-18th centuries. Mongolian Khaganate, Dzungar Khanate, Khoshut Khanate, Khotogoit Khanate, Kalmyk Khanate and Moghulistan

Around 1479, the seven-year-old Batu-Mongke, who was a descendant of Genghis Khan, was proclaimed the great Mongol khan. He began to be called "Dayan Khan", that is, "the great Yuan Khan." His uncle's widow, Mandukhai Khatun, who became his wife, personally led a military campaign against the Oirats. The victory over the Oirats put an end to their claims to dominance in all of Mongolia. As a result of subsequent military campaigns, all of Mongolia was under the rule of Dayan Khan, his headquarters was located on the Kerulen River.

In 1488, Dayan Khan sent a letter to the Chinese court asking for permission to accept tribute from him. Such consent was obtained by him ("tribute" China called the actual interstate trade). However, already in 1495 the Mongols began military operations against China, and in 1500 Dayan Khan transferred his headquarters to the conquered Ordos. In 1504, Dayan Khan again turned to the Chinese court with a request to accept tribute from him. Despite the consent of the Chinese court, in the same year the Mongols launched a devastating attack on Datong and other frontier areas of China. Peaceful trade with China stopped completely for 70 years. Dayan Khan from 1514 to 1526 made annual attacks on the northern regions of China, repeatedly reaching the outskirts of Beijing.

United Mongolia did not last long. Soon after the death of Dayan Khan in 1543, the first internecine conflict broke out. In the 16th century, Mongolia again broke up into a number of principalities: it was divided among the sons of Dayan Khan. Since that time, among the Eastern Mongols, they began to distinguish between northern (Khalkhas) and southern (Tumats, Ordos, Chahars). Somewhat later, in the west of Khalkha-Mongolia, a relative of Dayan Khan, Sholoy-Ubashi-khuntaiji (1567-1630), formed the state of Altan Khans, which became the stronghold of the struggle of the Eastern Mongols against the Oirats.

A significant place among the princes of Southern Mongolia was occupied by the Tumet Altan Khan (1543-1582), who in 1554 founded the city of Guihuachen (modern Hohhot). After the death of Dayan Khan, he took a leading position among the Eastern Mongols. In 1552, Altan Khan undertook a campaign against the Oirats, who began to threaten the positions of the Eastern Mongols in Ordos and Kukunor. The Oirats were defeated by him. The disunity of the Oirats and their weakening as a result of the campaign of Altan Khan took advantage of the Eastern Mongol princes, who organized a series of military campaigns against the Oirats. As a result, the main part of the Oirats was driven out to the region of the Mongolian Altai and completely cut off from the markets of China.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Mongolia was a series of independent possessions located on three sides of the Gobi Desert. The head of the Chahar Khanate, Ligdan Khan (ruled 1604-1634), had the nominal title of the All-Mongol Khan and his seal, since he was considered the eldest among the descendants of Genghis Khan. Ligdan Khan struggled unsuccessfully to unify the country in the face of Manchu aggression. Feudal separatism intensified so much that at the beginning of the 17th century many Mongol princes were more willing to become vassals of the Manchu Khan than of the Mongol.

The founder of the Manchu state, Nurkhatsi, and his son Abakhai understood that the task of conquering vast China was impossible without conquering Southern Mongolia. To subdue it, Narkhatsi and Abakhai used tactics aimed at splitting the forces of the Mongols. In the 1620s, Nurkhatsi managed to subjugate most of the principalities of Southern Mongolia.

In the fight against the Manchus, the Ming Empire made the main bet on Ligdan Khan, but he failed to enlist the support of the northern Mongols, and most of the princes of Southern Mongolia took the side of the Manchus. Having suffered a defeat from Abahai in 1634, Ligdan Khan retreated to Kukunor with the remnants of his troops, where he soon died, and his son capitulated to the Manchus. In 1636, at the behest of Abakhai, a congress of the rulers of 16 southern Mongol principalities gathered, at which Abakhai was proclaimed the All-Mongol Khan. In the same year, Abahai gave his state a new name - Qing.

The change in the foreign policy situation in the region contributed to the consolidation of the Oirat tribes, which led to the formation of a strong centralized state - the Dzungar Khanate; the time of its formation is attributed to 1635, when the head of the Choros tribe, Batur-khuntaiji, united the Oirat tribes.

From the 1620s, the Russians began to build prisons in northern Mongolia. In 1688, the troops of the Mongol Tushetu Khan Chakhundorzh attacked the Selenginsky prison, but they retreated due to lack of firearms and unpreparedness for a long-term siege. Until 1688, Chakhundorj inflicted several strong blows along the Russian prisons and the Mongol cavalry defeated the Russian Cossacks, who tried to build prisons in the Mongolian province of Khuvsgel.

Khalkha-Mongolia became the arena of struggle between the Dzungar Khanate and the Qing Empire. The Qing managed to persuade some rulers of Khalkha to accept the citizenship of the Manchu emperor. This state of affairs worried the Dzungar Khan Galdan, who intervened in the strife in Khalkha-Mongolia. This led in 1690 to the Oirat-Qing War. In 1697, Galdan suffered a complete defeat and committed suicide; Khalkha Mongolia was incorporated into the Qing Empire. In 1715, the Oirats tried to return Khalkha. The Qing Empire at that time was in a difficult position, and tried to conclude a military alliance against the Dzungar Khanate with the Volga Kalmyks and Russia. In 1739, both sides, exhausted by long wars, concluded a peace treaty, according to which a significant part of the previously lost territories was returned to the khanate.

After the death of Galdan-Tseren, a fierce struggle for power broke out in the Dzungar Khanate. The Qing Empire, taking advantage of the favorable moment of the split of the enemy state, sent huge troops there, which by 1758 destroyed not only the state itself, but also almost all of its population (they destroyed 2/3 of the Oirats, the entire population of the Dzungar Oirats was about 600,000 people) .

Mongolia as part of the Qing Empire (1691 - 1911)

Main article: Mongolia within the Qing Empire Manchurian Empire in 1820

As part of the Qing Empire, the territory of Outer Mongolia was a separate imperial governorship, divided into four khanates (aimags) and the border Kobdo district, located in the extreme west, next to Xinjiang. Aimaks were divided into khoshuns - traditional feudal destinies for Mongolia, which had relatively clear boundaries. However, under the Manchu emperors, khoshuns turned from hereditary possessions into temporary grants, because in order to enter into hereditary possession and management, it was necessary for the Mongol princes to receive investiture from the emperor, who was considered the supreme owner of all Mongolian lands. In order to weaken the influence of the princes, the Qing authorities divided aimags into ever new khoshuns, bringing their number from eight in 1691 to 111 by the 19th century.

All laymen between the ages of 18 and 60 were considered militia soldiers (cyriks), and at the first request of the Manchu authorities, each administrative unit had to exhibit and maintain, at the rate of one warrior from ten families, armed riders in full gear. The main functions of the Mongol militia were guard duty on the borders with Russia and participation in the operations of the Manchu army in China, often as a police force. Distraction on military service a significant part of the productive population, in the conditions of its small number, was a heavy burden on the country's economy.

In 1644, on the basis of the Mongol Administration (Menggu Yamen) Mongol Zhurgaan, the Chamber of External Relations (Lifanyuan) was established, which was in charge of the "external" peoples: Mongols, Tibetans, Russians, Turks. She was the next link in the management of Mongolia after the emperor. Only Manchus and Mongols could serve the Chamber; The Chinese were not allowed there.

Subordinate to the Chamber were the imperial governors - assistant jianjun (governor general), who commanded all the Mongolian troops, who had a residence in the fortress city of Ulyasutai and was in charge (since 1786) of two western aimaks - Dzasaktukhan and Sainnoyonkhan, as well as his two assistants ( ambani), who ruled two eastern aimaks - Tushetukhan and Tsetsenkhan, with a residence in Urga (since 1761). There was located the monastery of Ikh-khure - the residence of the high priest of Mongolia, Bogdo-gegen. Urga gradually turned into the actual capital. Hebei-ambans (since 1762) ruled the border district from the city of Kobdo. The Manchus brought with them to Mongolia a detailed regulation of all public life and exercised strict control over its observance, although the basis of legislation for the Mongols was the traditional Mongolian regulations, written down before the Manchu domination.

In the first half of the 18th century, the situation of the pastoralists of Mongolia began to have negative impact introduced into the economy of the country Chinese trade and usurious capital. With settled settlements (mainly monasteries), the number of trading settlements with shops, stores, warehouses and living quarters grew. They became centers of wholesale and retail. The significant difference between the low purchase prices of Mongolian goods and the high selling prices of Chinese goods created an opportunity for Chinese merchants to get rich quickly. By the middle of the 19th century, with the direct support of the Manchu authorities, branches of several dozen Chinese trading and usury firms, mainly Peking and Shanxi, were openly operating in Mongolia. Russian trade was limited to holding a fair every three years in Kyakhta and the activities of Russian merchants along the Kyakhta-Urga-Kalgan tract (with the payment of large duties).

new period

Mongolia (1911-1921)

Main articles: Mongolian National Revolution, Chinese occupation of Mongolia, Mongolian People's Revolution, Mongolia (1911-1921) Mongolia in 1915

The Mongolian National Revolution took place in 1911, led by the highest Khalkhav nobility with the support of Russian Empire, overthrew the two-century dependence of Khalkha on the Qing Empire. As a result of the revolution, an independent state (kaganate) was founded, headed by the theocratic monarch Bogdo Gegen. "Bogdo-Khan Mongolia" or "Bogdo-Khanate" - the name adopted in historiography; officially the state bore the name "State of Mongolia" (Mongol Uls).

Period of socialism (1921 - 1990)

Main article: Mongolian People's Republic

Modern Mongolia (1990 -)

Main article: Mongolian Democratic Revolution

Notes

  1. Khureelengiin erdem shinjilgeeniy azhlyn ololt amjilt Institute of Mongolian Archeology
  2. 1 2 3 Eleanora Novgorodova, Archaeologische Funde, Ausgrabungsstätten und Skulpturen, in Mongolen (catalogue), pp. 14-20
  3. N. Navaan, Bronze Age of Eastern Mongolia, 1975
  4. History of Mongolia, Volume 1, 2003
  5. Archeology of Transbaikalia
  6. The Mysterious Scythians Burst Into History
  7. Archeological Sensation-Ancient Mummy Found in Mongolia
  8. Klyashtorny S. G. Formation of the ancient Turkic statehood: from the tribal union to the first Turkic Khaganate
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 History of Mongolia. Volume I (2003)
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 History of Ulan-Ude (2012)
  11. "TURKIC KAGANATE" in the Soviet Historical Encyclopedia
  12. T.Barfield
  13. 1 2 3 4 V.Ushnitsky: Is the Kyrgyz Khaganate a nomadic empire or an early state?
  14. Buryatia in antiquity
  15. 1 2 History of Mongolia. Volume II. Ulaanbaatar (2003)
  16. Secret History of the Mongols. Paragraph § 1
  17. Kradin N.N., Skrynnkova T.D. Empire of Genghis Khan / N.N. Kradin, T.D. Skrynnikov. - M.: Vost. lit., 2006. - 557 p. - ISBN 5-02-018521-3 (in translation)

Literature

  • Kradin N. N., Skrynnikova T. D. The Empire of Genghis Khan. Moscow: Oriental Literature, 2006. ISBN 5-02-018521-3
  • Kradin N. N. Preliminary results studying urbanization dynamics on the territory of Mongolia in antiquity and the Middle Ages // History and Mathematics: Macrohistorical dynamics of society and the state / Ed. Malkov S. Yu., Grinin L. E., Korotaev A. V. M.: KomKniga / URSS, 2007. P. 40-48.

see also

  • Mongolian states
  • Proto-Mongols
  • Mongolian tribes
  • Mongolosphere
  • History of Buryatia
  • History of Siberia
  • Mongolian plateau
  • animal style
  • Eurasian steppe
  • Kyakhta Museum of Local Lore
  • Kereksury
  • Huyag (armor)
  • Bayan-Under - Xiongnu settlement
  • Dyrestuy Kultuk - Xiongnu burial ground
  • Ilmovaya Pad - the burial ground of the Xiongnu nobility

additional literature

  • vostlit.info Sources of Mongolian history
  • Secret History of the Mongols. Texts, comments, etc.
  • The Secret History of the Mongols - original text
  • excerpt from the "Mongolian Historical Dictionary"
  • Lev Gumilev "Secret" and "explicit" history of the Mongols of the XII-XIII centuries.
  • Lev Gumilyov Ancient Rus' and great steppe. Infidelity and heterodoxy.
  • Lev Gumilyov Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. Yasa and the fight against her.
  • MEDIEVAL HISTORICAL SOURCES OF THE EAST AND WEST
  • vostlit.info DOCUMENTS - China
Mongolian tribes and peoples
Proto-Mongols
  • Xiongnu, Donghu group: Yueban Zhuan-Zhuan Khitan (Kara-Kitai) Tatabs Xianbi (Muzhun, Tubas) Tufa Tuyuhun Qifu Wuhuan Chi Shiwei
historical
  • a group of Nirun-Mongols: Barlas Borjigins Taijiuts Chonos
  • a group of Darlekin Mongols: Khongirats Olkhonuts Uryankhais
  • others: Barguts Dzhalairs Kereites Manguts Merkits Naimans Oirats Tumats Onguts Tatars Khatagins
Mongols (mong. mongol undesten)
Eastern Mongols
  • Khalkhas Darkhats Dariganga Hotogoyts Elzhigins Sartuls
Western Mongols
(Oirats)
  • Altai Uriankhians Bayats Buzavs Derbets1 Zakhchins Kalmyks Myangats Olets1 Sart-Kalmyks Torguts1 Khoyts Khoshuts 1 Chantuu Choros Khotons
northern mongols
  • Buryats - Bulagats Khongodori Khorintsy Ekhirites Khatagins Buryat tribes and clans
  • Barguts1 Chipchin Barguts Khamnigans Buryat-speaking non-Mongols: Soyots
Southern Mongols
  • Avga Avganars Aohani Aruhorchins Baarins1 Gorloses Darkhats Jalayirs Djaruts1 Durben Khukhets (Durbets) Mu-myangans Naimans Onnyuts1 Ordos Sunnis1 Tumats1 Uzumchins1 Urats Harachins1 Hashigten Khorchins1 Hu cheats1 Chahars
Other Mongolian peoples
Bao'an Yellow Uighurs Daurs Dongxiang Sogwo-Arigi Sichuan Mongols Mughals Mongors/Tu Tsaatans
Ethnoses of Mongolian origin speaking other languages
Katso / Yunnanese Mongols1 Iranian-speakers: Hazaras Teimuri Aimak Hazaras

1 ethnic groups partially or wholly residing in the People's Republic of China and united there under the name "Mongols of China".

See Population of Mongolia

history of mongolia, history of mongolia bazhu noyon Türkiye

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