Causes of the Revolution of 1789. The Great French Revolution

The Great French Revolution (FR.Révolution française) - in France, starting in the spring-summer of 1789, the largest transformation of the social and political systems of the state, which led to the destruction of the old order and monarchy in the country, and the proclamation of a free republic de jure (September 1792) and equal citizens under the motto "Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood".

The beginning of the revolutionary action was the capture of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and historians consider the end of November 9, 1799 (the coup of the 18th Brumaire).

Causes of the revolution

France in the 18th century was a monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and a regular army. The socio-economic and political regime that existed in the country was formed as a result of complex compromises worked out during the long political confrontation and civil wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. One of these compromises existed between the royal power and the privileged estates - for the renunciation of political rights, the state power protected the social privileges of these two estates by all means at its disposal. Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - during a long series peasant wars XIV-XVI centuries. the peasants achieved the abolition of the overwhelming majority of monetary taxes and the transition to subsistence relations in agriculture. The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie (which at that time was the middle class, in whose interests the government also did a lot, preserving a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (the peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which constituted the French stratum. bourgeois). However, the regime that emerged as a result of these complex compromises did not ensure the normal development of France, which in the 18th century. began to lag behind its neighbors, primarily England. In addition, over-exploitation increasingly armed the popular masses against themselves, whose most legitimate interests were completely ignored by the state.

Gradually during the XVIII century. at the top of French society, an understanding was ripening that old order with its underdevelopment of market relations, chaos in the management system, a corrupt system of selling government posts, the lack of clear legislation, a "Byzantine" taxation system and an archaic system of estate privileges must be reformed. In addition, royal power was losing confidence in the eyes of the clergy, nobility and the bourgeoisie, among whom the idea was asserted that the power of the king was usurpation in relation to the rights of estates and corporations (Montesquieu's point of view) or in relation to the rights of the people (Rousseau's point of view). Thanks to the activities of the enlighteners, of whom the physiocrats and encyclopedists are especially important, a revolution took place in the minds of the educated part of French society. Finally, under Louis XV and even more so under Louis XVI, reforms were initiated in the political and economic fields, which inevitably had to lead to the collapse of the Old Order.

Absolute monarchy

In the pre-revolutionary years, France was struck by a number of natural Disasters... The drought of 1785 caused a famine for forage. In 1787, silk cocoons were not baked. This led to a reduction in the Lyon silk weaving industry. At the end of 1788 in Lyon alone, there were 20-25 thousand unemployed. Strong hail in July 1788 destroyed the grain harvest in many provinces. The extremely harsh winter of 1788/89 destroyed many vineyards and part of the harvest. Food prices have gone up. The supply of bread and other products to markets has deteriorated sharply. To top it off, an industrial crisis began, which was triggered by the Anglo-French trade agreement of 1786. Under this agreement, both sides significantly lowered customs duties. The treaty turned out to be fatal for French production, which could not withstand the competition of cheaper English goods pouring into France.

Pre-revolutionary crisis

The pre-revolutionary crisis began with the participation of France in the American War of Independence. The uprising of the English colonies can be seen as the main and immediate cause of the French Revolution, both because the ideas of human rights resonated strongly in France and resonated with the ideas of the Enlightenment, and because Louis XVI received his finances in very poor condition. Necker financed the war with loans. After the conclusion of the peace in 1783, the deficit of the royal treasury was more than 20 percent. In 1788, expenses amounted to 629 million livres, while taxes brought in only 503 million. It was impossible to raise the traditional taxes, which were mainly paid by peasants, in the conditions of the economic recession of the 80s. Contemporaries accused the extravagance of the courtyard. Public opinion of all estates was unanimous in the opinion that the approval of taxes should be the prerogative of the States General and the elected representatives.

For a time, Necker's successor, Calonne, continued to practice loans. When the sources of loans began to dry up, on August 20, 1786, Calonne notified the king that a financial reform was necessary. To cover the deficit (fr. Precis d "un plan d" amelioration des finances), it was proposed to replace the twenty, which was actually paid by the third estate, with a new land tax, which would fall on all lands in the kingdom, including the lands of the nobility and clergy ... To overcome the crisis, it was necessary for everyone to pay taxes. To revive trade, it was proposed to introduce freedom of grain trade and abolish internal customs duties. Calonne also returned to the plans of Turgot and Necker for local government. It was proposed to create district, provincial and communal assemblies, in which all owners with an annual income of at least 600 livres would participate.

Realizing that such a program would not find support from parliaments, Calonne advised the king to convene notables, each of which was personally invited by the king and whose loyalty could be counted on. Thus, the government turned to the aristocracy - to save the finances of the monarchy and the foundations of the old regime, to save most of its privileges, sacrificing only a part. But at the same time, this was the first concession of absolutism: the king consulted with his aristocracy, and did not notify it of his will.

Aristocratic Fronde

The notables met at Versailles on February 22, 1787. Among them were princes of the blood, dukes, marshals, bishops and archbishops, presidents of parliaments, quartermasters, deputies of provincial states, mayors of major cities — 144 in all. Reflecting the prevailing opinion of the privileged estates, notables expressed their outrage at the reform proposals to elect provincial assemblies without class distinction, as well as attacks on the rights of the clergy. Predictably, they condemned the direct land tax and demanded that the Treasury report be examined first. Struck by the state of finances they heard in the report, they declared Calonne himself the main culprit of the deficit. As a result, Louis XVI had to resign Calonne on April 8, 1787.

Loménie de Brienne was appointed as Calonne's successor on the recommendation of Queen Marie-Antoinette, who was granted a loan of 67 million livres by the Notables, which made it possible to plug some holes in the budget. But the notables refused to approve the land tax, which fell on all estates, citing their incompetence. This meant that they were sending the king to the States General. Loménie de Brienne was forced to pursue the policy outlined by his predecessor. One after another, edicts of the king appear on the freedom of grain trade, on the replacement of road corvee by a monetary tax, on stamp and other duties, on the return civil rights Protestants, about the creation of provincial assemblies, in which the third estate had a representation equal to the representation of the two privileged estates, taken together, finally, about the land tax falling on all estates. But the Parisian and other parliaments refuse to register these edicts. On August 6, 1787, a meeting was held with the presence of the king (fr. Lit de justice), and the controversial edicts were entered into the books of the Paris Parliament. But the next day, the parliament cancels as illegal the decisions adopted the day before by order of the king. The king expels the Parisian Parliament to Troyes, but this causes such a storm of protests that Louis XVI will soon pardon the recalcitrant Parliament, which now also demands the convening of the States General.

The movement to restore the rights of parliaments, begun by the judicial aristocracy, increasingly developed into a movement for the convening of the States General. The privileged estates were now concerned only that the States General were convened in the old forms and that the third estate received only one third of the seats and that the voting was done word by word. This gave the majority to the privileged estates in the States-General and the right to dictate their political will to the king on the ruins of absolutism. Many historians call this period the "aristocratic revolution", and the conflict between the aristocracy and the monarchy with the appearance of the third estate on the scene becomes nationwide.

Convening of the States General

At the end of August 1788, the ministry of Loménie de Brienne was resigned and Necker was again called to power (with the title general director finance). Necker again began to regulate the grain trade. He forbade the export of grain and ordered the purchase of grain abroad. The obligation to sell grain and flour only in the markets was also restored. Local authorities were allowed to keep records of grain and flour and force owners to take their supplies to markets. But Necker failed to stop the rise in prices for bread and other products. Royal regulations on January 24, 1789 decided to convene the States General and indicated the purpose of the future meeting "to establish a permanent and unchanging order in all parts of government concerning the happiness of subjects and the welfare of the kingdom, as soon as possible to cure the diseases of the state and the elimination of all abuse." The right to vote was given to all male Frenchmen who had reached the age of twenty-five, who had a permanent place of residence and were entered in the tax lists. The elections were two-degree (and sometimes three-degree), that is, representatives of the population (electors) were first elected, who determined the deputies of the assembly.

At the same time, the king expressed a desire that "both on the extreme limits of his kingdom, and in the least known villages behind each was provided with the opportunity to bring his wishes and complaints to his attention." These orders (fr. Cahiers de doleances), the "list of complaints", reflected the sentiments and demands of various groups of the population. The orders from the third estate demanded that all noble and ecclesiastical lands, without exception, be taxed in the same amount as the lands of the unprivileged, required not only the periodic convocation of the States General, but also that they represent not the estates, but the nation, and that ministers should be accountable to the nation represented in the States General. Peasant orders demanded the abolition of all feudal rights of the lords, all feudal payments, tithes, the exclusive right for the nobles to hunt, fish, and the return of communal lands seized by the lords. The bourgeoisie demanded the abolition of all restrictions on trade and industry. All orders condemned judicial arbitrariness (fr. Lettres de cachet), demanded a jury trial, freedom of speech and press.

The elections to the States General caused an unprecedented rise in political activity and were accompanied by the publication of numerous brochures and pamphlets, the authors of which set out their views on the problems of the day and formulated a variety of socio-economic and political demands. Abbot Sieyes' pamphlet What is the Third Estate? Was a great success. Its author argued that only the third estate is a nation, and the privileged are alien to the nation, the burden on the nation. It was in this brochure that the famous aphorism was formulated: “What is the third estate? Everything. What has it been politically so far? Nothing. What does it require? Become something. " The center of the opposition or "patriotic party" was the Committee of Thirty, which emerged in Paris. It included the hero of the American Revolutionary War, the Marquis of Lafayette, Abbe Sieyes, Bishop Talleyrand, Count Mirabeau, Councilor to the Parliament of Duport. The committee launched an active campaign in support of the demand to double the representation of the third estate and introduce a universal (French par tête) vote of deputies.

The question of how the United States works has caused sharp controversy. The States General convened at last time in 1614. Then, traditionally, all estates had equal representation, and voting took place by estates (French par ordre): one vote had the clergy, one - the nobility and one - the third estate. At the same time, the provincial assemblies, created by Loménie de Brienne in 1787, had a double representation of the third estate, and the overwhelming majority of the country's population wanted the same. Necker wanted the same, realizing that he needed broader support in carrying out the necessary reforms and overcoming the opposition of the privileged estates. On December 27, 1788, it was announced that the third estate in the States General would receive dual representation. The question of the voting procedure remained unresolved.

Opening of the States General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

On May 5, 1789, the grand opening of the States-General took place in the hall of the "Small Fun" (French Menus plaisirs) palace of Versailles. The deputies were placed word by word: to the right of the king's chair sat the clergy, to the left - the nobility, on the contrary - the third estate. The meeting was opened by the king, who warned the deputies against "dangerous innovations" (fr. Innovations dangereuses) and made it clear that he sees the task of the States General only in finding funds to replenish the state treasury. Meanwhile, the country was waiting for reforms from the States General. The conflict between estates in the States-General began on May 6, when the deputies of the clergy and nobility gathered in separate sessions to begin checking the powers of the deputies. The deputies of the third estate refused to be constituted into a special chamber and invited the deputies from the clergy and nobility to a joint verification of powers. Long negotiations began between the estates.

In the end, a split was outlined in the ranks of the deputies, first from the clergy, and then from the nobility. On June 10, Abbot Sieyes proposed to appeal to the privileged estates with the last invitation, and on June 12, the roll-call of the deputies of all three estates on the balazhny lists began. In the following days, about 20 clergy deputies joined the deputies of the third estate and on June 17, a majority of 490 votes against 90 proclaimed itself the National Assembly (French Assemblee nationale). Two days later, the clergy deputies, after a heated debate, decided to join the third estate. Louis XVI and his entourage were extremely unhappy and the king ordered to close the "Lesser Fun" hall under the pretext of renovation.

On the morning of June 20, deputies of the third estate found the meeting room locked. Then they gathered in the Ballroom (fr. Jeu de paume) and, at Mounier's suggestion, swore an oath not to disperse until a constitution was worked out. On June 23, a “royal meeting” (French Lit de justice) was held in the Small Fun Hall for the States General. The deputies were seated word by word, like on May 5. Versailles was overrun with troops. The king announced that he was canceling the decrees adopted on June 17 and would not allow any restriction of his power or violation of the traditional rights of the nobility and clergy, and ordered the deputies to disperse.

Confident that his orders would be immediately carried out, the king withdrew. Most of the clergy and almost all of the nobles left with him. But the deputies of the third estate remained in their places. When the master of ceremonies reminded the chairman of Bailly of the king's command, Bailly replied: "The assembled nation is not ordered." Then Mirabeau got up and said: "Go and tell your master that we are here by the will of the people and will leave our places, only yielding to the force of the bayonets!" The king ordered the Life Guards to disperse the disobedient deputies. But when the guards tried to enter the "Little Fun" hall, the Marquis of Lafayette and several other noblemen who remained, blocked their way with swords in their hands. At the same meeting, on the proposal of Mirabeau, the Assembly declared the immunity of the members of the National Assembly, and that anyone who infringes on their immunity is subject to criminal liability.

The next day, the majority of the clergy, and the next day 47 deputies from the nobility, joined the National Assembly. And on June 27, the king ordered the rest of the deputies from the nobility and clergy to join. Thus, the transformation of the States General into the National Assembly took place, which on July 9 declared itself the Constituent National Assembly (French Assemblee nationale constituante) as a sign that it considers its main task to be the drafting of a constitution. On the same day, it heard Mounier about the foundations of a future constitution, and on July 11, Lafayette presented a draft Declaration of Human Rights, which he considered necessary to preface a constitution.

But the position of the Assembly was precarious. The king and his entourage did not want to come to terms with defeat and were preparing to disperse the Assembly. On June 26, the king ordered the concentration in Paris and its environs of an army of 20,000, mainly hired German and Swiss regiments. The troops were stationed in Saint-Denis, Saint-Cloud, Sevres and on the Champ de Mars. The arrival of troops immediately heated the atmosphere in Paris. In the garden of the Palais Royal, rallies spontaneously emerged, at which calls were heard to repulse "foreign hirelings." On July 8, the National Assembly addressed the king with an address, asking him to withdraw the troops from Paris. The king replied that he had summoned troops to guard the Assembly, but if the presence of troops in Paris worried the Assembly, he was prepared to move the meeting place to Noyon or Soissons. This showed that the king was preparing the dispersal of the Assembly.

On July 11, Louis XVI resigned Necker and reorganized the ministry, placing it at the head of Baron Breteuil, who proposed taking the most extreme measures against Paris. “If it is necessary to burn Paris, we will burn Paris,” he said. The post of Minister of War in the new cabinet was taken by Marshal Broglie. It was the ministry of the coup d'état. The cause of the National Assembly seemed to be defeated.

It was saved by a nationwide revolution.

Oath in the ballroom

The taking of the Bastille

Necker's resignation produced an immediate reaction. The movements of government troops confirmed the suspicions of an "aristocratic conspiracy", and the resignation caused a panic among the wealthy, since it was in him that they saw a person capable of preventing the bankruptcy of the state.

Paris learned of the resignation on the afternoon of 12 July. It was Sunday afternoon. Crowds of people poured into the streets. Necker busts were carried throughout the city. In the Palais Royal, a young lawyer, Camille Desmoulins, shouted: "To arms!" Soon, this cry resounded everywhere. The French guard (French Gardes françaises), among whom were the future generals of the republic Lefebvre, Gulen, Ely, Lazar Gauche, almost entirely went over to the side of the people. Skirmishes began with the troops. The dragoons of the German regiment (FR. Royal-Allemand) attacked the crowd at the Tuileries garden, but retreated under a hail of stones. Baron de Bezenval, commandant of Paris, ordered the government troops to retreat from the city to the Champ-de-Mars.

The next day, July 13, the uprising expanded even more. From early in the morning the alarm was buzzing. At about 8 o'clock in the morning, the Parisian electors gathered in the town hall (French Hôtel de ville). A new organ of municipal government, the Standing Committee, was created with the aim of leading and at the same time controlling the movement. At the very first meeting, a decision was made to create a "civilian militia" in Paris. This was the birth of the Parisian revolutionary Commune and the National Guard.

They were expecting an attack from government forces. They began to erect barricades, but there were not enough weapons to protect them. A search for weapons began throughout the city. They broke into the arms shops, seizing everything they could find there. On the morning of July 14, the mob seized 32,000 guns and cannons at the Home of the Invalids, but there was not enough gunpowder. Then they went to the Bastille. This fortress-prison symbolized in the public consciousness the repressive power of the state. In reality, there were seven prisoners and a little more than a hundred soldiers of the garrison, mostly disabled. After several hours of the siege, the commandant de Launay surrendered. The garrison lost only one person killed, while the Parisians lost 98 killed and 73 wounded. After the surrender, seven of the garrison, including the commandant himself, were torn to pieces by the crowd.

The storming of the Bastille

A constitutional monarchy

Municipal and peasant revolution

The king was forced to acknowledge the existence of a Constituent Assembly. Twice dismissed Necker was again called to power, and on July 17, Louis XVI, accompanied by a delegation from the National Assembly, arrived in Paris and received from the hands of the Mayor of Bayi a three-color cockade, symbolizing the victory of the revolution and the accession of the king to it (red and blue are the colors of the Paris coat of arms, white - color of the royal banner). The first wave of emigration began; The implacably-minded upper aristocracy began to leave France, including the king's brother, the Comte d'Artois.

Even before Necker's resignation, many cities were sending addresses in support of the National Assembly, until 40 before July 14. A "municipal revolution" began, accelerating after Necker's resignation and engulfing the entire country after July 14. Bordeaux, Caen, Angers, Amiens, Vernon, Dijon, Lyon and many other cities were in revolt. The quartermasters, governors, military commanders on the ground either fled or lost real power. Following the example of Paris, communes and a national guard began to form. City communes began to form federal associations. Within a few weeks, the royal government had lost all power over the country; the provinces now recognized only the National Assembly.

The economic crisis and famine have led to the appearance in the countryside of many vagabonds, homeless and marauding gangs. The alarming situation, the hopes of the peasants for tax relief, expressed in instructions, the approaching harvest of a new harvest, all this gave rise to myriads of rumors and fears in the countryside. In the second half of July, the "Great Fear" (fr. Grande peur) erupted, creating a chain reaction throughout the country. The rebellious peasants burned down the seigneurs' castles, seizing their lands. In some provinces, about half of the manors' estates were burned or destroyed.

During the meeting of the "night of miracles" (fr. La Nuit des Miracles) on August 4 and decrees on August 4-11, the Constituent Assembly responded to the revolution of the peasants and abolished personal feudal duties, seigniorial courts, church tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations and announced equality of all before the law in the payment of state taxes and in the right to hold civil, military and ecclesiastical offices. But at the same time it announced the elimination of only "indirect" obligations (the so-called banalities): the "real" obligations of the peasants were left, in particular, land and poll taxes.

On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" - one of the first documents of democratic constitutionalism. The “old regime”, based on class privileges and the arbitrariness of the authorities, was opposed by the equality of all before the law, the inalienability of “natural” human rights, popular sovereignty, freedom of opinion, the principle “everything that is not prohibited by law is allowed” and other democratic principles of revolutionary enlightenment. which have now become the requirements of the law and current legislation. Article 1 of the Declaration read: "People are born and remain free and equal in rights." Article 2 guaranteed "natural and inalienable human rights", which meant "freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression." The “nation” was declared the source of supreme power (sovereignty), and the law was declared the expression of “universal will”.

Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights

Hike to Versailles

Louis XVI refused to authorize the Declaration and Decrees of 5-11 August. In Paris, the situation was tense. The harvest in 1789 was good, but the supply of grain to Paris did not increase. Long lines lined up at the bakeries.

At the same time, officers, nobles, knights of the Order of St. Louis flocked to Versailles. On October 1, the King's Life Guards held a banquet in honor of the newly arrived Flanders Regiment. The banquet participants, excited by the wine and music, shouted enthusiastically: "Long live the king!" First, the Life Guards, and then other officers tore off their tricolor cockades and trample them with their feet, attaching the white and black cockades of the king and queen. In Paris, this caused a new outburst of fear of an "aristocratic conspiracy" and demands to move the king to Paris.

On the morning of October 5, huge crowds of women, who had been in vain all night in queues at bakeries, filled the Place de Grève and surrounded the town hall (fr. Hôtel-de-Ville). Many believed that food would be better if the king was in Paris. There were shouts: “Bread! To Versailles! " Then the alarm was sounded. About noon 6-7 thousand people, mostly women, with guns, lances, pistols and two cannons moved to Versailles. A few hours later, by decision of the Commune, Lafayette led the National Guard to Versailles.

At about 11 pm, the king announced his agreement to approve the Declaration of Rights and other decrees. However, at night, the crowd broke into the palace, killing two of the king's guards. Only Lafayette's intervention prevented further bloodshed. On Lafayette's advice, the king went out onto the balcony with the queen and the dauphin. The people greeted him with shouts: “King to Paris! King to Paris! "

On October 6, a remarkable procession set off from Versailles to Paris. The National Guard marched ahead; on the bayonets of the guardsmen was stuck in bread. Then came the women, some riding on cannons, others in carriages, others on foot, and finally a carriage with the royal family. The women danced and sang: "We are bringing a baker, a baker and a small bakery!" Following the royal family, the National Assembly also moved to Paris.

Revolutionary Parisian women go to Versailles

Reconstruction of France

The Constituent Assembly led a course towards the creation of a constitutional monarchy in France. By decrees of October 8 and 10, 1789, the traditional title of French kings was changed: from "by the grace of God, the King of France and Navarre", Louis XVI became "by the grace of God and by virtue of the constitutional law of the state, the king of the French." The king remained the head of state and executive branch, but he could rule only on the basis of the law. Legislative power belonged to the National Assembly, which actually became the highest power in the country. The king retained the right to appoint ministers. The king could no longer draw infinitely from the state treasury. The right to declare war and make peace passed to the National Assembly. By a decree of June 19, 1790, the institution of hereditary nobility and all titles associated with it were abolished. Calling oneself a marquis, count, etc. was prohibited. Citizens could only bear the surname of the head of the family.

The central administration was reorganized. Gone are the royal councils and secretaries of state. From now on, six ministers were appointed: internal affairs, justice, finance, foreign affairs, military, navy. Under the municipal law of December 14-22, 1789, cities and provinces were granted the broadest self-government. All local agents of the central government were abolished. The posts of quartermasters and their sub-delegates were destroyed. By a decree of January 15, 1790, the Assembly established a new administrative structure for the country. The system of dividing France into provinces, governorships, generalités, baliages, seneschalties ceased to exist. The country was divided into 83 departments, roughly equal in size. Departments were subdivided into districts (districts). Districts were divided into cantons. The lowest administrative unit was the commune (community). Communes big cities divided into sections (districts, areas). Paris was divided into 48 sections (instead of the previously existing 60 arrondissements).

The judicial reform was carried out on the same grounds as the administrative reform. All the old judicial institutions, including parliaments, were liquidated. The sale of judicial positions, like any other, was canceled. In every canton, a magistrate's court was established, in every arrondissement, a district court, and in every major city of the department, a criminal court. A single for the whole country, the Court of Cassation was also created, which had the right to annul the sentences of courts of other instances and send cases for a new trial, and the National Supreme Court, whose competence was subject to offenses by ministers and senior officials, as well as crimes against state security. Courts of all instances were elective (on the basis of property qualifications and other restrictions) and were judged with the participation of a jury.

All privileges and other forms of state regulation of economic activity were abolished - shops, corporations, monopolies, etc. The customs offices inside the country were liquidated at the borders of various regions. Instead of numerous previous taxes, three new ones were introduced - on land property, movable property and commercial and industrial activities. The Constituent Assembly placed a gigantic national debt "under the protection of the nation". On October 10 Talleyrand proposed to use church property to pay off the state debt, which was to be transferred to the disposal of the nation and sold. By decrees adopted in June-November 1790, it implemented the so-called "civil organization of the clergy," that is, carried out a reform of the church, depriving it of its former privileged position in society and turning the church into an organ of the state. Registration of births, deaths, marriages, which were transferred to state bodies, were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the church. Only civil marriage was recognized as legal. All church titles were abolished, except for bishop and priest (parish priest). Bishops and parish priests were elected by electors, the former by department electors, and the latter by parish electors. The confirmation of the bishops by the pope (as the head of the ecumenical Catholic Church) was canceled: henceforth, the French bishops only informed the pope of their election. All clergymen were required to take a special oath to the "civil organization of the clergy" under the threat of resignation.

Church reform caused a split among the French clergy. After the Pope did not recognize the "civil order" of the church in France, all French bishops, with the exception of 7, refused to take the civil oath. About half of the lower clergy followed their example. A sharp struggle arose between the jury (French assermente), or constitutional, and the non-jury (French refractaires) clergy, which significantly complicated the political situation in the country. In the future, "non-jury" priests, who retained influence on significant masses of believers, become one of the most important forces of the counter-revolution.

By this time, a split was outlined among the deputies of the Constituent Assembly. In the wake of public support, new leftists began to emerge: Petion, Gregoire, Robespierre. In addition, clubs and organizations have sprung up all over the country. In Paris, the Jacobins and Cordeliers Club became the centers of radicalism. The constitutionalists in the person of Mirabeau, and after his sudden death in April 1791, the "triumvirate" Barnave, Duport and Lamet believed that the events went beyond the principles of 1789 and sought to halt the development of the revolution, increasing the electoral qualification, limiting the freedom of the press and the activity of clubs. To do this, they needed to remain in power and enjoy the full support of the king. Suddenly the soil opened beneath them. Louis XVI fled.

The arrest of Louis XVI

Varenna Crisis

The attempt to escape the king is one of the most important events of the revolution. Internally, this was clear evidence of the incompatibility of the monarchy and revolutionary France and destroyed the attempt to establish a constitutional monarchy. Outwardly, this hastened the approach of a military conflict with monarchical Europe.

Around midnight on June 20, 1791, the king, disguised as a servant, attempted to flee, but was recognized at the border in Varenna by a postal worker on the night of June 21-22. The royal family was brought back to Paris on the evening of June 25th amid the dead silence of the Parisians and the National Guards holding their guns upside down.

The country took the news of the escape as a shock, as a declaration of war, in which its king is in the camp of the enemy. From this moment, the radicalization of the revolution begins. Who, then, can be trusted if the king himself turned out to be a traitor? For the first time since the beginning of the Revolution, the press began to openly discuss the possibility of establishing a republic. However, the constitutionalist deputies, unwilling to deepen the crisis and call into question the fruits of nearly two years of work on the Constitution, took the king under protection and declared that he had been kidnapped. The Cordeliers urged the townspeople to collect signatures on a petition demanding the abdication of the king on 17 July on the Champ de Mars. City officials have banned the demonstration. The Mayor of Bayy and Lafayette with a detachment of the National Guard arrived at the Champ de Mars. The National Guardsmen opened fire, killing several dozen people. This was the first split of the third estate itself.

On September 3, 1791, the National Assembly adopted the Constitution. According to it, it was proposed to convene the Legislative Assembly - a unicameral parliament on the basis of a high property qualification. There were only 4.3 million “active” citizens who received the right to vote under the constitution, and only 50 thousand electors who elected deputies. The deputies of the National Assembly could not be elected to the new parliament. The Legislative Assembly opened on October 1, 1791. The king swore allegiance to the new constitution and was restored to his functions, but not the trust of the whole country in him.

Shooting on the Champ de Mars

In Europe, the king's escape caused a strong emotional reaction. On August 27, 1791, the Austrian emperor Leopold II and the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm II signed the Pilnitz Declaration, threatening revolutionary France with armed intervention. From that moment on, war seemed inevitable. The emigration of the aristocracy began on July 14, 1789. The emigration center was in Koblenz, not far from the French border. Military intervention was the last hope of the aristocracy. At the same time, "revolutionary propaganda" began on the left side of the Legislative Assembly with the aim of delivering a decisive blow to monarchist Europe and eliminating all hopes of the court for restoration. The war, according to the Girondins, will bring them to power and put an end to the king's double play. On April 20, 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war on the king of Hungary and Bohemia.

Fall of the monarchy

The war began unsuccessfully for the French troops. The French army was in chaos and many officers, mostly nobles, emigrated or defected to the enemy. The generals blamed the lack of discipline in the troops and the War Department. The Legislature passed decrees necessary for national defense, including the creation of a military camp of the "federates" (French fédérés) near Paris. The king, hoping for the imminent arrival of Austrian troops, vetoed the decrees and removed the Gironde ministry.

On June 20, 1792, a demonstration was organized to put pressure on the king. In a palace flooded with demonstrators, the king was forced to put on the Phrygian cap of sans-culottes and drink to the health of the nation, but refused to approve the decrees and return the ministers.

On August 1, news came about the manifesto of the Duke of Braunschweig with the threat of "military execution" of Paris in case of violence against the king. The manifesto backfired and aroused republican sentiments and demands for the dethronement of the king. After Prussia entered the war (July 6), on July 11, 1792, the Legislative Assembly proclaimed "The Fatherland is in danger" (fr. La patrie est en danger), but refuses to consider demands for the dethronement of the king.

On the night of August 9-10, a rebel Commune was formed from representatives of the 28 sections of Paris. On August 10, 1792, about 20,000 National Guards, Federates and Sans-culottes surrounded the royal palace. The assault was short-lived, but bloody. King Louis XVI, along with his family, took refuge in the Legislative Assembly and was deposed. The Legislative Assembly voted to convene a National Convention on the basis of universal suffrage, which would have to decide on the future organization of the state.

At the end of August, the Prussian army launched an attack on Paris and took Verdun on September 2, 1792. The Paris Commune shut down the opposition press and began conducting searches throughout the capital, arresting a number of non-sworn priests, nobles and aristocrats. On August 11, the Legislative Assembly gave municipalities the authority to arrest suspicious individuals. The volunteers were preparing to leave for the front, and rumors quickly spread that their dispatch would signal the prisoners to revolt. A wave of executions in prisons followed, which later became known as the "September Murders", during which up to 2,000 people were killed, 1,100 - 1,400 in Paris alone.

First republic

On September 21, 1792, the National Convention opened its sessions in Paris. On September 22, the Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Quantitatively, the Convention consisted of 160 Girondins, 200 Montagnards and 389 deputies of the Plain (French: La Plaine ou le Marais), a total of 749 deputies. A third of the deputies participated in previous meetings and brought with them all previous disagreements and conflicts.

On September 22nd, news of the Battle of Valmy arrived. The military situation changed: after Valmy, the Prussian troops retreated, and in November French troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine. The Austrians besieging Lille were defeated by Dumouriez at the Battle of Gemappé on 6 November and evacuated the Austrian Netherlands. Nice was occupied, and Savoy declared an alliance with France.

The leaders of the Gironde again returned to revolutionary propaganda, declaring “peace to huts, war on palaces” (fr. Paix aux chaumières, guerre aux châteaux). At the same time, the concept of "natural borders" of France with the border along the Rhine appeared. The French offensive in Belgium threatened British interests in Holland, leading to the formation of the first coalition. A decisive break occurred after the execution of the king, and on March 7, France declared war on England, and then on Spain. In March 1793, the Vendée rebellion began. To save the revolution on April 6, 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created, the most influential member of which was Danton.

The trial of the king in the Convention

The trial of Louis XVI

After the uprising on August 10, 1792, Louis XVI was deposed and placed under strong guard at the Temple. The discovery of a secret safe at the Tuileries on November 20, 1792 made the trial of the king inevitable. The documents found in it undoubtedly proved the king's betrayal.

The trial began on December 10. Louis XVI was classified as an enemy and "usurper" alien to the body of the nation. Voting began on January 14, 1793. The vote for the king's guilt was unanimous. On the result of the vote, the President of the Convention, Vergniot, announced: “On behalf of the French people, the National Convention declared Louis Capet guilty of an act against the freedom of the nation and general security state ".

Voting on punishment began on January 16 and lasted until the next morning. Of the 721 deputies present, 387 spoke in favor of the death penalty. By order of the Convention, the entire National Guard of Paris was lined up on both sides of the path to the scaffold. On the morning of January 21, Louis XVI was beheaded in the Place de la Revolution.

Fall of the Gironde

The economic situation at the beginning of 1793 deteriorated more and more and unrest began in large cities. Paris sectional activists began to demand a “maximum” for basic foodstuffs. Riots and agitation continued throughout the spring of 1793, and the Convention created a Commission of the Twelve to investigate them, which included only the Girondins. By order of the commission, several section agitators were arrested and on May 25 the Commune demanded their release; at the same time, general meetings of the sections of Paris drew up a list of 22 prominent Girondins and demanded their arrest. In the Convention, in response to this, Maximin Inard declared that Paris would be destroyed if the Parisian sections opposed the provincial deputies.

The Jacobins declared themselves in rebellion and on May 29 delegates representing thirty-three Parisian sections formed a rebel committee. On June 2, 80,000 armed sansculottes surrounded the Convention. After an attempt by the deputies to go out in a demonstrative procession and, bumping into armed National Guardsmen, the deputies submitted to the pressure and announced the arrest of 29 leading Girondins.

The federalist insurrection began before the uprising of May 31 - June 2. In Lyon, the head of the local Jacobins, Challier, was arrested on May 29, and executed on July 16. Many Girondins fled from house arrest in Paris, and the news of the forcible expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention provoked a protest movement in the provinces and swept the large cities of the south - Bordeaux, Marseille, Nimes. On July 13, Charlotte Corday killed the sans-culotte idol Jean-Paul Marat. She was in contact with the Girondins in Normandy and they are believed to have used her as their agent. In addition to all this, the news came of an unprecedented treason: Toulon and the squadron located there were surrendered to the enemy.

Jacobin Convention

The Montagnards who came to power faced dramatic circumstances - a federalist revolt, the war in the Vendée, military setbacks, and a deteriorating economic situation. Despite everything, the civil war could not be avoided. By mid-June, about sixty departments were in a more or less open uprising. Fortunately, the country's border regions remained faithful to the Convention.

July and August were unimportant months on the borders. Mainz, symbol of last year's victory, capitulated to the Prussian forces, while the Austrians captured the fortresses of Condé and Valenciennes and invaded northern France. Spanish troops crossed the Pyrenees and launched an attack on Perpignan. Piedmont took advantage of the Lyon uprising and invaded France from the east. In Corsica, Paoli revolted and, with British help, expelled the French from the island. British forces began the siege of Dunkirk in August and the Allies invaded Alsace in October. The military situation became desperate.

Throughout June, the Montagnards held a wait-and-see attitude, awaiting a reaction to the uprising in Paris. However, they did not forget about the peasants. The peasants made up the largest part of France and in such an environment it was important to meet their demands. It was to them that the uprising of May 31 (as well as July 14 and August 10) brought substantial and permanent benefits. On June 3, laws were passed on the sale of immigrants' property in small portions with the condition of payment within 10 years; On June 10, an additional division of the communal lands was proclaimed; and on July 17 a law abolishing seigneral duties and feudal rights without any compensation.

The convention approved a new constitution in the hopes of shielding itself from accusations of dictatorship and appeasing the departments. The Declaration of Rights, which preceded the text of the Constitution, solemnly reaffirmed the indivisibility of the state and freedom of speech, equality and the right to resist oppression. This went far beyond the Declaration of 1789, adding the right to social assistance, work, education and rebellion. All political and social tyranny was abolished. National sovereignty was expanded through the institution of a referendum - the Constitution had to be ratified by the people, as well as laws in certain precisely defined circumstances. The constitution was presented for universal ratification and adopted by a huge majority of 1,801,918 in favor and 17,610 against. The results of the plebiscite were made public on August 10, 1793, but the application of the Constitution, the text of which was placed on the "sacred ark" in the convention hall, was postponed until peace was concluded.

Marseillaise

Revolutionary government

The convention renewed the composition of the Comité du salut public: Danton was expelled from it on July 10. Couton, Saint-Just, Jeanbonne Saint-André, and Prieur of the Marne formed the nucleus of the new committee. To these were added Barer and Lendé, Robespierre on July 27, and then on August 14 Carnot and Prieure from the Côte d'Or department; Collot d'Herbois and Billau-Varenne - 6 September. First of all, the committee had to establish itself and select those demands of the people that were most suitable for achieving the objectives of the assembly: to crush the enemies of the Republic and to cross out last hopes aristocracy for restoration. To rule in the name of the Convention and at the same time to control it, to restrain the Sansculottes without cooling their enthusiasm - this was the necessary balance of the revolutionary government.

Under the double banner of price fixing and terror, sansculotte pressure peaked in the summer of 1793. The food crisis remained the main source of discontent among the sans-culottes; the leaders of the "rabid" demand from the Convention to establish a "maximum". In August, a series of decrees gave the committee powers to control the circulation of grain, and also approved fierce penalties for violations. "Repositories of abundance" have been created in each district. On August 23, the decree on mass mobilization (fr. Levée en masse) declared the entire adult population of the republic "in a state of constant requisition."

On September 5, the Parisians tried to repeat the June 2 uprising. The armed sections again surrounded the Convention, demanding the creation of an internal revolutionary army, the arrest of the "suspicious" and the purge of the committees. This was probably a key day in the formation of the revolutionary government: the Convention succumbed to pressure, but retained control over events. This put terror on the agenda - on September 5, on the 9th, the creation of a revolutionary army, on the 11th - the decree on the "maximum" for bread (general control of prices and wages- September 29), on the 14th the reorganization of the Revolutionary Tribunal, on the 17th the law on the "suspicious", and on the 20th decree gave the right to local revolutionary committees the task of compiling lists.

This sum of institutions, measures and procedures was enshrined in the decree of the 14th Freemer (December 4, 1793), which determined this gradual development of a centralized dictatorship based on terror. At the center was the Convention, the executive branch of which was the Committee of Public Safety, endowed with enormous powers: it interpreted the decrees of the Convention and determined how they were to be applied; all state bodies and employees were under his direct supervision; he determined military and diplomatic activities, appointed generals and members of other committees, subject to their ratification by the Convention. He was responsible for the conduct of the war, public order, and the provision and supply of the population. The Paris Commune, the famous bastion of the sans-culottes, was also neutralized, falling under its control.

The National Guard of Paris goes to the front

Organization of victory

The blockade forced France into autarchy; in order to preserve the Republic, the government mobilized all productive forces and accepted the need for a controlled economy, which was impromptuly introduced as the situation dictated. It was necessary to develop military production, to revive foreign trade and find new resources in France itself, and time was short. Circumstances gradually forced the government to take over the leadership of the economy of the entire country.

All material resources have become the subject of requisition. Farmers donated grain, fodder, wool, flax, hemp, and artisans and traders donated their products. Raw materials were carefully searched for - metal of all kinds, church bells, old paper, rags and parchment, herbs, brushwood and even ash for the production of potash salts and chestnuts for their distillation. All enterprises were transferred to the disposal of the nation - forests, mines, quarries, furnaces, forges, tanneries, factories for the production of paper and fabrics, workshops for the manufacture of shoes. Labor and the value of what was produced were subject to price regulation. No one had the right to speculate while the Fatherland was in danger. Armament was of great concern. Already in September 1793, an impetus was given to the creation of national manufactories for the military industry - the creation of a factory in Paris for the production of guns and personal weapons, the Grenelle powder factory. A special appeal was made to the scientist. Monge, Vandermond, Berthollet, Darce, Furcroix improved metallurgy and weapons production. Aeronautics experiments were carried out at Meedon. During the Battle of Fleurus Balloon was raised over the same places as in the future war of 1914. And nothing less than a "miracle" for contemporaries was the receipt by the semaphore Chappe in Montmartre within an hour of the news of the fall of Le Quenois, located 120 miles from Paris.

The summer recruitment (fr. Levée en masse) was completed, and by July the total strength of the army had reached 650,000. The difficulties were enormous. Production for the needs of the war began only in September. The army was in a state of reorganization. In the spring of 1794, the "amalgam" system was undertaken, merging volunteer battalions with the army of the line. Two battalions of volunteers combined with one battalion of the line army, making up a semi-brigade or regiment. At the same time, one-man command and discipline were restored. The purge of the army expelled most of the nobles. In order to educate new officers by decree 13 Prairial (June 1, 1794), the College of Mars (fr. Ecole de Mars) was founded - each district sent there six young men. The commanders of the armies were approved by the Convention.

Gradually, a military command arose, incomparable in quality: Marceau, Gauche, Jourdan, Bonaparte, Kleber, Massena, as well as the officer corps, excellent not only in military qualities, but also in a sense of civil responsibility.

Terror

Although the terror was orchestrated in September 1793, it was not actually used until October, and only as a result of pressure from the sansculottes. Big political trials began in October. Queen Marie Antoinette was guillotined on 16 October. A special decree limited the protection of 21 Girondins, and they died on the 31st, including Vergneau and Brissot.

At the pinnacle of the terror apparatus was the Public Security Committee, the state's second organ of twelve members, elected every month in accordance with the rules of the Convention and with the functions of public security, surveillance and police, both civilian and military. He used a large staff of officials, led a network of local revolutionary committees, and enforced the suspicious law by sifting through thousands of local denunciations and arrests, which he then had to submit to the Revolutionary Tribunal.

Terror was applied to enemies of the Republic wherever they were, socially indiscriminate and politically directed. His victims belonged to all classes that hated the revolution or lived in regions where the threat of rebellion was most serious. "The severity of the repressive measures in the provinces," writes Mathiez, "was in direct proportion to the danger of insurrection."

Likewise, the deputies sent by the Convention as “representatives in the mission” (fr. Les représentants en mission) were armed with broad powers and acted according to the situation and their own temperament: in July, Robert Lendé pacified the Girondist uprising in the west without a single death sentence ; in Lyon, a few months later, Collot d'Herbois and Joseph Fouche relied on frequent summary executions, using mass executions because the guillotine wasn’t fast enough.

Victory began to be determined in the fall of 1793. The end of the federalist rebellion was marked by the capture of Lyon on October 9 and December 19 - Toulon. On October 17, the Vendée uprising was suppressed in Cholet and on December 14 at Le Mans after fierce street fighting. The cities along the borders were liberated. Dunkirk - after the victory at Ondschot (September 8), Maubeuge - after the victory at Wattigny (October 6), Landau - after the victory at Wisambour (October 30). Kellermann pushed the Spaniards back to Bidasoa and Savoy was liberated. Gauche and Pischegru inflicted a series of defeats on the Prussians and Austrians in Alsace.

Fighting factions

As early as September 1793, it was possible to clearly define two wings among the revolutionaries. One was what was later called the Ebertists - although Ebert himself was never the leader of the faction - and preached war to the death, partly adopting the "rabid" program that the Sansculottes favored. They entered into an agreement with the Montagnards, hoping through them to exert pressure on the Convention. They dominated the Cordelier Club, filled the War Office in Bushotte, and could carry the Commune with them. Another wing arose in response to the growing centralization of the revolutionary government and the dictatorship of the committees - the Dantonists; around the deputies of the Convention: Danton, Delacroix, Desmoulins, as the most notable among them.

The ongoing religious conflict since 1790 was the motive behind the "de-Christianization" campaign undertaken by the Ebertists. The federalist revolt intensified the counter-revolutionary agitation of the "non-swearing" priests. The adoption by the Convention on October 5 of a new, revolutionary calendar designed to replace the old one associated with Christianity, "ultras" was used as an excuse to start a campaign against the Catholic faith. In Paris, this movement was led by the Commune. Catholic churches were closed, priests were forced to renounce dignity, and Christian relics were mocked. Instead of Catholicism, they tried to plant a "cult of Reason". The movement brought more unrest in the departments and compromised the revolution in the eyes of a deeply religious country. The majority of the Convention reacted extremely negatively to this initiative and led to an even greater polarization between the factions. In late November - early December, Robespierre and Danton came out decisively against the "de-Christianization", putting an end to it.

By prioritizing national defense over all other considerations, the Committee for Public Safety tried to maintain an intermediate position between moderantism and extremism. The revolutionary government did not intend to yield to the Ebertists to the detriment of revolutionary unity, while the demands of the moderates undermined the controlled economy necessary for warfare and the terror that ensured universal obedience. But in the late winter of 1793, food shortages took a sharp turn for the worse. The Ebertists began to demand harsh measures, and at first the Committee was conciliatory. The convention voted 10 million to alleviate the crisis, 3 Vantosa Barer, on behalf of the public safety committee, introduced a new general “maximum” and the 8th decree on the confiscation of the property of the “suspicious” and its distribution among those in need - the Vantose decrees (fr. Loi de ventôse an II) ... The Cordeliers believed that if they increased the pressure, they would triumph once and for all. There were calls for an uprising, although this was probably as a new demonstration, as in September 1793.

But on the 22nd of the year II (March 12, 1794), the Committee decided to put an end to the Ebertists. The foreigners Proli, Cloots and Pereira were added to Ebert, Ronsen, Vincent and Momoro in order to present them as participants in a "foreign conspiracy." All were executed on 4 germinals (24 March 1794). The Committee then turned to the Dantonists, some of whom were involved in financial fraud. On April 5, Danton, Delacroix, Desmoulins, Filippo were executed.

Germinal's drama completely changed the political situation. The Sansculottes were stunned by the execution of the Ebertists. All their positions of influence were lost: the revolutionary army was disbanded, inspectors were fired, Bushott lost the War Office, the Cordelier Club was suppressed and intimidated, and 39 revolutionary committees were closed under government pressure. A purge of the Commune took place and it was filled with the nominees of the Committee. With the execution of the Dantonists, the majority of the assembly was horrified for the first time by the government it had created.

The committee played the role of mediator between the meeting and the sections. By eliminating the section leaders, the committees broke with the sans-culottes, the source of government power, pressure from which the Convention had so feared since the May 31 uprising. By destroying the Dantonists, it sowed fear among the members of the congregation, which could easily turn into rebellion. The government felt it had the support of a majority in the congregation. It was wrong. Having freed the Convention from the pressure of the sections, it remained at the mercy of the assembly. There remained only an internal split in the government to destroy it.

Thermidorian coup

The main efforts of the government were aimed at military victory and the mobilization of all resources began to bear fruit. By the summer of 1794, the republic had created 14 armies and 8 Messidora 2 years (June 26, 1794) a decisive victory was won at Fleurus. Belgium was opened to French troops. On July 10, Pishegru occupied Brussels and linked up with Jourdan's Sambre-Meuse army. The revolutionary expansion began. But victories in the war began to question the rationale for continuing the terror.

The centralization of the revolutionary government, terror and executions of opponents from the right and from the left led to the solution of all political differences in the field of conspiracies and intrigues. Centralization led to the concentration of revolutionary justice in Paris. Local representatives were recalled and many of them, such as Talien in Bordeaux, Fouche in Lyon, Carrier in Nantes, felt imminently threatened for the excesses of terror in the provinces during the suppression of the federalist uprising and the Vendée war. Now these excesses appeared to be a compromise of the revolution and Robespierre did not fail to express this, for example, to Fouche. In the Committee of Public Safety, divisions intensified, leading to a split in the government.

After the execution of the Ebertists and Dantonists and the celebration of the Festival of the Supreme Being, the figure of Robespierre took on exaggerated importance in the eyes of revolutionary France. In turn, he did not reckon with the sensitivity of his colleagues, which might seem like calculation or lust for power. In his last speech in the Convention, 8 Thermidor, he accused his opponents of intrigue and brought the issue of the split to the Convention court. Robespierre was demanded to give the names of the accused, however, he refused. This failure destroyed him, as the MPs suggested that he was demanding carte blanche. That night, an uneasy coalition was formed between the radicals and the moderates in the assembly, between the MPs in immediate danger, committee members and MPs of the plain. The next day, 9 Thermidor, Robespierre and his supporters were not allowed to speak, and a decree of indictment was announced against them.

The Paris Commune called for an uprising, released the arrested deputies and mobilized 2-3 thousand national guards. The night of 9-10 Thermidor was one of the most chaotic in Paris, with the Commune and the Convention competing to support the sections. The convention outlawed the rebels; Barras was given the task of mobilizing the armed forces of the Convention, and sections of Paris, demoralized by the execution of the Ebertists and the economic policies of the Commune, supported the Convention after some hesitation. The National Guards and artillerymen gathered by the Commune at the town hall were left without instructions and dispersed. At about two o'clock in the morning, a column of the Gravilliers section, led by Leonard Bourdon, burst into the town hall (fr. Hôtel de Ville) and arrested the rebels.

On the evening of 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794) Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couton and nineteen of their supporters were executed without trial. The next day, seventy-one functionaries of the rebellious Commune, the largest mass execution in the history of the revolution, were executed.

Execution of Robespierre

Thermidorian reaction

The Committee of Public Safety was the executive branch and, in the conditions of the war with the first coalition, the internal civil war, was endowed with broad prerogatives. The convention confirmed and elected its composition every month, ensuring the centralization and permanent composition of the executive branch. Now, after the military victories and the fall of the Robespierres, the Convention refused to confirm such broad powers, especially since the threat of uprisings from the sans-culottes had been removed. It was decided that no member of the steering committees should hold office for more than four months and should be renewed by one third every month. The committee was limited only to the area of ​​warfare and diplomacy. There will now be a total of sixteen committees with equal rights. Realizing the danger of fragmentation, the Thermidorians, taught by experience, were even more afraid of the monopolization of power. Within a few weeks, the revolutionary government was dismantled.

The weakening of power led to the weakening of terror, the subordination of which ensured national mobilization. After the 9th Thermidor, the Jacobin Club was closed, and the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention. At the end of August, the Paris Commune was abolished and replaced by the "administrative commission of the police" (French commission administrative de police). In June 1795, the very word "revolutionary", the word-symbol of the entire Jacobin period, was banned. The Thermidorians canceled measures of state intervention in the economy, eliminated the "maximum" in December 1794. The result was a rise in prices, inflation, disruption of food supplies. The misfortunes of the lower classes and the middle class were opposed by the wealth of the nouveau riche: they feverishly profited, greedily used wealth, unceremoniously advertising it. In 1795, driven to starvation, the population of Paris twice raised uprisings (12 germinal and 1 prairial) demanding "bread and the constitution of 1793", but the Convention suppressed the uprisings with military force.

The Thermidorians destroyed the revolutionary government, but nevertheless reaped the benefits of national defense. Holland was occupied in autumn and the Batavian Republic was proclaimed in January 1795. At the same time, the collapse of the first coalition began. On April 5, 1795, the Treaty of Basel was concluded with Prussia and on July 22, peace with Spain. Now the republic proclaimed the left bank of the Rhine as its "natural border" and annexed Belgium. Austria refused to recognize the Rhine as the eastern border of France and the war resumed.

On August 22, 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. Legislative power was entrusted to two chambers - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders; a significant electoral qualification was introduced. Executive power was placed in the hands of the Directory, five directors elected by the Council of Elders from candidates nominated by the Council of Five Hundred. Fearing that the elections to new legislative councils would give a majority to the opponents of the republic, the Convention decided that two-thirds of the "five hundred" and "elders" would for the first time be taken from the members of the Convention.

When was announced said measure, the royalists in Paris itself raised the revolt of the 13th Vendemier (October 5, 1795), in which the main participation belonged to the central sections of the city, who believed that the Convention violated the "sovereignty of the people." Most of the capital was in the hands of the rebels; a central rebel committee was formed and the Convention was besieged. Barras attracted the young general Napoleon Bonaparte, a former Robespierre, like other generals - Carteau, Brune, Loison, Dupont. Murat captured the cannons from the camp at Sablone, and the rebels, lacking artillery, were driven back and dispersed.

On October 26, 1795, the Convention dissolved itself, giving way to the councils of five hundred and elders and the Directory.

Directory

Having defeated their opponents on the right and left, the Thermidorians hoped to return to the principles of 1789 and give stability to the republic on the basis of a new constitution - "the middle between monarchy and anarchy" - in the words of Antoine Thibodeau. The directory suffered a difficult economic and financial situation, aggravated by the ongoing war on the continent. Events since 1789 have split the country politically, ideologically and religiously. Having excluded the people and the aristocracy, the regime depended on a narrow circle of electors, provided for by the qualification of the constitution of the third year, and they more and more moved to the right.

Attempt to stabilize

In the winter of 1795, the economic crisis reached its peak. The paper money was printed every night for use the next day. On the 30th pluviosa of year IV (February 19, 1796), the issuance of appropriations was discontinued. The government decided to return to hard currency again. The result was the squandering of most of the remaining national wealth in the interests of speculators. In the countryside, banditry has spread so much that even the mobile columns of the National Guard and the threat of the death penalty have not improved. In Paris, many would have starved to death if the Directory had not continued to distribute food.

This led to the resumption of Jacobin agitation. But this time the Jacobins resorted to conspiracies and Gracchus Babeuf leads the "secret rebel directory" of the Conjuration des Égaux. In the winter of 1795-96, an alliance was formed former Jacobins with the aim of overthrowing the Directory. The Equality Movement was organized in a series of concentric levels; an internal rebel committee was formed. The plan was original and the poverty of the Parisian suburbs was terrifying, but the Sansculottes, demoralized and intimidated after the Prairial, did not respond to the calls of the Babouvists. The conspirators were betrayed by a police spy. One hundred thirty-one people were arrested and thirty were shot on the spot; Babeuf's associates were brought to trial; Babeuf and Dartet guillotined a year later.

The war on the continent continued. The republic was not in a position to strike a blow at England; it remained to break Austria. On April 9, 1796, General Bonaparte led his army to Italy. A dazzling campaign was followed by a series of victories - Lodi (May 10, 1796), Castiglione (August 15), Arcole (November 15-17), Rivoli (January 14, 1797). On October 17, in Campo Formio, peace was concluded with Austria, ending the war of the first coalition, from which France emerged victorious, although Great Britain continued to fight.

According to the constitution, the first elections of a third of the deputies, including the "eternal" ones, in the 5th year (March-April 1797) were a success for the monarchists. The Republican majority of the Thermidorians disappeared. In the councils of five hundred and elders, the majority belonged to opponents of the Directory. The right in the councils decided to emasculate the power of the Directory, depriving it of its financial powers. In the absence of instructions in the III Constitution on the issue of such a conflict, the Directory, with the support of Bonaparte and Gauche, decided to resort to force. 18 Fructidore V year (September 4, 1797) Paris was placed on martial law. The Directory decree announced that anyone calling for the restoration of the monarchy would be shot on the spot. Elections in 49 departments were annulled, 177 deputies were stripped of their powers, and 65 were sentenced to "dry guillotine" - deportation to Guiana. The emigrants who returned without permission were asked to leave France within two weeks under the threat of death.

Crisis of 1799

The coup of 18 Fructidor is a turn in the history of the regime established by the Thermidorians - it marked the end of the constitutional and liberal experiment. A crushing blow was dealt to the monarchists, but at the same time the influence of the army was greatly increased.

After the Campo Formio treaty, only Great Britain opposed France. Rather than focusing its attention on the remaining enemy and maintaining peace on the continent, the Directory embarked on a policy of continental expansion that destroyed all opportunities for stabilization in Europe. An Egyptian campaign followed, which added to Bonaparte's fame. France surrounded itself with "daughter" republics, satellites, politically dependent and economically exploited: the Batavian Republic, the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland, the Cisalpine, Roman and Parthenopean (Naples) in Italy.

In the spring of 1799, the war becomes general. The second coalition united Britain, Austria, Naples and Sweden. The Egyptian campaign brought Turkey and Russia into its ranks. The hostilities began extremely unsuccessfully for the Directory. Soon Italy and part of Switzerland were lost and the republic had to defend its "natural borders". As in 1792-93. France faced the threat of invasion. The danger has awakened national energy and the latest revolutionary effort. On the 30th Prairial of Year VII (June 18, 1799), the councils re-elected members of the Directory, bringing the "real" Republicans to power and implemented measures somewhat reminiscent of those of Year II. At the suggestion of General Jourdan, the call of five ages was announced. A compulsory loan of 100 million francs was introduced. On July 12, a law was passed on hostages from among the former nobles.

Military setbacks prompted royalist uprisings in the south and a renewed civil war in the Vendée. At the same time, fear of the return of the shadow of Jacobinism led to the decision to do away once and for all with the possibility of repeating the times of the 1793 republic.

General Bonaparte in the Council of Five Hundred

18 Brumaire

By this time, the military situation had changed. The very success of the coalition in Italy led to a change in plans. It was decided to transfer Austrian troops from Switzerland to Belgium and replace them with Russian troops in order to invade France. The transfer was so poor that it allowed French troops to re-occupy Switzerland and smash the enemy in parts.

In this alarming environment, the Brumareans are planning another, more decisive, coup. Once again, as in Fruktidor, the army must be called in to purge the assembly. The conspirators needed a saber. They turned to the Republican generals. First choice, General Joubert was killed at Novi. At that moment, the news came that Bonaparte had arrived in France. From Fréjus to Paris, Bonaparte was hailed as a savior. Arriving in Paris on October 16, 1799, he immediately found himself in the center of political intrigue. The Brumerians addressed him as someone who suited them well for his popularity, military reputation, ambition, and even his Jacobin past.

Playing on fears of a "terrorist" conspiracy, the Brumerians persuaded the Soviets to meet on November 10, 1799, in the suburbs of Paris, Saint-Cloud; to suppress the "conspiracy" Bonaparte was appointed commander of the 17th division, located in the department of the Seine. Two directors, Sieyès and Ducos, themselves conspirators, resigned, and the third, Barras, was forced into office. At Saint-Cloud, Napoleon announced to the Council of Elders that the Directory had dissolved itself and that a commission on a new constitution was created. The Council of Five Hundred was so difficult to convince, and when Bonaparte entered the chamber without invitation, shouts of "Outlaw!" Napoleon lost his composure, but his brother Lucien saved the situation by calling the guards into the conference room. The council of five hundred was expelled from the House, the Directory was dissolved, and all powers were entrusted to a provisional government of three consuls - Sieyes, Roger Ducos and Bonaparte.

The rumors that came from Saint-Cloud on the evening of the 19th Brumaire did not surprise Paris at all. Military failures, which could only be dealt with at the last moment, the economic crisis, the return of the civil war - all this indicated the failure of the entire period of stabilization under the Directory.

The coup of the 18th Brumaire is considered the end of the French Revolution.

Results of the revolution

The revolution led to the collapse of the old order and the establishment in France of a new, more "democratic and progressive" society. However, speaking of goals achieved and the victims of the revolution, many historians are inclined to conclude that the same goals could be achieved without such huge amount victims. As the American historian R. Palmer points out, there is a widespread point of view that "half a century after 1789 ... conditions in France would have been the same even if no revolution had taken place." Alexis Tocqueville wrote that the collapse of the Old Order would have occurred without any revolution, but only gradually. Pierre Hubert noted that many remnants of the Old Order remained after the revolution and flourished again under the rule of the Bourbons, which was established starting in 1815.

At the same time, a number of authors point out that the revolution brought the people of France liberation from heavy oppression, which could not have been achieved in any other way. A “balanced” view of the revolution regards it as a great tragedy in French history, but at the same time inevitable, arising from the acuteness of class contradictions and the accumulated economic and political problems.

Most historians believe that the Great French Revolution was of great international importance, contributed to the spread of progressive ideas throughout the world, influenced a series of revolutions in Latin America, as a result of which the latter was freed from colonial dependence, and a number of other events of the first half of the 19th century.

Historiography

Character

Marxist historians (as well as a number of non-Marxist ones) argue that the Great French Revolution was "bourgeois" in nature, consisted in the change of the feudal system to capitalism, and the leading role in this process was played by the "bourgeois class", which overthrew the "feudal aristocracy" during the revolution. Many historians disagree with this, pointing out that:

1. feudalism in France disappeared several centuries before the revolution. At the same time, it should be noted that the absence of "feudalism" is not an argument against the "bourgeois" character of the French Revolution. With the corresponding absence of "feudalism", the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. were bourgeois in nature;

2. capitalism in France was sufficiently developed even before the revolution, and industry was well developed. At the same time, during the years of the revolution, the industry fell into a severe decline - i.e. instead of giving impetus to the development of capitalism, in reality, the revolution slowed down its development.

3. The French aristocracy actually included not only large landowners, but also large capitalists. Supporters of this view do not see the class division in Louis XVI's France. The abolition of all estates, including taxation, was the essence of the conflict between estates in the States General of 1789 and was enshrined in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Meanwhile, as R. Mandru points out, the bourgeoisie for many decades preceding the revolution bought aristocratic titles (which were officially sold), which led to the washing out of the old hereditary aristocracy; Thus, in the Paris Parliament in the 18th century, out of 590 of its members, only 6% belonged to the descendants of the old aristocracy that existed before 1500, and 94% of the members of parliament belonged to families that received the title of nobility during the 16th-18th centuries. This "washing out" of the old aristocracy is evidence of the rising influence of the bourgeoisie. It only remained to formalize it politically; however, this required the expulsion from the country or the physical destruction of that part of the bourgeoisie that had previously become part of the aristocracy and, in fact, constituted the majority of the latter.

4. it was the French aristocracy that imposed capitalist (market) relations during the 25-30 years preceding 1789; "Again, however, there are serious flaws in such an argument." by Lewis Guine. “We must remember that the aristocracy owned most of the land, under which there were coal, iron ore and other mineral deposits; their participation is often seen as just another way to increase income from their land holdings. Only the aristocratic minority succeeded in industrial enterprises directly. Recent research shows a difference in "economic behavior". While the "bourgeois" from the third estate invested huge sums in mines, for example, concentrated production in several main places, introduced new methods of coal mining, the aristocrat, having "feudal" control over the land where the most productive mines were located, worked through his agents and managers who constantly advised him not to get too deeply involved in modern industrial enterprise (les entreprises en grand). Ownership here, in terms of land or shares, is not a key issue; it is more a question of "how" investment, technical innovation and "management" of industrial enterprises took place. "

5.At the end of the existence of the Old Order and further during the revolution, there were massive uprisings of peasants and townspeople against the methods of economic liberalism (free trade) used in France, against large private enterprises in cities (while workers and sansculottes, representing part of the then bourgeoisie); and against fencing, irrigation systems, and village upgrades.

6. During the revolution, the power was not at all the "bourgeoisie" that Marxist historians imply - not at all merchants, entrepreneurs and financiers, but mainly officials and representatives of the free professions, which is recognized by a number of "neutral" historians.

Among non-Marxist historians, there are different views on the nature of the Great French Revolution. The traditional view that emerged in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. (Sieyès, Barnave, Guizot) and supported by some modern historians (P. Huber), considers the revolution as a popular uprising against the aristocracy, its privileges and its methods of oppressing the masses, whence the revolutionary terror against the privileged estates, the desire of revolutionaries to destroy everything that was associated with The old order, and build a new free and democratic society. From these aspirations followed the main slogans of the revolution - freedom, equality, brotherhood.

According to the second view, the revolution as a whole (A. Cobben) or according to the main character of the protest movements (V. Tomsinov B. Moore, F. Furet was anti-capitalist in nature, or represented an explosion of mass protest against the spread of free market relations and large enterprises (I. Wallerstein, W. Huneke, A. Milward, S. Saul) According to G. Rude, this is a representation of radical and left-wing radical views. Karl Marx, Jean Jaures, Pyotr Kropotkin, who developed this view in their works. Thus, one of the authors adhering to the Marxist trend, Daniel Guerin, a French anarchist, in "La lutte des classes sous la Première République, 1793-1797" expressed the neo-Trotskyist view - "The French Revolution had a double character, bourgeois and permanent, and bore within itself the beginnings of a proletarian revolution", "anti-capitalist" - summarizes the views of Guerin Wallerstein [, and adds that "Guerin managed to unite against himself both Sobula and Furet", i.e. representatives of both "classical" and "revisionist" directions - "They both reject such an implicit view of history," Wallerstein writes. At the same time, among the supporters of the "anti-Marxist" view there are mainly professional historians and sociologists (A. Cobben, B. Moore, F. Fure, A. Milward, S. Saul, I. Wallerstein, V. Tomsinov). F. Fure, D. Richet, A. Milward, S. Saul believe that by its nature or reasons the Great French Revolution had much in common with the 1917 revolution in Russia.

There are also other opinions about the nature of the revolution. For example, historians F. Fure and D. Richet consider the revolution to a large extent as a struggle for power between different groups, replacing each other several times during 1789-1799, which led to a change in the political system, but did not lead to significant changes in social and economic system. There is a view of the revolution as an explosion of social antagonism between the poor and the rich.

Songs of revolutionary France

"Marseillaise"

The Great French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794, in contrast to, although it happened almost a century and a half earlier, but more local, bourgeois revolutions in England and Holland, shook the foundations of the world, because it took place in the largest, most authoritative and most culturally developed state of Christian civilization and contributed to the final victory of the new socio-economic formation - capitalism - over the old - feudalism

The Great French Revolution is truly popular. All strata of French society took part in it: the urban mob, artisans, the intelligentsia, the petty and large bourgeoisie, the peasants

Causes of the Great French bourgeois revolution

Objective

• Inconsistency of the capitalist method of economic management with the feudal order
  - internal customs fees
  - guild craft organization
  - variety of systems of measures and weights: each province has its own
  - restriction of sale and purchase of land
  - protectionism
  - arbitrariness of the authorities
• obscurantism of the church

Subjective

• screaming luxury of the aristocracy against the background of popular poverty
• unresolved peasant question
• loss of authority by royalty:
  - uncharismatic king
  - extravagance, stupidity of the queen
  - "The Necklace Case"
• mediocre personnel policy: capable administrators Turgot, Necker, Calonne were prevented from implementing economic reforms
• unsuccessful trade agreement with England in 1786, which lowered duties on English goods, and thereby caused
• reduced production and unemployment in France
• poor harvest in 1788, resulting in a rise in the price of food
• an example of the revolutionary struggle for the independence of the North American states and the "Declaration of Independence" proclaimed by the US Congress
• the activities of the so-called "philosophers-educators", whose philosophical, economic treatises, works of art, pamphlets denounced the existing order, called for their change
  - Montesquieu (1689-1755)
  - Voltaire (1694-1778)
  - Quesnay (1694-1774)
  - Diderot (1713-1784)
  - Helvetius (1715-1771)
  - La Mettrie (1709-1751)
  - Rousseau (1712-1778)
  - Mably (1709-1785)
  - Raynal (1713-1796)

In 1789, a brochure by Abbot Sieyes "What is the Third Estate?" To the question "What is the third estate?" he answered "Everything" to the question "What has it been up to now in political life?" followed by the answer "Nothing." "What does it require?" - "Become at least something." The author argued that the third estate is "the whole nation, but in chains and under oppression." The brochure had a huge resonance among the people

In the late 1780s, France's economic situation deteriorated. The national debt reached 4.5 billion livres. It became impossible to receive new loans. In 1787, the king called a meeting of the so-called notables - appointed representatives of the three estates - to approve new taxes, including on the aristocracy. But the notables rejected the offer. The king had to convene the States-General - the highest estate-representative institution, which has not met since 1614.

The course of the Great French Revolution. Briefly

• 1789, May 5 - Convocation of the States General
• 1789, June 17 - Conversion of the States General into a National Constituent Assembly
• 1789, July 14 - Paris uprising. The taking of the Bastille
• 1789, August 4 - Liquidation of absolutism. Confirmation of a constitutional monarchy
• 1789, August 24 - Approval by the Constituent Assembly of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
  Article 1 of the Declaration reads: “People are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social differences can be based on common good. ” Article 2 stated: “The purpose of every political union is the preservation of natural and inalienable human rights. These rights are the essence: freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression. " Article 3 declared that the source of all sovereignty "lies in the nation." Article 6 stated that "the law is an expression of the general will", that all citizens are equal before the law, and "must be equally admitted to all occupations, places and public offices." Articles 7, 9, 10, 11 affirmed freedom of conscience, freedom of speech and press. Article 15 proclaimed the right of citizens to demand an account from every official. The last article 17 declared that "property is an inviolable and sacred right"
• 1789, June - Creation of the Jacobin Club and in 1790 - the Cordillera Club
• 1791, September 3 - The king's approval of the constitution, developed back in 1789
• 1791, October 1 - Opening of the National Legislative Assembly
• 1789-1792 - Riots throughout the country: peasant uprisings, riots, counter-revolutionary conspiracies - some were not satisfied with the half-heartedness of the reforms, others - their radicalism. Threat of intervention by European monarchies seeking to reclaim the throne to the Bourbons
• 1792, February 7 - Creation of the anti-French coalition of Austria and Prussia.
• 1792, July 11 - Declaration by the Legislative Assembly "The Fatherland is in danger." The beginning of the revolutionary wars
• 1792, August 10 - Another Parisian popular uprising. Overthrow of the monarchy. "Marseillaise"

The Marseillaise, which became a hymn first to the Great French Revolution and then to France, was written in Strasbourg in June 1791 by officer Rouget de Lille. it was called "The Song of the Rhine Army". It was brought to Paris by a battalion of federates from Marseille, which took part in the overthrow of the monarchy.

• 1792, 25 August - Feudal duties are partially abolished by the Legislature
• 1892, September 20 - the victory of the revolutionary troops over the Prussian army at Valmy
• 1792, September 22 - Introduction of a new calendar. 1789 was named the First Year of Freedom. The republican calendar officially began to operate from 1 Vandemier II year of freedom
• 1792, October 6 - the victory of the revolutionary troops over the Austrian army, the annexation of Savoy, Nice, the left bank of the Rhine, part of Belgium to France
• 1792, September 22 - France is declared a republic

Slogans of the Great French Revolution

- Freedom equality Brotherhood
- Peace to huts - war to palaces

• 1793, January 21 - execution of King Louis XVI
• 1793, February 1 - declaration of war on England
• 1793, spring - defeats of French troops in battles with coalition armies, deterioration economic situation the people
• 1793, April 6 - Created by the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Danton
• 1793, June 2 - Jacobins came to power
• 1793, June 24 - The Jacobin Convention adopted a new constitution preceded by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Equality, freedom, security, property were declared natural human rights. Provided for freedom of speech, press, general education, religious worship, the creation of popular societies, inviolability of private property, freedom of entrepreneurship. The will of the people was declared the source of supreme power. The right of the people to revolt against oppression was proclaimed

• 1793, July 17 - Decree on the complete and free abolition of all feudal payments and duties
• 1793, July 27 - Robespierre entered the Committee for Public Salvation, re-elected on June 10
• 1793, end of July - The invasion of the troops of the anti-French coalition into France, the occupation of Toulon by the British
• 1793, August 1 - Introduction of the metric system of measures
• 1793, August 23 - Mobilization. All single men from 18 to 25 years old were subject to conscription.
• 1793, September 5 - Huge demonstration of the Parisian lower classes demanding "to put terror on the agenda"
• 1793, September 17 - The law on the suspicious was passed, according to which all persons who did not have a civil certificate (aristocrats, relatives of emigrants, and others) were subject to arrest.
• 1793, September 22 - The Republican calendar officially entered into force
• 1793, October 10 - The Committee for Public Safety demanded extraordinary powers and proclaimed itself a revolutionary government.
• 1793, October 16 - Execution of Queen Marie Antoinette
• 1793, December 18 - decree on compulsory free primary education
• 1793, December 18 - Revolutionary troops liberated Toulon. Napoleon participated in the battle as an artillery captain
• 1794, January - French territory cleared of coalition troops
• 1794, May 7 - Decree on the "New Cult", the introduction of a new moral cult of the "Supreme Being"
• 1794, June 10 - Decree on the simplification of the proceedings, the abolition of preliminary interrogation, the abolition of the defense in the cases of the revolutionary tribunal.

• 1794, July 27 - Thermidorian coup, which returned the big bourgeoisie to power. The great French revolution is over
• 1794, July 28 - The leaders of the Jacobins, Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couton, became victims of terror, 22 more people
• 1794, July 29 - 70 more members of the Commune of Paris executed

Significance of the French Revolution

• Accelerated the development of capitalism and the collapse of feudalism
• Influenced the entire subsequent struggle of peoples for the principles of democracy
• Became a lesson, an example and a warning to the transforming people of life in other countries
• Promoted the development of the national identity of European peoples

• 1789–1791
  
• 1791–1793
  
• 1793–1799
  
• 1799–1814
  Napoleon's coup and the establishment of an empire
• 1814–1848
  
• 1848–1851
  
• 1851–1870
  
• 1870–1875
  Revolution of 1870 and the establishment of the Third Republic

In 1787, an economic recession began in France, which gradually turned into a crisis: production fell, the French market was flooded with cheaper English goods; to this were added crop failures and natural disasters that led to the death of crops and vineyards. In addition, France has spent a lot on failed wars and supporting the American Revolution. There was not enough income (by 1788, expenses exceeded income by 20%), and the treasury took out loans, the interest on which was unaffordable for it. The only way to increase revenue to the treasury was to deprive the first and second estate of tax privileges. Under the Old Order, French society was divided into three estates: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility, and the third - all the rest. The first two estates enjoyed a number of privileges, including exemption from the need to pay taxes..

Attempts by the government to abolish the tax privileges of the first two estates failed, met with resistance from the noble parliaments Parliaments- before the revolution, the supreme courts of fourteen regions of France. Until the 15th century, only the Paris Parliament existed, then the other thirteen appeared.(that is, the highest courts of the Old Order period). Then the government announced the convening of the States General States general- a body that included representatives of three estates and convened at the initiative of the king (as a rule, to resolve a political crisis). Each estate sat separately and had one vote., which included representatives of all three estates. Unexpectedly for the crown, this caused a wide public upsurge: hundreds of pamphlets were published, voters made instructions to the deputies: few aspired to revolution, but everyone hoped for changes. The impoverished nobility demanded financial support from the crown, at the same time counting on the limitation of its power; the peasants protested against the rights of the lords and hoped to get the land in their ownership; among the townspeople, the ideas of enlighteners about the equality of all before the law and about equal access to positions became popular (in January 1789, the widely known brochure of Abbot Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes "What is the third estate?" ? - Everything. 2. What has it been politically so far? - Nothing. 3. What does it require? - To become something "). Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, many believed that the nation, and not the king, should have the supreme power in the country, that the absolute monarchy should be replaced by a limited one and that traditional law should be replaced by a constitution - a collection of clearly written laws that are the same for all citizens.

Great French Revolution and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

Taking of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Painting by Jean Pierre Uel. 1789 year

Bibliothèque nationale de France

Chronology

The beginning of the work of the States General

Proclamation of the National Assembly

The taking of the Bastille

Adoption of the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights

Adoption of the first French constitution

On May 5, 1789, a meeting of the States General was opened at Versailles. Traditionally, when voting, each estate had one vote. The deputies from the third estate, of whom there were twice as many as the deputies from the first and second, demanded an individual vote, but the government did not agree to this. In addition, contrary to the expectations of the deputies, the authorities brought up only financial reforms for discussion. On June 17, deputies from the third estate declared themselves the National Assembly, that is, representatives of the entire French nation. On June 20, they vowed not to disband until a constitution was drawn up. Some time later, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly, thus declaring its intention to establish a new political system in France.

Soon, rumors spread throughout Paris that the government was pulling troops to Versailles and was planning to disperse the Constituent Assembly. An uprising began in Paris; On July 14, hoping to seize weapons, the people stormed the Bastille. This symbolic event is considered the beginning of the revolution.

After that, the Constituent Assembly gradually turned into the supreme power in the country: Louis XVI, who sought to avoid bloodshed at any cost, sooner or later approved any of his decrees. Thus, from 5 to 11 August, all peasants became personally free, and the privileges of the two estates and individual regions were canceled.

Overthrow of the absolute monarchy
On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. On October 5, the crowd went to Versailles, where Louis XVI was, and demanded that the king and his family move to Paris and approve the Declaration. Louis was forced to agree - and absolute monarchy ceased to exist in France. This was enshrined in the constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly on September 3, 1791.

Having adopted a constitution, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. Laws were now approved by the Legislative Assembly. The executive power remained with the king, who turned into an official, obeying the will of the people. Officials and priests were no longer appointed, but elected; church property was nationalized and sold.

Symbols

"Freedom equality Brotherhood
". The formula "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité", which became the motto of the French Republic, first appeared on December 5, 1790 in an unspoken speech by Maximilian Robespierre, one of the most influential French revolutionaries, elected to the States General from the third estate in 1789.

Bastille. By July 14, there were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, the ancient royal prison, so its assault had a symbolic rather than pragmatic meaning, although they took it in the hope of finding weapons there. By the decision of the municipality, the taken Bastille was destroyed to the ground.

Declaration of the rights of man and citizen. The Declaration of Human Rights stated that “people are born and remain free and equal in rights” and declared the natural and inalienable human rights to freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression. In addition, it consolidated freedom of speech, press and religion and abolished estates and titles. As a preamble, it entered the first constitution (1791) and still forms the basis of French constitutional law, being a legally binding document.

Execution of the king and establishment of a republic

The last moments of the life of Louis XVI. An engraving after a painting by Charles Benazech. 1793 year

Wellcome library

Chronology

The beginning of the war with Austria

Overthrow of Louis XVI

Start of the National Convention

Execution of Louis XVI

On August 27, 1791, in the Saxon castle of Pilnitz, the Prussian king Frederick William II and the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (brother of Louis XVI's wife Marie Antoinette), under pressure from aristocrats who emigrated from France, signed a document declaring their readiness to support the King of France, including military ... The girondins The girondins- a circle formed around the deputies from the Gironde department, advocating further transformations, but adhering to relatively moderate views. In 1792, many of them opposed the execution of the king., the supporters of the republic, took advantage of this to persuade the Legislative Assembly to war with Austria, which was declared on April 20, 1792. When the French troops began to suffer defeat, the royal family was blamed for this.

Overthrow of the constitutional monarchy
On August 10, 1792, an uprising took place, as a result of which Louis was overthrown and imprisoned on charges of betraying national interests. The Legislative Assembly resigned: now, in the absence of the king, a new constitution had to be written. For these purposes, was assembled new law The organ is the elected National Convention, which first proclaimed France a republic.

In December, a trial began, which found the king guilty of misconduct against the freedom of the nation and sentenced him to death.

Symbols

Marseillaise. March, written by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle (military engineer, also poet and composer) on April 25, 1792. In 1795, the Marseillaise became the national anthem of France, lost this status under Napoleon, and finally returned it in 1879 under the Third Republic. By the second half of the 19th century, it had become an international song of leftist resistance.

Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

The overthrow of Robespierre at the National Convention on July 27, 1794. Painting by Max Adamo. 1870 year

Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin

Chronology

The Extraordinary Criminal Tribunal was established by a decree of the Convention, which will be renamed the Revolutionary Tribunal in October

Creation of the Public Safety Committee

Expulsion of the Girondins from the Convention

Adoption of the Constitution of the 1st year, or the Montagnar Constitution

Decree on the introduction of a new calendar

Thermidorian coup

Execution of Robespierre and his supporters

Adoption of the Constitution of the III year. Formation of the Directory

Coup 18 Brumaire. Change of Directory by the Consulate

Despite the execution of the king, France continued to fail in the war. Inside the country, monarchist revolts broke out. In March 1793, the Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal, which was supposed to judge "traitors, conspirators and counter-revolutionaries", and after it - the Committee of Public Safety, which was supposed to coordinate the domestic and foreign policy of the country.

Expulsion of the Girondins, Jacobin dictatorship

The Girondins gained great influence in the Committee of Public Safety. Many of them did not support the execution of the king and the imposition of emergency measures, some expressed outrage at the fact that Paris was imposing its will on the country. The Montagnards who competed with them Montagnards- a relatively radical group, relying, in particular, on the urban poor. The name comes from the French word montagne - mountain: at Legislative meetings, members of this group usually took seats in the upper rows on the left side of the hall. directed against the Girondins disgruntled urban poor.

On May 31, 1793, a crowd gathered at the Convention, demanding the expulsion of the Girondins, who were accused of treason. On June 2, the Girondins were placed under house arrest, and on October 31, many of them were guillotined by the verdict of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

The expulsion of the Girondins led to a civil war. Despite the fact that at the same time France was at war with many European states, the constitution, adopted in 1793, did not come into force: before the onset of peace, the Convention introduced a "temporary revolutionary order of government." Virtually all power was now concentrated in his hands; to the places the Convention sent commissars with enormous powers. The Montagnards, who now had a huge advantage in the Convention, declared their opponents enemies of the people and sentenced them to guillotine. The Montagnards abolished all senior duties and began to sell the land of the emigrants to the peasants. In addition, they introduced a maximum to which the prices of the most essential goods, including bread, could rise; in order to avoid a shortage, they had to take grain from the peasants by force.

By the end of 1793, most of the revolts had been suppressed, and the situation at the front was reversed - the French army went on the offensive. Nevertheless, the number of victims of terror did not decrease. In September 1793, the Convention passed the "Suspicious Law", which ordered to keep under arrest all people who were not accused of any crime, but could commit it. From June 1794, the Revolutionary Tribunal abolished the interrogation of the defendants and their right to lawyers, as well as the obligatory interrogation of witnesses; for people found guilty by the tribunal, there was now only one punishment - the death penalty.

Thermidorian coup 


In the spring of 1794, the robespierres started talking about the need for the last wave of executions, which would cleanse the Convention of opponents of the revolution. Almost all members of the Convention felt that their lives were at stake. On July 27, 1794 (or 9 Thermidor II according to the revolutionary calendar), the leader of the Montagnards Maximilian Robespierre and many of his supporters were arrested by members of the Convention, who feared for their lives. They were executed on July 28.

Terror quickly subsided after the coup, the Jacobin Club Jacobin Club- a political club formed in 1789 and gathered in the Jacobin monastery. The official name is the Society of Friends of the Constitution. Many of its members were deputies to the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies, and then to the Convention; they played a large role in the ongoing policy of terror. was closed. The authority of the Committee for Public Safety has diminished. Thermidorians Thermidorians- members of the Convention who supported the Thermidorian coup. proclaimed a general amnesty, many of the surviving Girondins returned to the Convention.

Directory

In August 1795, the Convention adopted a new constitution. In accordance with it, the legislative power was vested in a bicameral Legislature, and the executive power was given to the Directory, which consisted of five directors, whom the Council of Elders (the upper house of the Legislative Corps) selected from a list presented by the Council of Five Hundred (the lower house). The members of the Directory sought to stabilize the political and economic situation in France, but not very successfully: for example, on September 4, 1797, the Directory, with the support of General Napoleon Bonaparte, extremely popular as a result of his military successes in Italy, declared martial law in Paris and annulled the results of the elections in The legislative body in many regions of France, since the royalists, who now constituted a fairly strong opposition, received the majority there.

Coup 18 Brumaire

A new conspiracy has matured within the Directory itself. On November 9, 1799 (or 18 Brumaire of the VIII year of the Republic), two of the five directors, along with Bonaparte, carried out a coup, disbanding the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. The Directory was also stripped of power. Instead, the Consulate arose - a government that consisted of three consuls. They were all three conspirators.

Symbols


Tricolor. In 1794, the tricolor became the official flag of France. In addition to the Bourbon white used on the pre-Revolutionary flag, blue, the symbol of Paris, and red, the color of the National Guard, were added.

Republican calendar. October 5, 1793 was introduced into circulation new calendar, the first year of which was 1792. All the months in the calendar were given new names: the time with the revolution had to start anew. In 1806, the calendar was canceled.

Louvre Museum. Despite the fact that some parts of the Louvre were open to the public before the revolution, the palace turned into a full-fledged museum only in 1793.

The coup of Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of an empire

Portrait of Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul. Detail of a painting by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. 1803-1804 years

Wikimedia Commons

Chronology

Adoption of the Constitution of the VIII year, which established the dictatorship of the first consul

Adoption of the Constitution of X year, which made the powers of the first consul for life

Adoption of the Constitution of the XII year, the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor

On December 25, 1799, a new constitution (Constitution of the VIII year) was adopted, created with the participation of Napoleon Bonaparte. A government came to power, consisting of three consuls, named directly in the constitution by name, and elected for ten years (as a one-time exception, the third consul was then appointed for five years). The first of the three consuls was named Napoleon Bonaparte. Almost all real power was concentrated in his hands: only he had the right to propose new laws, appoint members of the State Council, ambassadors, ministers, senior military leaders and department prefects. The principles of separation of powers and popular sovereignty were virtually abolished.

In 1802, the Council of State put to a referendum the question of whether Bonaparte should be made consul for life. As a result, the consulate became life-long, and the first consul received the right to appoint a successor.

In February 1804, a monarchist conspiracy was discovered, the purpose of which was the assassination of Napoleon. After that, proposals began to arise to make Napoleon's power hereditary, in order to exclude such a thing in the future.

Establishment of an empire
On May 18, 1804, the XII Constitution was adopted, approved by a referendum. The administration of the republic was now transferred to the "emperor of the French", whom Napoleon Bonaparte was declared to be. In December, the emperor was crowned by the Pope.

In 1804 was adopted written with the participation of Napoleon Civil Code- a set of laws that governed the life of French citizens. The code affirmed, in particular, the equality of all before the law, inviolability of land property and secular marriage. Napoleon managed to normalize the French economy and finances: through constant recruits in the army both in the countryside and in the city, he managed to cope with the surplus of workers, which led to higher incomes. He harshly cracked down on the opposition and limited freedom of speech. The role of propaganda became enormous, glorifying the invincibility of French weapons and the greatness of France.

Symbols

Eagle. In 1804, Napoleon introduced a new imperial coat of arms, which depicted an eagle - a symbol of the Roman Empire that was present on the coats of arms of other great powers.

Bee. This symbol, dating back to the Merovingians, became the personal emblem of Napoleon and replaced the lily flower in heraldic ornaments.

Napoleondor. Under Napoleon, a coin called Napoleon d'or (literally - "golden Napoleon") received circulation: it showed the profile of Bonaparte.

Legion of Honor. The order established by Bonaparte on May 19, 1802, following the example of the orders of knighthood. Belonging to the order testified to the official recognition of special services to France.

The Bourbon Restoration and the July Monarchy

Freedom leading the people. Painting by Eugene Delacroix. 1830 year

Musée du Louvre

Chronology

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The capture of Moscow

Battle of Leipzig ("Battle of the Nations")

Abdication of Napoleon from the throne, proclamation of Louis XVIII as king

Proclamation of the Charter of 1814

Napoleon's escape from Elba

Taking Paris

Battle of Waterloo

Abdication of Napoleon

Accession to the throne of Charles X

Signing of the July ordinances

Mass riots

Abdication of Charles X from the throne

The Duke of Orleans' oath of allegiance to the new Charter. From that day on, he became King of the French Louis Philippe I

As a result of the Napoleonic wars, the French Empire turned into the most powerful European power with a stable state system and well-organized finances. In 1806, Napoleon forbade all European countries under his control to trade with England — as a result of the Industrial Revolution, England drove French goods out of the markets. The so-called continental blockade damaged the English economy, but by 1811 the resulting economic crisis affected all of Europe, including France. The failures of the French forces in the Iberian Peninsula began to erode the image of the invincible French army. Finally, in October 1812, the French had to begin their retreat from Moscow, which had been occupied in September.

Bourbon restoration
On October 16-19, 1813, the Battle of Leipzig took place, in which the Napoleonic army was defeated. In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island of Elba, and Louis XVIII, brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended the throne.

Power returned to the Bourbon dynasty, but Louis XVIII was forced to grant the people a constitution - the so-called Charter of 1814, according to which each new law had to be approved by two houses of parliament. In France, a constitutional monarchy was re-established, but not all citizens and not even all adult men had the right to vote, but only those who possessed a certain level prosperity.

One Hundred Days of Napoleon

Taking advantage of the fact that Louis XVIII had no popular support, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and landed in France on March 1. A significant part of the army joined him, and in less than a month Napoleon occupied Paris without a fight. Attempts to negotiate peace with European countries failed, and he had to re-enter the war. On June 18, the French army was defeated by the Anglo-Prussian troops at the Battle of Waterloo, on June 22 Napoleon abdicated the throne again, and on July 15 surrendered to the British and went into exile on the island of St. Helena. Power returned to Louis XVIII.

July revolution

In 1824, Louis XVIII died and his brother Charles X ascended the throne. The new monarch took a more conservative course. In the summer of 1829, while the chambers of deputies were not working, Karl appointed the extremely unpopular prince Jules Auguste Armand Marie Polignac as foreign minister. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees that had the force of state laws) - on the temporary abolition of freedom of the press, the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, an increase in the electoral qualification (now only landowners could vote) and the appointment of new elections to the lower house. Many newspapers were closed.

Charles X's Ordinances sparked widespread outrage. On July 27, riots broke out in Paris, and on July 29 the revolution was over, the main city centers were occupied by the rebels. On August 2, Charles X abdicated the throne and left for England.

The new king of France was the Duke of Orleans Louis Philippe, a member of the younger branch of the Bourbons, with a relatively liberal reputation. During his coronation, he swore allegiance to the Charter of 1830, drawn up by the deputies, and became not "king by the grace of God", like his predecessors, but "king of the French." The new constitution lowered not only property, but also the age limit for voters, deprived the king of legislative power, banned censorship and returned the tricolor flag.

Symbols

Lilies. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the coat of arms with the eagle was replaced by the coat of arms with three lilies, symbolizing royal power already in the Middle Ages.

"Freedom leading the people." The famous painting by Eugene Delacroix, in the center of which depicts Marianne (symbolizing the French Republic since 1792) with the French tricolor in hand as the personification of the struggle for freedom, was inspired by the July Revolution of 1830.

Revolution of 1848 and the establishment of the Second Republic

Lamartine in front of the Paris City Hall rejects the red flag on February 25, 1848. Painting by Henri Felix Emmanuel Filippoto

Musée du Petit-Palais, Paris

Chronology

Start riots

Resignation of the Guizot government

Approval of a new constitution, which consolidated the republican form of government




General Presidential Election, victory of Louis Bonaparte

By the end of the 1840s, the policies of Louis Philippe and his Prime Minister François Guizot, supporters of gradual and cautious development and opponents of universal suffrage, ceased to suit many: some demanded an expansion of suffrage, others - the return of the republic and the introduction of suffrage for all. There was a poor harvest in 1846 and 1847. Hunger began. Since rallies were banned, in 1847 political banquets gained popularity, at which the monarchical power was actively criticized and toasts to the republic were proclaimed. Political banquets were also banned in February.

Revolution of 1848
The ban on political banquets sparked riots. Prime Minister François Guizot resigned on 23 February. A huge crowd awaited his exit from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of the soldiers guarding the ministry fired a shot - most likely by mistake, and this gave rise to a bloody clash. After that, the Parisians built barricades and moved towards the royal palace. The king abdicated the throne and fled to England. France proclaimed a republic and introduced universal suffrage for men over the age of 21. Parliament (which returned the name "National Assembly") became unicameral again.

On December 10-11, 1848, the first general presidential election was held, which was unexpectedly won by Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who received about 75% of the votes. In the elections to the Legislative Assembly, Republicans won only 70 seats.

Symbols


Barricades. Barricades were erected on the streets of Paris with every revolution, but it was during the revolution of 1848 that almost all of Paris was barricaded. Some of the Parisian omnibuses launched in the late 1820s were used as material for the barricades.

The coup of 1851 and the Second Empire

Portrait of Emperor Napoleon III. Fragment of a painting by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. 1855 year

Chronology

Dissolution of the National Assembly

The promulgation of a new constitution. The changes made to its text on December 25 of the same year created the Second Empire

The proclamation of Napoleon III as Emperor of the French

The Republicans no longer enjoyed the confidence of the president, parliament, or the people. In 1852, Louis Napoleon's term as president was drawing to a close. According to the constitution of 1848, he could be elected again only after the expiration of the next four-year term. In 1850 and 1851, supporters of Louis Napoleon several times demanded a revision of this article of the constitution, but the Legislative Assembly was opposed.

Coup of 1851
On December 2, 1851, President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, relying on the support of the army, dissolved the National Assembly and arrested its opposition-minded members. The riots that broke out in Paris and in the provinces were brutally suppressed.

Under the leadership of Louis Napoleon, a new constitution was drafted, extending the presidency for ten years. In addition, the bicameral parliament was returned, and the deputies of its upper house were appointed by the president for life.

Rebuilding an empire
On November 7, 1852, the Senate appointed by Louis Napoleon proposed the restoration of the empire. As a result of a referendum, this decision was approved, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor Napoleon III.

Until the 1860s, parliament's powers were reduced and freedom of the press was limited, but the course changed from the 1860s. In order to strengthen his authority, Napoleon began new wars. He planned to reverse the decisions of the Vienna Congress and rebuild all of Europe, giving each nation its own state.

Republic proclamation
On September 4, France was proclaimed a republic again. A provisional government was elected, headed by Adolphe Thiers.

On September 19, the Germans began a siege of Paris. Famine broke out in the city, the situation escalated. In February 1871, elections to the National Assembly were held, in which the monarchists won the majority. Adolphe Thiers became the head of government. On February 26, the government was forced to sign a preliminary peace treaty, which was followed by a parade of Germans on the Champs Elysees, which many townspeople perceived as treason.

In March, the government, without any means, refused to pay the salaries of the National Guard and tried to disarm it.

Paris commune

On March 18, 1871, an uprising broke out in Paris, as a result of which a group of left-wing radical politicians came to power. On March 26, they held elections for the Paris Commune, the council of the city of Paris. The government led by Thiers fled to Versailles. But the power of the commune did not last long: on May 21, government troops launched an offensive. By May 28, the uprising was brutally suppressed - the week of fighting between the troops and the Communards was called "Bloody Week".

After the fall of the commune, the position of the monarchists again strengthened, but since they all supported different dynasties, in the end the republic was preserved. In 1875, Constitutional Laws were passed, establishing the office of president and parliament, elected on the basis of universal male suffrage. The third republic lasted until 1940.

Since then, the form of government in France has remained republican, with executive power transferred from one president to another as a result of elections.

Symbols

Red flag. The traditional republican flag was the French tricolor, but members of the commune, among whom there were many socialists, preferred the one-color red. The attributes of the Paris Commune - one of the key events for the formation of the communist ideology - were taken over, among other things, by Russian revolutionaries.

Vendome Column. One of the important symbolic gestures of the Paris Commune was the demolition of the Vendome Column, erected in honor of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz. In 1875, the column was re-installed.

Sacre Coeur. The neo-Byzantine basilica was founded in 1875 in memory of the victims of the Franco-Prussian War and became one of the important symbols of the Third Republic.

The editors would like to thank Dmitry Bovykin for his help in working on the material. 

Prerequisites revolution... In 1788-1789. in France, the socio-political crisis was growing. And the crisis in industry and trade, and the poor harvest in 1788, and the bankruptcy of the state treasury, ruined by wasteful spending of the courtyard Louis XVI(1754-1793) were not the main causes of the revolutionary crisis. The main reason that caused a widespread dissatisfaction with the whole country with the existing state of affairs was that the dominant feudal-absolutist system did not correspond to the tasks of the country's economic, social and political development.

Approximately 99 percent of the population of France was the so-called third estate and only one percent of the privileged estates - the clergy and nobility.

The third estate was heterogeneous in terms of class. It consisted of the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, urban workers, artisans, and the poor. All representatives of the third estate were united by a complete lack of political rights and a desire to change the existing order. All of them did not want and could not put up with the feudal-absolutist monarchy any longer.

After a series of unsuccessful attempts, the king was to announce the convening of the States-General - an assembly of representatives of the three estates, which had not met for 175 years. The king and his entourage hoped, with the help of the States General, to calm public opinion, to obtain the necessary funds to replenish the treasury. The third estate associated with their convocation hopes for political changes in the country. From the very first days of the work of the States General, a conflict arose between the third estate and the first two over the order of meetings and voting. On June 17, the assembly of the third estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly, and on July 9 - the Constituent Assembly, thereby emphasizing its determination to establish a new social system and its constitutional foundations in the country. The king refused to acknowledge this act.

The troops loyal to the king were drawn to Versailles and Paris. The Parisians spontaneously rose to fight. By the morning of July 14, most of the capital was already in the hands of the insurgent people. On July 14, 1789, an armed crowd liberated the prisoners of the Bastille, a fortress-prison. This day was the beginning Of the great French revolution. In two weeks, the old order was destroyed throughout the country. Royal power was replaced by a revolutionary bourgeois administration, and the National Guard began to form.

Despite the difference in class interests, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry and the urban plebeian community united in the struggle against the feudal-absolutist system. The bourgeoisie led the movement. The general impulse was reflected in the adoption by the Constituent Assembly on August 26 Declaration of human and civil rights. V it proclaimed the sacred and inalienable rights of man and citizen freedom of the individual, freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, security and resistance to oppression. The right to property was declared just as sacred and inviolable, and a decree was promulgated declaring all church property national. The Constituent Assembly approved a new administrative division of the kingdom into 83 departments, abolished the old class division and abolished all titles of the nobility and clergy, feudal duties, class privileges, and abolished workshops. Proclaimed free enterprise. The adoption of these documents meant that the kingdom of the feudal-absolutist monarchy was coming to an end.

Stages of the Revolution. However, during the Revolution, the alignment of political forces in the struggle for a new state structure changed.

There are three stages in the history of the Great French Revolution; the first - July 14, 1779 - August 10, 1792; the second - August 10, 1772 - June 2, 1793; the third, highest stage of the revolution - June 2, 1793 - July 27/28, 1794.

At the first stage of the revolution, power was seized by the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility. They advocated a constitutional monarchy. Among them, the leading role was played by M. Lafayette (1757-1834), A. Barnav (1761-1793), A. Lamet.

In September 1791, Louis XVI signed a constitution drawn up by the Constituent Assembly, after which a constitutional monarchy was established in the country; The Constituent Assembly dispersed, and the Legislative Assembly began to work.

Deep social upheavals in the country intensified friction between revolutionary France and the monarchical powers of Europe. England recalled its ambassador from Paris. The Russian Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) expelled the French attorney Genet. The Spanish ambassador in Paris Iriarte demanded his credentials back, and the Spanish government began military maneuvers along the Pyrenees. The Dutch ambassador was recalled from Paris.

Austria and Prussia entered into an alliance and announced that they would prevent the spread of everything that threatens the monarchy in France and the security of all European powers. The threat of intervention forced France to be the first to declare war against them.

The war began with setbacks for the French troops. In connection with the difficult situation at the front, the Legislative Assembly proclaimed: "The Fatherland is in danger." In the spring of 1792 a young engineer captain, poet and composer Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle(1760-1836), in a fit of inspiration, wrote the famous "Marseillaise" which later became the French national anthem.

On August 10, 1792, a popular uprising took place, led by the Paris Commune. The second stage of the revolution began. The Paris Commune became during this period the body of the Parisian city government, and in 1793-1794. was an important organ of revolutionary power. It was led by P.G. Chaumette (1763-1794), J.R. Ebert(1757-1794) and others. The Commune closed many monarchist newspapers. She arrested former ministers, abolished the property qualification; all men over the age of 21 received the right to vote.

Under the leadership of the Commune, crowds of Parisians began to prepare for the assault on the Tuileries Palace, in which the king was. Without waiting for the assault, the king left the palace with his family and came to the Legislative Assembly.

An armed people took over the Tuileries Palace. The Legislative Assembly passed a resolution to remove the king from power and to convene a new supreme body of power - the National Convention (assembly). On August 11, 1792, the monarchy was actually liquidated in France.

The Legislative Assembly established an Extraordinary Tribunal to try the "August 10th criminals" (the king's supporters).

On September 20, two major events took place. French forces inflicted their first defeat on enemy forces at the Battle of Valmy. On the same day, a new, revolutionary Assembly, the Convention, opened in Paris.

At this stage of the revolution, the political leadership moved to to the Girondins, representing the predominantly republican commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. The leaders of the Girondins were J.P. Brissot (1754-1793), P.V. Vergnio (1753-1793), J.A. Condorcet(1743-1794). They constituted the majority in the Convention and were the right wing in the Assembly. They were opposed Jacobins, making up the left wing. Among them were M. Robespierre (1758-1794), J.J. Danton (1759-1794), J.P. Marat(1743-1793). The Jacobins expressed the interests of the revolutionary democratic bourgeoisie, which acted in alliance with the peasantry and the plebeians.

A bitter struggle developed between the Jacobins and the Girondins. The Girondins were satisfied with the results of the revolution, opposed the execution of the king and opposed the further development of the revolution.

The Jacobins considered it necessary to deepen the revolutionary movement.

But two decrees in the Convention were adopted unanimously: on the inviolability of property, on the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic.

On September 21, the Republic (First Republic) was proclaimed in France. The slogan of the Republic became the slogan "Liberty, equality and fraternity. "

The question that worried everyone then was the fate of the arrested king Louis XVI. The convention decided to judge him. On January 14, 1793, 387 of the 749 members of the Convention voted to impose the death penalty on the king. One of the deputies of the Barer Convention explained his participation in the vote: "This process is an act of public safety or a measure of public safety ..." On January 21, Louis XVI was executed, in October 1793 Queen Marie Antoinette was executed.

The execution of Louis XVI served as a pretext for the expansion of the anti-French coalition, which included England and Spain. Failures on the external front, deepening economic difficulties within the country, tax increases all shook the position of the Girondins. Unrest intensified in the country, pogroms and murders began, and on May 31 - June 2, 1793 a popular uprising took place.

From this event the third, highest stage of the Revolution begins. Power passed into the hands of the radical-minded strata of the bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. At this moment, the lower classes had the greatest impact on the government. To save the revolution, the Jacobins considered it necessary to introduce an emergency regime - the Jacobin dictatorship took shape in the country.

The Jacobins recognized the centralization of state power as an indispensable condition. The convention remained supreme the legislature... He was subordinate to a government of 11 people - the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre. The Public Security Committee of the Convention was strengthened to combat counter-revolution, and revolutionary tribunals became more active.

The position of the new government was difficult. The war was raging. In most of the departments of France, especially the Vendée, there were riots.

In the summer of 1793, a young noblewoman Charlotte Corday was killed by Marat, which had a serious impact on the course of further political events.

The most important events of the Jacobins. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution, according to which France was declared a single and indivisible Republic; the supremacy of the people, equality of people in rights, broad democratic freedoms were consolidated. The property qualification was abolished when participating in elections to state bodies; all men over the age of 21 received the right to vote. The wars of conquest were condemned. This constitution was the most democratic of all French constitutions, but its introduction was delayed due to the state of emergency in the country.

The Public Safety Committee carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which, in a fairly short time, the Republic managed to create not only a large, but also a well-armed army. And by the beginning of 1794 the war was transferred to the territory of the enemy. The revolutionary government of the Jacobins, leading and mobilizing the people, ensured victory over the external enemy - the troops of the European monarchical states - Prussia, Austria, etc.

In October 1793, the Convention introduced a revolutionary calendar. The beginning new era announced September 22, 1792 - the first day of the existence of the Republic. The month was divided into 3 decades, the months were named according to their characteristic weather, vegetation, fruits or agricultural work. Sundays were abolished. Revolutionary holidays were introduced instead of Catholic holidays.

However, the alliance of the Jacobins was kept up by the necessity of a joint struggle against the foreign coalition and counterrevolutionary insurgencies within the country. When victory was won at the fronts and rebellions were suppressed, the danger of the restoration of the monarchy diminished, and the rollback of the revolutionary movement began. Internal divisions intensified among the Jacobins. So, from the autumn of 1793 Danton demanded a weakening of the revolutionary dictatorship, a return to constitutional order, and a rejection of the policy of terror. He was executed. The lower classes demanded deepening reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policy of the Jacobins, who pursued a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, went over to the position of counter-revolution, dragging along large masses of peasants.

This was not only done by the rank and file bourgeois; the leaders of Lafayette, Barnave, Lamet, as well as the Girondins, joined the counter-revolutionary camp. Jacobin dictatorship more and more deprived of popular support.

Using terror as the only method of resolving contradictions, Robespierre prepared his own death and was doomed. The country and all the people were tired of the horror of the Jacobin terror, and all its opponents united into a single bloc. In the bowels of the Convention, a conspiracy has matured against Robespierre and his supporters.

9 Thermidor (27 July) 1794 to the conspirators J. Foucher(1759-1820), J.L. Talien (1767-1820), P. Barras(1755-1829) managed to carry out a coup, arrest Robespierre, overthrow the revolutionary government. "The republic has perished, the kingdom of robbers has come," such were the last words Robespierre at the Convention. 10 Thermidor Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couton and their closest associates were guillotined.

The conspirators named Thermidorians, now used terror at their own discretion. They released their supporters from prison and imprisoned supporters of Robespierre. The Paris commune was immediately abolished.

Results of the Revolution and its meaning. In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, according to which power passed to the Directory and two councils - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. On November 9, 1799, the Council of Elders appointed a Brigadier General Napoleon Bonaparte(1769-1821) commander of the army. On November 10, the Directory regime was “legally” liquidated, a new state order was established. The Consulate, which existed from 1799 to 1804.

The main results of the Great French Revolution:

It consolidated and simplified the complex variety of pre-revolutionary forms of ownership.

The lands of many (but not all) nobles were sold to peasants with 10-year installments in small plots (parcels).

The revolution swept away all class barriers. Abolished the privileges of the nobility and clergy and introduced equal social opportunities for all citizens. All this contributed to the expansion of civil rights in all European countries, the introduction of constitutions in countries that did not have them before.

The revolution took place under the auspices of representative elected bodies: the National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791), the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792), the Convention (1792-1794). This contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, despite subsequent setbacks.

The revolution gave birth to a new state structure - a parliamentary republic.

The state was now the guarantor of equal rights for all citizens.

The financial system was transformed: the estate character of taxes was abolished, the principle of their universality and proportionality to income or property was introduced. The budget was announced.

If in France the process of capitalist development proceeded, albeit at a slower pace than in England, in Eastern Europe the feudal mode of production and the feudal state were still strong and the ideas of the French Revolution found a faint echo there. In contrast to the epoch-making events taking place in France, the process of feudal reaction began in the East of Europe.

However, the greatest significance for Western civilization was Great French bourgeois revolution. She dealt a powerful blow to the feudal foundations, crushing them not only in France, but throughout Europe. Since the middle of the 18th century, French absolutism has been going through a serious crisis: constant financial difficulties, foreign policy failures, the growth of social tension - all this undermines the foundations of the state. Tax oppression, along with the preservation of the old feudal duties, made the position of the French peasantry unbearable. The situation was aggravated by objective factors: in the second half of the 80s, crop failures fell on France, the country was seized by famine. The government was on the verge of bankruptcy. In the face of growing dissatisfaction with royal power, King Louis XVI of France convenes the States General (a medieval estate-representative body that has not met in France since 1614). The States General, consisting of representatives of the clergy, nobility and the third estate (bourgeoisie and peasants), began their work 5 May 1780 d. Events began to acquire a character unexpected for the authorities from the moment when the deputies from the third estate achieved joint discussion of issues and adoption of decisions on the real number of votes instead of word-by-word voting. All these manifestniya marked the beginning of the revolution in France. After the States General proclaimed itself the National Assembly, that is, the body representing the interests of the entire nation, the king began to draw up troops to Paris. In response to this, a spontaneous uprising broke out in the city, during which the fortress, the Bastille prison, was captured on July 14. This event became a symbol of the outbreak of the revolution, it was a transition to an open struggle against the ruling regime. Historians, as a rule, distinguish several stages in the course of the French bourgeois revolution: the first (summer 1789 - September 1794) - the constitutional stage; the second (September 1792 - June 1793) - the period of the struggle between the Jacobins and the Girondins; the third (June 1793 - July 1794) - the Jacobin dictatorship and the fourth (July 1794 - November 1799) - the decline of the revolution.

The first stage is characterized by the vigorous activity of the National Assembly, which adopted in August 1789 a number of important decrees that destroy the foundations of feudal society in France. According to the acts of parliament, church tithes were abolished free of charge, the remaining duties of the peasants were subject to redemption, and the traditional privileges of the nobility were also abolished. August 26, 1789 jr. the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" was adopted, within the framework of which the general principles of building a new society were proclaimed - natural human rights, equality of all before the law, the principle of popular sovereignty. Later, laws were issued that were in the interests of the bourgeoisie and aimed at eliminating the guild system, internal customs barriers, and confiscating and selling church lands. By the fall of 1791, the preparation of the first French Constitution was completed, which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in the country. Executive power remained in the hands of the king and the ministers appointed by him, while legislative power was transferred to a unicameral Legislative Assembly, elections to which were two-stage and limited by property qualifications. However, the overall loyalty to the monarch demonstrated by the Constitution was significantly shaken after his failed escape abroad.

An important feature of the revolution in France was that the counter-revolution operated primarily from outside. The French nobility, who fled the country, formed an "invasion army" in the German city of Koblenz, preparing for the return of the "old regime" by force. In April 1792, France's war against Austria and Prussia began. The defeats of the French troops in the spring and summer of 1792 put the country under the threat of foreign occupation. Under these conditions, the positions of the radical circles of French society strengthened, which reasonably accused the king of relations with Austria and Prussia and demanded the overthrow of the monarchy. August 10, 1792, there was an uprising in Paris; Louis XVI and his entourage were arrested. The Legislative Assembly changed the electoral law (elections became direct and universal) and convened a National Convention - September 22, 1792 France was proclaimed a republic. The first stage of the revolution is over.

Events in France at the second stage of the revolutionary struggle were largely of a transitional nature. In the context of an acute internal and external political crisis, the intensification of counter-revolutionary forces, economic difficulties associated with inflation and the growth of speculation, the leading positions in the Convention are occupied by the most radical group of Jacobins. Unlike their opponents, the Girondins, the Jacobins, led by M. Robespierre, placed the principle of revolutionary necessity above the principles of freedom and tolerance proclaimed in 1789. A struggle is being waged between these groups on all the most important issues. To eliminate the threat of monarchist conspiracies within the country, the Jacobins seek the conviction and execution of Louis XVI, which shocked the entire monarchist Europe. On April 6, 1793, to fight against counter-revolution and wage war, the Committee of Public Safety was created, which later became the main body of the new revolutionary government. The radicalization of French society, along with the unresolved economic problems, leads to a further deepening of the revolution. On June 2, 1793, the Jacobins, with broad support from the social base of Paris, managed to organize an uprising against the Girondins, during which the latter were destroyed. More than a year's Jacobin dictatorship began. The revised Constitution (June 24, 1793) completely abolished all feudal duties, turning the peasants into free owners. Although formally all power was concentrated in the Convention, in reality it belonged to the Committee of Public Safety, which had virtually unlimited powers. With the coming to power of the Jacobins, a wave of large-scale terror swept over France: thousands of people declared "suspicious" were thrown into prisons and executed. This category included not only the nobles and supporters of the opposition, but also the Jacobins themselves, who deviated from the main course determined by the leadership of the Committee for Public Salvation in the person of Robespierre. In particular, when one of the most prominent Jacobins, J. Danton, in the spring of 1794 announced the need to end the revolutionary terror and consolidate the results achieved by the revolutions, he was recognized as an "enemy of the Revolution and the people" and executed. Seeking, on the one hand, to solve economic problems, and on the other, to expand their social base, the Jacobins, by emergency decrees, impose a firm maximum on food prices and the death penalty for speculation in the country. Largely thanks to these measures, the French revolutionary army, recruited on the basis of a general conscription, in 1793 - 1794. was able to win a number of brilliant victories, repelling the offensive of the British, Prussian and Austrian interventionists and localizing the dangerous royalist uprising in the Vendée (in northwestern France). However, the radicalism of the Jacobins, the incessant terror, all kinds of restrictions in the sphere of entrepreneurship and trade caused growing discontent among broad strata of the bourgeoisie. The peasantry, ruined by constant "emergency" requisitions and suffering losses due to state control over prices, also ceases to support the Jacobins. The social base of the party was steadily shrinking. The deputies of the Convention, who were not satisfied and frightened by the cruelty of Robespierre, organized an anti-Jacobin conspiracy. On July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor according to the revolutionary calendar) he was arrested and executed. The Jacobin dictatorship fell.

The Thermidorian coup did not mean the end of the revolution and the restoration of the "old order". It only symbolized the rejection of the most radical version of the reorganization of society and the transfer of power into the hands of more moderate circles, who set as their goal the protection of the interests of the new elite, which had already formed during the years of the revolution. In 1795, a new constitution was drawn up. The Legislative Assembly was re-established; the executive branch passed into the hands of a five-member Directory. In the interests of the big bourgeoisie, all emergency economic regulations of the Jacobins were canceled.

In the revolution, more and more conservative tendencies are felt, which had the goal of consolidating the status quo that had developed by 1794. During the reign of the Directory, France continues to wage successful wars, which gradually turn from revolutionary to aggressive ones. The grandiose Italian and Egyptian campaigns (1796 - 1799) were undertaken, during which the young talented general Napoleon Bonaparte gained immense popularity. The role of the army, on which the Directory regime relied, is constantly growing. In turn, the authority of the government, discredited by fluctuations between monarchists and Jacobins, as well as open money-grubbing and corruption, steadily declined. November 9 (18 Brumaire) 1799 there was a coup d'état led by Napoleon Bonaparte. The regime established during the coup acquired the character of a military dictatorship. The French bourgeois revolution is over.

In general, the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th and 18th centuries put an end to the feudal order in Europe. The political, economic, social appearance of world civilization has undergone dramatic changes. Western society has transformed from feudal to bourgeois.

1789-1799 - truly folk. All strata of French society took part in it: the urban mob, artisans, the intelligentsia, the petty and large bourgeoisie, and the peasants.

Before the revolution, as in the Middle Ages, the monarchy protected the division of society into three estates: the first - the clergy, the second - the nobility, the third - all the rest of the population. The ancient formula clearly defined the place of each estate in the life of the country: "The clergy serve the king with prayers, the nobility - with a sword, the third estate - with property." The first and second estates were considered privileged - they owned land, did not pay land tax. Together they made up 4% of the country's population.

Causes of the Great French bourgeois revolution

Political: the crisis of the feudal-absolutist system, the arbitrariness and wastefulness of the royal power against the background of their unpopularity.

Economic: unbearable taxes, restriction of land turnover, internal customs, financial crisis of 1787, crop failure in 1788, famine in 1789.

Social: the powerlessness of the people, the luxury of the aristocracy against the background of popular poverty.

Spiritual: ideas of the Enlightenment, an example of the American Revolutionary War.

The course of the Great French Revolution.

1st stage. May 1789 - July 1792.

1789, May 5 - Convocation of the States General (for the introduction of new taxes). Notables rejected the offer

1789, June 17 - Transformation of the States General into a National Constituent Assembly, establishing a new political system in France.

1789, August 24 - Approval by the Constituent Assembly of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The declaration read: “People are born and remain free and equal in rights. Articles 7, 9, 10, 11 affirmed freedom of conscience, freedom of speech and press. The last article declared that "property is an inviolable and sacred right." Elimination of class division. Nationalization of church property, state control over the church. Change of administrative division, introduction of a new one, consisting of departments, districts, cantons and communes. Elimination of obstacles that hindered the development of industry and trade. Le Chapelier's anti-labor law, which prohibited strikes and labor unions.

During 1789 - 1792- riots throughout the country: peasant uprisings, riots of the urban poor, counter-revolutionary conspiracies - some were not satisfied with the half-heartedness of the reforms, others - their radicalism. New militia, municipalities, revolutionary clubs. The threat of intervention.

1791, June 20 - unsuccessful attempt by members of the royal family to secretly leave Paris (Varennes crisis), a sharp exacerbation political controversy in the country.

1791, September 3 - The king's approval of the constitution, developed back in 1789. The supreme legislative power was transferred to a unicameral Legislative Assembly. A supreme court independent of the executive and legislative branches was created. The constitution abolished all internal customs and guild systems. The "aristocracy of origin" was replaced by the "aristocracy of wealth."

2nd stage. August 1792 - May 1793.

1792, August 10 - Another Parisian popular uprising. Overthrow of the monarchy (Louis XVI arrested). "Marseillaise" - a hymn first to the French Revolution, and then to France, was written in Strasbourg in June 1791 by officer Rouget de Lille. It was brought to Paris by a battalion of federates from Marseilles, which took part in the overthrow of the monarchy.

1792, September 22 - France is declared a republic. Slogans of the Great French Revolution: freedom, equality, brotherhood; peace to huts - war on palaces

1792, September 22 - New calendar introduced. 1789 was named the First Year of Freedom. The republican calendar officially began to operate from 1 Vandemier II year of freedom

1793, spring - the defeat of the French troops in the battles with the coalition armies, the deterioration of the economic situation of the people

3rd stage. June 1793 - June 1794.

1793, June 2 - uprising, coming to power of the Jacobins, arrest and expulsion from the Convention of the Girondins

1793, end of July - The invasion of the troops of the anti-French coalition into France, the occupation of Toulon by the British

1793, September 5 - A huge demonstration of the Parisians demanding the creation of an internal revolutionary army, the arrest of the "suspicious" and the purge of the committees. In response: on September 9 - the creation of the revolutionary army, on the 11th - the decree on the "maximum" for bread (general control of prices and wages - September 29), on the 14th reorganization of the Revolutionary Tribunal, on the 17th the law on the "suspicious" ...

1793, October 10 - The Convention renews the composition of the Committee of Public Safety. Provisional Revolutionary Order Act (Jacobin Dictatorship)

1793, December 18 - Revolutionary troops liberated Toulon. Napoleon Bonaparte participated in the battle as an artillery captain

4th stage. July 1794 - November 1799.

1794, July 27 - Thermidorian coup, which returned the big bourgeoisie to power. Cancellation of the law on "suspicious" and maximum prices, the Revolutionary Tribunal was dissolved.

1794, July 28 -Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couton, 22 more people were executed without trial. The next day, 71 more people from the Commune were executed.

1794, end of August - the Paris Commune was abolished and replaced by the "administrative commission of the police"

1795, June - the very word "revolutionary", the word-symbol of the entire Jacobin period, was prohibited

1795, August 22 - The Convention adopted a new Constitution, which secured a republic in France, but abolished universal suffrage. Legislative power was entrusted to two chambers - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. Executive power was placed in the hands of the Directory, five directors elected by the Council of Elders from candidates nominated by the Council of Five Hundred.

1795 - France forced Spain and Prussia to sign a peace treaty

April 1796 - General Bonaparte leads French troops to Italy and wins crushing victories there

1798, May - Bonaparte's 38 thousandth army on 300 ships and barges sailed from Toulon to Egypt. Ahead are victories in Egypt and Syria, defeat at sea (the British defeated almost the entire French fleet in Egypt).

1799, November 9-10 - A coup d'état without bloodshed. On the 18th Brumaire, the government was forced to "voluntarily" sign a letter of resignation. The next day, Bonaparte with his loyal soldiers appeared in the Legislative Corps and forced the Council of Elders to sign a decree transferring all power in France to three consuls. The Great French Revolution is over. A year later, Napoleon Bonaparte became the first consul, in whose hands all power was concentrated.

Significance of the French Revolution

• Destruction of the old order (overthrow of the monarchy, destruction of the feudal order).
• Establishment of bourgeois society and clearing the way for the further capitalist development of France (elimination of the feudal-estate order)
• Concentration of political and economic power in the hands of the bourgeoisie.
• The emergence of forms of bourgeois land ownership: peasant and large property of the former nobles and the bourgeoisie.
• Creation of prerequisites for an industrial revolution.
• Further formation of a single national market.
• Influence of the ideas of the French Revolution. The ideas about the liberation of man, about freedom, the equality of all people found a response on all continents; they developed, penetrated into European society for 200 years.

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