Climatic conditions in different parts of the country Panama. Panama geography. Nature and national parks Panama. Music and dance

Mayor

Huang Carlos Vearel

Based Area Center height Climate type Official language Population Agglomeration Timezone Official site

(PS.)

To: settlements based in 1519

Transport

The city also has airports to them. Marcos Helabert (Aeropuerto Internacional Marcos A. Gelabert; IATA: PAC, ICAO: MPMG), also known as Albrook Airport (Albrook), for intrapane flights. It is located near the city center, on the territory of the former zone of the Panama Canal.

Since 2014, for passenger flights used on the site of the former American military air base international Airport Panama Pacifico.

Passenger Port Panama annually serves a variety of cruise ships following the channel.

Movement of municipal buses is carried out by MIBUS. In order to ensure traffic safety, all buses are personally consecrated by Archbishop Panaman José Domingo Uya.

Also, residents are widely used. The ride around the city is usually less than $ 3, to the airport and from it - $ 30.

In December 2010, construction of a lung metro began. The implementation of the project, which implements a consortium in the composition of the Mexican, Brazilian, Spanish, Italian and Japanese companies, consisted of investments in the amount of 1.8 billion dollars. The opening of the first branch (14 kilometers, 13 stations) took place on April 5, 2014. This is the first metro in Central America, the introduction of which will allow the capital to significantly unload ground transport, which does not cope with the flow of passengers. In the area of \u200b\u200bpeak in the city with a population of 1.3 million people constantly arise automotive traffic jams.

Images

View of Panama from the Hill Serro Ancon

Dirkvdm Panama Blue.jpg.

University view of the university

Gateway West Of Casco Viejo, Panama City.jpg

Kaso-Vieho.

Dirkvdm Panama Harbor.jpg.

View of the city from the old harbor

The bulk road connecting the islands of Naos, Perico and Flamengo with the continent.

Dirkvdm Panama Plaza.jpg.

Square in Casco Viejo

Dirkvdm Panama Pelicans.jpg.

View of the lower city from the yacht club

Dirkvdm Casco Viejo.jpg.

Casco Vieho

Dirkvdm Panama Bridge.jpg.

Bridge of two Americas through the Panama Canal.

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Notes

Literature

Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971) The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, ILL.: INTERSTATE PUBLISHERS, OCLC 138568
Mellander, Gustavo a.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1-56328-155-4. OCLC 42970390.

Links

Excerpt characterizing Panama (city)

Flegene Adjutant Volzogen, the one that, driving past the prince Andrei, said that the war was needed im Raum Verlegon [transfer to space (it.)], And which so hated Bagration, during lunch drove up to Kutuzov. Volzogen arrived from Barclay with the report on the progress on the left flank. The prudent Barclay de Tolly, seeing the crowds of the army by the wounded and upset army, having weiging all the circumstances of the case, decided that the battle was lost, and with this news sent to the commander-in-chief of his favorite.
Kutuzov barely chewed fried chicken and narrowed, looked at Wolzogen in his eyes.
Volzogen, carelessly warm-up legs, with a half-concrete smile on his lips, went to Kutuzov, slightly touched by a visor hand.
Volzogen appealed with a bright with some affected negligence, aimed at showing that he, as a highly educated military, provides Russians to make a idol from this old, useless person, and he knows who he deals with. "Der Alte Herr (as Kituzov called the Germans) Macht Sich Ganz Bequem, [the old Mr. Littered (Him.)] - Thought Volzogen and, strictly looking at the plates, stood in front of Kutuzov, began to report to the old Mr. Position on the left The flank so, as Barclay ordered him and how he saw him and understood him.
- all points of our position in the hands of the enemy and deny nothing, because the troops are not; They run, and there is no possibility to stop them, "he reported.
Kutuzov, stopping to chew, surprised, as if not understanding what he was told, stared at Volzogen. Volzogen, noticing the excitement of DES Alten Herrn, [Old Mr. (Him.)] He said with a smile:
- I did not consider himself entitled to hide from your lightness of what I saw ... troops in full disorder ...
- Have you seen? Have you seen? .. - frowned, shouted the Kutuzov, quickly getting up and advancing on Volzogen. - As you ... how you dare! .. - Making threatening gestures with shaking hands and choking, shouted. - How do you wash, the gracious sovereign, say this to me. You know nothing. Send from me to General Barklaj that his information is incorrect and that the real course of the battle is known to me, the commander-in-chief, better than him.
Volzogen wanted to object to something, but Kutuzov interrupted him.
"The enemy is removed on the left and amazed on the right flank. If you have poorly seen, the gracious sovereign, then do not let yourself say what you do not know. Excuse me to go to General Barclaj and convey to him the nearest of my indispensable intention to attack the enemy, "Kutuzov said strictly. All silent, and heard one heavy breathing of the fatal old general was heard. - Ring down everywhere, for which I thank God and our brave army. The enemy is defeated, and tomorrow I will chase him from the sacred land of Russian, - said Kutuzov, in hand; And suddenly sobbed from the arrived tears. Volzogen, shrugged and having twisted his lips, silently moved to the side, surprised by the Uber Diese Egenommenheit des Alten Herrn. [This is the Samoramic of the Old Mr. (it.)]
"Yes, here he is, my hero," Kutuzov said to a complete beautiful black-haired general, who at that time was included in Kurgan. It was Raevsky, who spent all day at the main point of the Borodino field.
Rajevsky brought that the troops are firmly in their places and that the French do not dare to attack more. Having heard him, Kutuzov in French said:
- Vous Ne Pensez Donc Pas Comme Lesautres Que Nous Sommes Obliges De Nous Retirer? [You, therefore, do not think how others do we have to retreat?]
- Au Contraire, Votre Altesse, Dans Les Affaires InDecises C "Est Loujours Le Plus Opiniatre Qui Reste Victorieux, - answered Raevsky, - et mon opinion ... [on the contrary, your lordship, in indecisive affairs remains the winner who stubborn, and my opinion ...]
- Kaisarov! - shouted Kutuzov his adjutant. - Singing writing an order for tomorrow. And you, "he turned to another, - go along the line and declare that we are attacking tomorrow.
While there was a conversation with Raevsky and dictated the order, Volzogen returned from Barclay and reported that General Barclay de Tolly would wish to have a written confirmation of the order who gave Field Marshal.
Kutuzov, without looking at Volzogen, ordered to write this order, which, very thoroughly, to avoid personal responsibility, wanted to have a former commander in chief.
And according to an indecent, mysterious connection that supports the same mood in the whole army, called the spirit of the army and the component of the main nerve of war, the words of Kutuzov, his order to the battle for tomorrow, was transmitted simultaneously to all the ends of the troops.
Not far from the words, not the same orders were transmitted in the last chain of this connection. Even nothing was similar to those stories that passed to each other at different ends of the army, for what Kutuzov said; But the meaning of his words was reported everywhere, because what Kutuzov said, did not flow out of cunning considerations, but from the feeling that lay in the soul of the commander-in-chief, as well as in the soul of every Russian man.
And having learned that the next day we attack the enemy, from the top spheres of the army, hearing the confirmation of what they wanted to believe, exhausted, the oscillating people were comforting and encouraged.

The regiment of Prince Andrei was in reserves, which until the second hour stood behind Semenovsky in inaction, under the strong fire of artillery. In the second hour, the regiment, who had already lost more than two hundred people, was moved forward to the stopped oat field, at that time between the Semenovsky and Kurgan battery, on which thousands of people were beaten on this day and at which in the second hour of the day was sent hard focused fire from Several hundred enemy guns.
Without going down from this place and without releasing a single charge, the regiment lost another third part of his people here. Front and in particular on the right side, in the unsighted smoke, buffaled guns and from the mysterious area of \u200b\u200bsmoke, clutching the entire terrain in front, without ceasing, with a hissing fast whistle, the kernels pulled out and slowly whistling grenades. Sometimes, as it were, giving a rest, a quarter of an hour, during which all the kernels and grenades flew, but sometimes in continuation of a few people broke out of the regiment, and indifferently taped the dead and worn wounded.
With each new blow, less and less randomness of life remained for those who have not yet been killed. The regiment stood in battalion columns at a distance of three hundred steps, but, despite the fact that all people regiment were influenced by the same mood. All people regiment were equally silent and gloomy. It was rarely heard between the rows of talk, but this speech shovel whether the hit and cry was heard: "Stretcher!" Most of the time, the people of the regiment on the orders of the bosses were sitting on Earth. Who, removing the civer, diligently dismissed and again collected assembly; Who is a dry clay, having sought it in his palms, came the bayonet; Who knew the belt and dragged the buckle of reassure; Who diligently raised and overtaken on a new exposure and passed away. Some built houses from Pashnya Kalmuzhek or woven brave from straw jnbye. Everyone seemed quite immersed in these classes. When the wounded and killed people, when stretcher stretched, when our returned back, when the large masses of the enemies were visible through the smoke, no one paid no attention to these circumstances. When artillery, cavalry passed forward, the movements of our infantry were visible, approving comments were heard from all sides. But the biggest attention deserved events completely outsiders who did not have any attitude towards the battle. As if the attention of these morally exhausted people was resting on these ordinary, everyday events. The battery of artillery passed before the edge of the regiment. In one of the artillery boxes, Palentomy passed the convolution. "Hey, Valentine, then! .. Entire! Fall ... Eh, do not see! .. - all over the regiment was equally shouted from the ranks. Another time, the general attention was paid to a small brown dog with a firmly raised tail, which, God knows where he climbs, concerned about the rows, and suddenly, from nearly hitting the core screamed and, picing the tail, rushed to the side. Hello and Svayizgi rang out all over the shelf. But entertainment of this kind continued minutes, and people have already stood with more than eight hours without food and without a matter under the impassive horror of death, and pale and frowning faces were increasingly pale and frowned.
Prince Andrei, just like all the people of the regiment, frowning and pale, went back and forth on the meadow of the oat field from one thing to the other, having laid his hands back and lowering her head. There was nothing to do and order. Everything was done by himself. The dead were taught for the front, the wounded believed, the ranks were closed. If soldiers were tightened, they immediately returned themselves. First, Prince Andrei, considering his duty to excite the courage of the soldiers and show them an example, looked around the ranks; But then he was convinced that he had nothing to teach them. All the forces of his soul, just like every soldier, were unconsciously aimed at keeping only from contemplating the horror of the situation in which they were. He walked around the meadow, dragging his legs, hacking herb and watching dust that covered his boots; then he walked big steps, trying to get into the traces left by Koste in the meadow, then he, counting his steps, made the calculations, how many times he should go from Meii to Meri to make a mile, then stinking flowers, growing on betweenz, and Painted these flowers in the palms and sniffed to the scented bitter, strong smell. From the whole yesterday's work of thought there was nothing left. He did not think about anything. He listened to tired hearing all to the same sounds, distinguishing the whistle of flights from the buzz of shots, looked at the priesthood of the people of the 1st battalion and waited. "Here she ... this again again to us! - He thought, listening to the approaching whistle of something from the closed area of \u200b\u200bsmoke. - One, the other! Yet! Hit ... He stopped and looked at the ranks. "No, suffered. But it fell. " And he again took walking, trying to make big steps to walk to me in sixteen steps.
Whistle and kick! In five steps, he exploded dry ground and hid the core. Increasing cold ran over his back. He looked at the ranks again. Probably rushed many; The big crowd gathered at the 2nd battalion.
"Mr. Adjutant," he shouted, "order not to crowd." - Adjutant, fulfilling orders, approached Andrei Prince. On the other hand, riding the battalion commander.
- Beware! - A frightened cry of a soldier heard, and, like a bird whistling on the ground, squatting on the Earth, two steps from Prince Andrew, beside the horse of the battalion commander, the pomegranate robbed quietly. The horse is the first, without asking that, good or badly to express fear, snorted, swayed, almost lit the major, and bounced aside. Horse horror reported to people.
- Lit! - shouted the voice of an adjutant who was imposed on the ground. Prince Andrei stood in indecision. Pomegranate, like a wolf, smoking, driving between him and a lying adjutant, on the edge of arable land and a meadow, bend a bush of wormwood.
"Is this death? - thought Prince Andrei, a completely new, envious glance looking at the grass, on the wormwood and on a stream of smoke, curling from a knifey of a black ball. "I can't, I don't want to die, I love life, I love this grass, the earth, the air ..." He thought it and at the same time he remembered what was watching him. "
- Ashamed, Mr. Officer! He said to the adjutant. "What ..." he did not negotiate. At the same time, an explosion was heard, whistling fragments as if a broken frame, the scent smell of gunpowder - and Prince Andrei rushed to the side and, raising her hand up, fell on the chest.
Several officers ran up to him. On the right side of the abdomen was part of the grass a large stain of blood.
Related militias with stretchers stopped behind the officers. Prince Andrei lay on his chest, dropping away to the grass, and, heavily, sorrifying, breathing.
- Well, come, come!
The men approached and took him by the shoulders and legs, but he groaned himself, and the men, loyping himself, again let him go.
- Breaking, put, all one! - whose voice shouted. His other times they took the shoulders and put on stretcher.
- Oh my god! Oh my God! What is it? .. belly! This is the end! Oh my god! - voices were heard between officers. - in the hairs passed by ear, - said the adjutant. Guys, having gotten stretches on the shoulders, hastily moved along the path of the trap to the dressing point.
- In the leg, go ... uh! .. Men! - shouted an officer, stopping the unevenly sown and shaking stretcher of the men.
"Care what else, Chvedor, and Hvedor," said the front man.
"That's it, it is important," the rear said happily, hitting his leg.
- Your shyness? BUT? Prince? - Timokhin ran a trembling voice, looking into stretcher.
Prince Andrei opened his eyes and looked out of the stretchers, in which his head was deeply left, on who spoke, and again lowered the eyelids.
The militia brought Prince Andrei to the forest, where they stood the truck and where there was a dressing point. The dressing point consisted of three drawn, with the cramped floors, tents on the edge of the Bereznik. In Bereznik there was trucks and horses. Horses in the ridges ate oats, and sparrows flew to them and selected wake-up grains. Vorona, si-blood, impatiently Karakaya, flew on birch. Around the tents, more than two tenth places, lay, were sitting, there were bloody people in various clothes. Around the wounded, with sad and attentive faces, there were crowds of portrait soldiers who were in vain from this place managed by order officers. Without listening to officers, the soldiers stood, leaning on stretcher, and intently, as if trying to understand the difficult importance of the spectacle, looked at what was done in front of them. From the tents they were heard that loud, evil cries, then wounded wedding. Occasionally ran out of the paramedic flooring behind the water and pointed to those that had to be made. The wounded, waiting at the tent of their turn, wheezing, moaned, cried, shouted, swear, asked vodka. Some rams. Prince Andrew, like a regimental commander, walking through unbearable wounded, carried closer to one of the tents and stopped, waiting for orders. Prince Andrei opened his eyes and for a long time could not understand what was done around him. Meadow, wormwood, arable land, black spinning ball and his passionate impulse of love for life remembered him. Two steps from him, loudly speaking and drawing on the overall attention, stood, leaning at the bitches and with a bangbed head, tall, beautiful, black-haired Onter officer. He was injured in his head and leg bullets. Around him, greedily listening to his speech, a crowd of wounded and porters gathered.
- We are his outstanding as Dolbanuli, so everything was dismissed, the king himself was taken away! - Brightly black trimmed eyes and looking around him, shouted soldiers. - Come only at that time the letters, his b, the brother you are, the title is left, because you really tell you ...
Prince Andrei, as well as all those surrounding the narrator, looked at him a brilliant look at him and experienced a comforting feeling. "But not all the same now," he thought. - What will happen there and what was here? Why did I feel so sorry to part with life? Something was in this life, which I did not understand and do not understand. "

The content of the article

PANAMA,The Republic of Panama, the state located on the Panama isthmus, the narrower area of \u200b\u200bthe sushi connecting North America with southern. Area 77 082 square meters. km; The population is 2.73 million people (score 1996). In the East, it borders with Colombia, in the West - with Costa Rica, in the south is washed by the Pacific Ocean, in the North - Caribbean Sea. The capital is the city of Panama, the population of which was estimated in 1997 in 413 thousand people.

Geographically, being part of Central America, Panama until 1903 was part of Colombia. The life of the country is concentrated around the Panama Canal, next to which is located and the capital. The main political efforts of the governments of the country in the 20th century. They were aimed at incorporating in its jurisdiction zone of the Panaman Canal, officially under the supervision of the United States, and in 1979 these efforts were finally crowned with success. Channel area of \u200b\u200b1432 square meters. km and a length of 68 km, with a population of 47 thousand people, crosses Panama from the North-West to the southeast, connecting the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

Nature.

In the latitudinal direction, the central mountain range, bounded on both sides of coastal lowlands, stretches in almost the entire country. For both Caribbean and the Pacific coast, deep bays are characterized by deep bays and nearby islands. On the southern coast to the ocean, several hilly peninsulas are being found, of which the largest Asouro Peninsula. The mountain inside of Panama is formed by several ridges. Western ridges, stretching in Panama from Costa Rica, are crowned with several volcanic peaks, the highest of them - Mountain Baru (3475 m above U.M.). Eastern stretching the steep slopes of Serrania de Tabasar ridge with a height of more than 900 m above U.M., reaching the Panama Canal. This ridge sharply breaks up the south-west of Panama city, and then in the south-east there is another mountain system - Cordillera de San Blas, which goes into a higher chain of Serrania del Daryaen, continuing in Colombia. Some peaks here rise above 1200 m above U.M. Another ridge, Serrania del Baudo, begins in the southeast of Panama and stretches from San Miguel Bay in Colombia. Panaman channel is laid in the lowest side of the cow game between Western and East mountain areas, where the hills do not exceed 87 m above U.M.

On the Caribbean coast and the northern slopes of the mountains rainy tropical climate. Especially powerful shower go from May to December, but in the remaining months, the lack of moisture is not felt. In the port of the column, the annual rate of precipitation is 3250 mm, and the average temperature of 27 ° C, and the difference in temperatures between the seasons is almost imperceptible. In the highlands of rains there is less, and on the south side of the mountains on the Pacific coast dominates a tropical climate with wet and dry seasons. In the capital of the country, for example, 88% of the annual rate of precipitation, amounting to 1750 mm, falls on May - November, and the remaining five months is drought.

Approximately three quarters of Panama are covered with forests. On the Caribbean coast, littoral mangroves are replaced by a dense wetotropic forest from evergreen broadcasting rocks that give valuable wood. Above the slopes are covered with no less dense "Lianan" forest, reaching almost to the vertices of the ridges. Pacific coastal areas are covered with a thick semi-repulsive forest with small sections of Savannovoy Raddaretia.

Fauna Panama is rich and diverse. Here are injected by Puma, Ocelot and other cats, deers, monkeys, bakers, amusements, sloths, armadors and kinkagu. Among reptiles are distinguished crocodiles, alligators, poisonous and harmless snakes. Besides North American migratory birds, many parrots, including ar; There are herons and tucanis.

Population.

According to the 2003 census, 29.60 million people lived in the country. On 1000 inhabitants were born 20.78, and 6.25 people died. per year, i.e. Natural increase was 1.36%.

In 2012, more than 35.10 million lived in the country. Natural population growth in 2012 amounted to 1.41%.

Approximately 70% of Panamsev - either methuses, in the veins of which the blood of the Indians and White flows, or Mulati - the descendants of white marriages with blacks. Among the other 14% are "African Americans", 10% are white, about 6% Indians.

75% of the population lives in cities (2010). According to the 1990 census, the four largest cities of the country were the capital of Panama (411 thousand inhabitants), San Mighelito (242 thousand), David (65 thousand) and column (54 thousand). If not counting David, the regional shopping center of the inner part of Panama, the townspeople are engaged in the main service of the canal and related commerce. The rural population is focused on the southwest of the country.

Official language Panama is Spanish. Approximately 14% of the population is English, and the Indians speak their languages.

Approximately 85% of Panamans - Catholics, about 10% (mostly black people from West Indies) - Protestants of various directions, and another 5% of residents, mainly immigrants from Industan and the Middle East, Muslims.

State system and politics.

According to the Constitution adopted in 1972 and changed in 1978, 1983 and the 1990s, Panama is a unitary presidential republic. Until 1989, real power in the country belonged to the military and only then the action of the Basic Law was restored in full.

Legislative power in Panama belongs to the Unoparable Legislative Assembly, which since 1999 consists of 71 deputies. She is elected by a universal voting for a period of 5 years, depending on the population in single-member and multi-member districts. The Panaman Parliament accepts laws, ratifies international treaties, approves the state budget, introduces taxes, declares amnesty, approves the administrative-territorial division of the country. The Assembly considers accusations against the president, vice-presidents (can declare them displaced) and deputies, approves members of the higher judicial bodies and prosecutors.

Executive power is carried out by the President in conjunction with the state ministers. In the absence of the head of state, he is replaced by the first and second vice presidents. The president appoints and shifts the ministers, coordinates the work of government agencies and providing public order. He can impose a veto to the laws adopted by the Parliament, approves the laws, appoints and shifts commander of police forces, officers and governors, manages foreign policy, announces amnesty, etc. For exceeding the authority and violation of the electoral procedure, presidents and vice-presidents can be shifted by the Legislative Assembly.

The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by a general vote for a five-year term.

The country's judicial system includes the Supreme Court, Tribunals and other courts. The members of the Supreme Court are nominated by the government and are approved by Parliament for a decade. There are also five appeals vessels, and the lowest judicial authorities are municipal courts.

Governors of provinces and municipal authorities are appointed by the president.

Local authorities.

Panama consists of nine provinces (Daryaen, Panama, Colon, Kokoney, Herrera, Los Santos, Veragas, Bocas del Toro, Chiriki) and three territories of indigenous peoples. Provincial governors are appointed by the President; Regional legislative bodies do not exist. Municipal councils and mayors are elected on the ground.

Political parties.

Multi-party system. The main political parties participate in the elections, forming blocks and coalitions, the composition of which undergoes changes from elections to elections.

In general elections, the 1999 struggle turned between three political coalitions. The Arnulfist Party, the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement, the Democratic Change party and the Movement of National Renewal, were included in the victory of the "Union for Panama". The "New Nation" coalition was a revolutionary-democratic party, the Solidarity party, the National Liberal Party and the movement of "Papa Egoro". The "Opposition Alliance" formed the Christian Democratic Party, the Civil Update Party and the Genuine Liberal Party.

The consignment « Pannamba" Initially, the "revolutionary-nationalist party" is one of the oldest political parties Panama. The revolutionary-nationalist party was founded by the eldest of the Arias brothers in 1932. In 1936, Arnulfo's younger brother Arias took control of the party.

Since then, the party is a movement of supporters of Arnulfo Arias Madrid (in his honor in 1991, the party began to be called Arnulfist), first of the post of President Panama in 1940, but the next year overthrown. The ideology of "Panamism" was a mixture of the elements of natural philosophy, nationalism, populism and "dosage democracy".

After his re-election to the post of head of state, A. Aarias created in 1951 a Pananist Party, but in the same year was shifted for exceeding the authority. In the period up to 1964, the Panamist Party boycotted elections. In 1968, A. Aarias again was elected president, but after 10 days the military is dismissed. In 1984, he created a genuine Panamist Party, but lost the presidential election. After the death of A. Aarias in 1988 new leader Arnulfists, the former Secretary of Arias Guillermo Endara headed the block with the participation of the Christian Democratic Party and the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement. In 1989, after the American military occupation, he became president of Panama. In 1991, the Endara fraction and M.E.Moscoso created Arnulfist Party (AP). In 1994, the AP was headed by Democratic Alliance with the participation of a genuine liberal, liberal party, but lost the election. In 1999, the coalition led to her managed to come to power. AP received 11 out of 71 places in the Legislative Assembly.

In the elections to the legislative bodies in May 2004, the party received 19.2% of votes and 17 of 78 seats. Representative from the party in the presidential election Miguel Aleman received 16.4% of the vote, mainly from the poorest segments of the population.

In 2005, the party again changed its name and now it is called "Panameñista".

Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement(Molyenna) - the centered batch, supported by entrepreneurial circles. Founded in 1982 people from the National Liberal Party, the movement of national liberation, etc. In 1984 and 1989, was blocked with arulfists and Christian Democrats; Her representative took the post of the second vice-president of the country after the American occupation. In 1994, the prayen joined neoliberal political block "Change-94" with the participation of the movement of national updates and "civil renewal", but their candidate failed to defeat in the presidential election. In 1999, the party was again blocked with Arulfishers and with them came to power. In the legislative assembly won 6 seats.

Party "Democratic Change"and National Liberation Movement- Small right games included in the winning coalition. Have several places in the Legislative Assembly.

Revolutionary Democratic Party (RDP) -the largest political party Panama. The basis in 1978 on the initiative of the Military leader of the country of General Omar Torryhos after the permission of party activities in the country. The RDP made a continuation of socio-economic and political transformations, for the return of the country of the Panama Canal. After the death of Torryhos, a fierce factional struggle was broke out in the RDP, but the parties managed to lead the Government of Panama until 1985, and in 1985-1989 enter the ruling block. In 1989-1994 was in opposition. In 1994, heading the United Nations coalition with the participation of the Labor and Liberal Republican Party, RDP managed to return to power; The president was elected her candidate E. Peres Ballades. In 1999, the block headed by the RDP won the parliamentary elections, but his candidate for President Martin Torrichos Espina (Son of Omar Torryhos) was defeated. RDP moved to the opposition and has 33 of 71 seats in the Legislative Assembly. The party adheres to the left-center orientation and cooperates with the socialist intermenimal.

Motion "Dad Evoro"(In the language of the Indians - "Motherland-Mother") - a public organization created in the early 1990s popular actor and musician Ruben Blondes. He considers itself an alternative to the political history of the country, acts in defense of Indian heritage, traditional culture and the environment, for the rights of women and equality in relations with the United States. Movement sought out the withdrawal of American bases from Panama. In 1994, R. Blades collected more than 17% in the presidential election. In the late 1990s, the traffic survived the internal crisis and split: not all of his supporters and factions agreed with the decision of Bloz to support the presidential candidacy from the RDP in 1999, received 6 seats in the Legislative Assembly.

Party "Solidarity"- Educated in 1993. made a unity and national reconciliation, the fight against unemployment, poverty, corruption and injustice, for democratization and expanding the participation of broad masses in politics. In 1994, he put forward a candidate in the presidential election, but he collected less than 2% of the votes. In 1994-1999, the party was part of the government of President Peres Ballades, in 1999 he entered the block under the leadership of the RDP and received 4 places in parliament. However, after the election, he supported the government of the new president M. Moskoso.

National Liberal Party (NLP) -founded in 1997 R.Aarago Gasteasoro, Minister of Justice in the Government of Peresa Ballades. Speakers "for social justice, the well-being of people, the development of the education system and the observance of the rights of workers." In 1999 blocked with RDP and held 3 deputies to parliament. However, after the election provided support to the new president of M. Moskoso.

Christian-Democratic Party (HDP) -created in 1960 on the basis of the National Civil Union, which was influenced by European Christian Democracy. The party made moderate reforms within the framework of the social-Christian doctrine and softening social contradictions. HDP stood in opposition against the mode of General O.Torrichos, he was part of the opposition political coalitions of the 1980s, and in 1989, its representative took the post of vice-president in the Government of the city of Hedara. In 1991, Christian Democrats left the ruling coalition of the right parties and went to the opposition. Elections 1994 brought them crushing defeat (2% of votes). In 1999, the HDP was blocked with the party "Civil renewal" and a genuine liberal party, but did not achieve essential success. It has 1 place in the Legislative Assembly. The party is part of the International Democratic Party International. In 2001, the party became called the "People's Party".

Party "Civil Update"- formed in 1993 by the leaders created in 1987 "National Civil Crusading" - the coalition of entrepreneurial and professional organizationswho opposed the military regime of General Manuel Noriegy. In the early 1990s, the leaders of the movement moved to the opposition to the President of the President of the Endara, whose board they were condemned for "traditionalism" and the service of "private interests". In 1994, the party performed as part of the "change-94" block, and in 1999 was blocked with HDP. He has 2 places in parliament.

Genuine Liberal Party (PLP)- Committed in 1988 from the Genuine Panamist Party. In 1989 supported G. Handar. In 1999, he was blocked with XDP and a "civil update", won 3 places in parliament. Later declared his readiness to cooperate with the President of M.E.Moskoso.

Since the beginning of the new 21 century, new games appeared in the country, of which the Libertarian Party should be noted (2000); Joint People's Movement (2002); Party of democratic change (2002); Political organization of a new type (2004); Party "Moral Avangard of the Fatherland" (2006).

In 2009, there was an opposition affair Alliance for change. It includes the traditional Pananist Party and the Democratic Change Party. The representative of the Alliance Ricardo Martinelli was elected president for up to 2014.

Armed forces.

Until 1983, the National Guard Panama performed both military and police functions at the same time. In 1983, it was transformed into three armed formations (the forces of national defense), which in 1986 there were 12 thousand soldiers and officers. In the 1980s, the country experienced the period of the Military Dictatorship of General Manuel Noriegy for the Facade of the Civil Government.

In 1988, President Eric Arturo Delval took an attempt to remove the military from power, but was defeated and was forced to flee from the country. After the failure of the US public coup, the troops in Panama in December 1989. Noriega was arrested on charges of contracting drug dealers, and Panama's armed forces were subjected to re-formation.

Foreign policy.

Panama traditionally connected with the US close military and economic cooperation. At the same time, the relationship between the two countries was originally complicated by a number of historical circumstances. Until 1936, the United States carried out a protectorate over the entire Panama, until 1979 occupied the channel zone, then managed the Panama channel; In 1970 - 1980, the United States was extremely painful in friendly relations of Panama with revolutionary governments of Cuba and Nicaragua; In 1988, the USA applied strict economic sanctions to the Government of Panama; Finally, in December 1989, the United States organized a military invasion of Panama, the resulting destruction and human losses. Panama is a member of the UN and the organization of American states (OAS).

Economy.

The Panama economy is focused mainly on servicing international transit. Such an orientation was determined even in the early colonial period, when the locals supplied with food and goods of the expedition of conquistadors and streams of colonists who crossed the experiencing. Through Panama was transported by Peruvian gold and silver to Spain and California gold in New York. After the construction of the Panaman Canal, the country's economic development center has become a channel area under the supervision of the United States. However, until 1979, Panama received a very insignificant share of profits, as the channel zone lived mainly due to duty-free goods imported from the United States, and Panaman citizens worked in the zone on low-paid work. New agreements between the United States and Panama, signed in 1977 and entered into force in 1979, provided for the elimination of the North American enclave (channel zone) and a significant increase in Panama's income.

Since the 1950s, on the initiative of the government, Panama began to expand the sphere of its services. In 1953, a free trade zone was created in the port of Golong, where foreign companies could be duty free to enjoy warehouses for transit cargo and other services. By the beginning of the 1980s, the column turned into one of largest zones Free trade, yielding only Hong Kong, and has become the second in value of the source of Panama revenues. Here were engaged in entrepreneurial activities more than 350 firms, mostly North American. Thanks to the new banking laws adopted in 1970, Panama became the sixth largest financial center for the beginning of the 1980s.

Panama and Color cities that have become the centers servicing international transit, absorb half the entire working force of the country and give 2/3 of GDP. Panama is concentrated in the manufacturing industry. From the mid-1970s, the Panaman government began to encourage the development of the national industry; In 1976, a financial corporation was founded to attract private investment in industry. However, despite all measures, by 1999, industrial products of Panama did not exceed 17% of GDP. At this time, agriculture in which 28% of the able-bodied population was employed, provided 7% of GDP. Although in the 1960-190s, the share of agriculture in the economy of the country has been steadily reduced, in 1983 it brought 54% of export revenues. By 2002, export revenues amounted to $ 5.8 billion.

During the 1990s, the Panama economy has developed a rather high rate, ensuring the corresponding growth in income per capita. The unemployment rate has decreased, the percentage of families with a low vital level decreased. However, the reforms did not give a rapid significant effect, in particular, there was no increase in the standard of living of the population in backward rural areas.

The period 1999-2000 was characterized by a decrease in the pace and volume of investment in the economy of Panama. Partially it was associated with a fall in economic growth in major developed countries (primarily the United States).

On the other hand, during this period the stage ended economic reforms And, above all, the privatization of former state-owned enterprises and organizations, which in turn attracted a significant amount of foreign investment. The initial investment period related to the acquisition of national Panaman companies was replaced by the actions on consolidation and strengthening already created conglomerates.

In 2002, the inner gross product Panama amounted to $ 18.06 billion or $ 6,200. In terms of per capita. This is the highest indicator among Central America. During the 1970s, Panama GDP increased by approximately 6%, with the exception of the 1972-1976 period. In 1980-1986, an annual economic growth was 2.7%, which generally complied with the growth of the country's population. By 2002, this figure decreased to 0.7%. Panama GDP began to detect signs of growth with the election by the President of the Economist and Entrepreneur Ernesto Perez Ballades in 1994. The high level of unemployment continued - 16% of the able-bodied population. The main reason for the economic difficulties of Panama was needed to pay high interest on external debt.

In recent years, Panama has reduced the pace of economic development. The share of unemployed among young people increased. The external and internal debt of the country falls on the economy, the external and domestic debt of the country, which accounts for up to a quarter of the budget expenditure.
Here are some economic indicators of the country estimated at 2011.
GDP (by purchasing power parity) - 51.26 billion dollars; Real Temp gDP growth - 10.6%; GDP per capita - 14,300 dollars.

GDP distribution by the sectors of the economy: agriculture - 4.1%; Industry industry - 16.7%; Services sector - 79.2%.

The unemployment rate in 2011 amounted to 4.5%, the population living below the poverty line is 29%.

Agriculture.

Almost half of Panaman peasants enjoys state lands, engaged in high-firing agriculture. Cleaning the forest site, they handle it two to three seasons, and then leave for several years until the soil fertility is restored. The peasants are grown for their own consumption rice, corn, sugar cane, beans and bananas.

From these small farms, large plantations in the province of Chirika, the most fertile agricultural zone of the country, are straightened. The main export culture of the country is grown here - bananas. The most part of the plantation belongs to Chiriki Land Kompani, the subsidiary of the North American "United Bands", the third largest to the employer in Panama. Initially, the company founded banana plantations in the province of Bocas del Toro on the Atlantic coast, but when it was found that local bananas are susceptible to fungus (called "Panaman disease"), she moved the plantation to the Pacific coast. In the 1960s, after the disease-resistant bananas varieties were derived and effective means of combating fungus were developed, it was possible to revive plantations on atlantic coast. The production of bananas began to grow and in 1986 reached 1.1 million tons (in 1960 - 439 thousand tons), although individual weather conditions and strikes adversely affected the crop. In Western provinces, Panama is grown on export sugarcane and coffee. Cocoa beans are grown both on large plantations and in small peasant farms.

The development of the agricultural sector of the economy has significantly braked due to the unequal distribution of land resources. In 1970, 2.9% of the farms of the country owned 46% of agricultural land, while 68% of small farms did not exceed 10 hectares and owned a population of 8.2% of the land.

After 1968, the Government of Panama took a number of measures aimed at asking agriculture, including the construction of roads, electrification, the construction of state factories for processing sugarcane and land reform. The latter envisaged the creation of peasant cooperatives, mainly rickest farms working on the domestic market. In this regard, the program has succeeded and fully provided the country rice. As for the redistribution of land, the government did not succeed much to weaken the positions of large latifundists: according to approximate estimates, only 5% suitable for cultivation of land was redistributed in favor of peasants. In addition to rice, Panama fully provides its needs for coffee, sugar and corn, but many basic foods have to import. The government is developing a system of benefits to stimulate the production of essential products.

Fishing.

An important role in the economy of Panama is playing fisheries. Shrimps make up the second-income article of Panaman exports. Two plants preserve export herring and anchovies. Lobsters go to the domestic market and export.

Forest industry.

Panama has rich wood reserves, but logging is carried out only along the transport river paths. Mainly harvested wood mahagony (red tree) and cedar. The threat of forest resources of the country represents a housing fire agriculture, which was encouraged by the government as an alternative to large-scale agrarian reform. As a result, a serious threat to the cropping of rivers that feed the Panaman channel and providing its shipping is arising.

Industry.

The country's industrial development began during the Second World War, when the government adopted a number of measures stimulating investments in industry. Along with the products of the food industry, Panama produces clothes, shoes and furniture. Oil refining and chemical industries develop. The state ownership is a small steel mill, cement factory and four plant for processing sugarcane.

Mining industry.

In 1968, one of the world's largest copper deposits was opened in Cerro Colorado (CV. Chiriki). The government has developed a plan for the construction of a mine, a copper smelter and seaport on the Pacific coast, however, this project is $ 2 billion. It was necessary to freeze because of the enormous financial costs and unstable global prices for copper. Small copper reserves are in Serro-Petakill; Evded, but are not yet estimated by the deposits of copper in Serro Choich and Rio Pinto. In the province of Veragoas in 1980, gold and silver deposits were explored.

Petroleum fields were opened in 1980 on the shelf near San Blas Islands and 180 km east of Panama. In 1982, the government approved a project for the construction of the oil pipeline from the Bay of Chiriki on the Pacific Coast to the Bocas del Toro on the coast of the Caribbean, where it is planned to build a terminal to load tankers. The cost of the project is estimated at $ 250 million.

Energy.

In 1983, Panama received 56% of energy due to imported oil, 27% - wood, 11% - hydroelectric power plants and 6% - sugar cane tip. Until 1976, the country's energy has completely depended on the import of petroleum products; But by 1979, the two fifth of all electricity was produced on their own hydroelectric power plants.

Transport.

Panama transport system has traditionally been focused on external world, not on the domestic regions of the country. After the construction of the Transokean Canal, the railway, crossed the experiencing, was abandoned, and only two short railway branches remained in Panama in Panama: one in Caribbean, the other on the Pacific coast. Panama railways length - 238 km. From the west to the east, from the border with Costa Rica to the border with Colombia, the country crosses the Pan American highway. In 1980, the total length of the Panama Road network was 8530 km. There are 115 airfields in the country. Modern Airport in Panama is an essential transit point connecting North and South America.

Under the Panaman flag registered a huge fleet of commercial ships, in the overwhelming majority of foreign (approx. 9 thousand in 1977). Sea ports of Panama are serviced by North American companies. The largest ports of the country - the city of Panama and Colon.

International trade.

Panama expenses on imports always exceeded export income. In 1996, the import was spent approx. 2.5 billion dollars, while exports brought approximately $ 570 million to the treasury. Panama imports crude oil, vehicles and other industrial products. The main export articles are bananas, shrimps, raw sugar and petroleum products. The main trading partner of Panama remains US. In the 1980s, the United States purchased more than half of Panama exports in the monetary equivalent and provided more than a third of the value of imports. Oil Panama purchased in Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela. Panama trading partners also include Western Germany, Japan and Costa Rica.

Finance and banks.

The country's monetary unit, Balboa, is equal to 1 US dollar. Panama does not produce banknotes and does not have a central bank. The financial finance of the country is entirely dependent on the North American dollar, which makes its economy extremely vulnerable to US financial pressure. The National Bank of Panama stores both public funds and deposits of individuals. Many commercial banks of the country are under the control of foreign banks.

After the arrival of Torrichos in 1968, government spending on the development of basic sectors of the economy, for education, health care and housing construction increased significantly. To finance their programs, the government resorted to major loans from the United States, the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Bank.

Culture.

Panama culture developed on a Spanish basis, experiencing significant influences of African, Indian and North American cultures. The cultural center of the country is the capital, where the University of Panama is located (Osn. 1935), National Museum Panama (Osn. 1925) and National Library (Osn. in 1892). The Ministry of Education is headed by the Department fine arts, It contains museums and cultural monuments, implements a wide publishing program and organizes musical and theatrical views.

Music and dance.

Folk music and choreography Panama are distinguished by a large genre variety. One of the most common folk dances - Tamborito . This pair dance, executed under the accompaniment of drums and cotton in your hands, is accompanied by a song rising to 17 V. Mehorana, the song-choreographic genre of Spanish origin, is executed collectively under the accompaniment of two five-stringed guitars (Mehoraras); Its main elements - Sapateo (Chechet) and Paseo (procession). Another popular song-dance genre, Punto, is distinguished by mobile cheerful melody. The emblem of the National Folklore became Kumbia - the dance of African American origin. People's Musical Instrumentation includes in addition to five-stand trigger violin called Ravel, drums, rattles of dried pumpkin (maratas) and wooden xylophone marimba ; In urban folk ensembles, classic violin, cello and spanish guitar are used. The National Conservatory was founded in 1940. The capital has created a national symphony orchestra.

Painting and literature.

From Panaman artists, the most famous painter and sculptor Roberto Lewis (1874-1949) and Umberto Ivaldi (1909-1947). Poets Gaspar Oktavio Hernandez (1893-1918) and Ricardo Miro (1883-1940) became the nasal literature. The largest figure of Panaman literature - Poet, Prose, Essuraist Rokhelyio Sinan (P.1904), author famous novel Magic Island (La Isla Magica., 1977).

Education.

Children from 7 to 15 should visit free public schools. Foundation higher education There are two metropolitan university: Panama University (40 thousand students) and founded in 1965 Catholic University of Santa Maria La Antigua (3900 students).

History.

On the territory of the Panama Isthmus with distant antiquity, dozens of Indian tribes associated with the population of neighboring areas of South and Central America lived. The first ceramics found in Panama refers to the frontier 4 and 3 thousand BC. 2 thousand BC. Here they began to cultivate corn. In 1 thousand AD Ancient metallurgy spread on the cage. Here the culture of Veragas (3-2 centuries. BC), Daryaen (after 7th century), Chiriki, Kokoney and others.

In 1501 Panama opened Spanish Conquistador Rodrigo de Bastidas. The following year, Christopher Columbus founded a settlement at the mouth of the Belen River, later destroyed by the Indians. The colonization of the Panama territory began in 1509-1510, when the settlement in the Gulf of Daryaen was founded, from which the province of Tierra Firm grew ("Mainland") in 1513, the Expedition of Vasco Nunese de Balboa crossed the experiencing and went to the Pacific Ocean. In 1519, the Governor of Thierra Firm Pedrarias Davil founded the city of Panama. Through the goods from the colonies on the Pacific coast transported to the Atlantic coast and further to Spain. Panama became the most important shopping center of Spanish America. In 1538, Panama was proclaimed Spanish Award, in 1542-1560 he was part of the Vice-Kingdom of Peru, then the guatemala general, and in 1718-1723 and 1740-1810 was included in the new Granada (current Colombia).

The basis of the farm has become a plantation on which black slaves from Africa burst. In 16-17 centuries. The territory of the country was repeatedly attacked by pirates (in 1671 the city of Panama was destroyed by the English pirate of Henry Morgan). From the end of the 18th century The Panama economy was experiencing decline due to trading offset.

In 1821, Panamans rebelled against Spanish colonial power and proclaimed the independence of the province. Soon they joined the Great Columbia created by Simon, and after its decay in 1830, Panama became part of the new Granada (Colombia). In 1840-1841, she again tried to proclaim the independence of the "Republic of Isthmus", but unsuccessfully. However, the interests of the provincial leaders and the Central Government of Colombia often diverged. In 1885, 1895, 1899, 1900 and 1901, Panamans restrained against the Columbian authorities.

Panama was the main transit point during the gold fever in California. In the middle of the 19th century Panaman stakes became more and more interested in the United States and European powers, which were striving to establish their control over the strategic and trading relationship. In 1846, the United States concluded a contract with a new grades, having received the right to duty-free transit and exploitation of paths, as well as a concession for the construction of an inter-coherent railway, which was built to 1855. The Anglo-American Agreements 1850 and 1901 significantly strengthened the influence of the United States in Panama.

The compete of Americans here for some time was trying to speak France. In 1879, the French engineer and diplomat Ferdinand de Lessps, built a Suez Canal, created a company to build a Panama Canal, which later went bankrupt. In 1902, the US government bought all rights and property from a French company, but the Colombian government refused to give permission to build a channel. In these circumstances, the United States provided military support to Panaman separatists, which on November 3, 1903 proclaimed the independence of the Panama Republic. The Constitution of the new state was adopted.

Soon the first president of Panama Manuel Amador Gerrero (1904 - 1908) signed the Hay-Buno-Crow agreement, according to which the United States received "for eternal times" all the rights to build and operate the channel together with the right of unlimited control over the land strip through the experiments 10 miles wide and The right interference in the internal affairs of the state. This contract is for a long time In fact, turned Panama to the US Protectorate. An agreement with the United States was revised in 1936 and 1955, but the United States retained control over the channel zone. Under the supervision of the American Armed Forces, elections were held in 1908, 1912 and 1918. American troops occupied the cities of Panama and Colon (1918) and the province of Chirik (1918-1920), they suppressed social protests and strikes in Panama in the 1920s. The country's economy was completely depending on American firms and companies.

In 1912-1916 and 1918-1924, the President of the country was the leader of Liberals Belisario Purras, who conducted some reforms in the field of social and labor legislation. In 1931, the Liberal Reformed Movement "Communal Action" overthrew the government of the Constitutional President Florencio Acroshene (1928-1931). The ruling revolutionary and nationalist party (RNP) was created at the board of President ARDIO Arias (1932-1936). In 1935, her candidate Juan D. Acoshene was elected president (1936-1940). In 1936, after the mass protests, the United States went on the conclusion of a new treaty with Panama, who removed some conditions limiting the sovereignty of the Panama Republic and increased the annual rental fee from 250 thousand to 430 thousand dollars.

In 1940, the representative of the "Genuine RNP" Arnulfo Arias Madrid was elected president of Panama. He put into circulation national currency and paper banknotes, proclaimed a new constitution, which increased the term of presidential powers. In foreign Policy He, seeking greater independence from the United States, tried to develop relations with Germany and Italy. In 1941, A. Aarias was accused of dictatorial aspirations and protashist sympathies and overthrown by the National Guard. President Ricardo Adolfo de la Gardia (1941-1945), a representative of the RDI, allowed the United States to create 134 military bases for the protection of the channel on the territory of the War in Panama.

In early 1945, the acute crisis in the leadership of the country led to the abolition of the 1941 Constitution and elections to the Constituent Assembly. Adolfo Jimenez Interrique Interior President (1945-1948) relied on a coalition of three liberal parties and one of the RDP factions. In 1946, a new Constitution of the country was adopted, in 1947-1948 Panama has achieved from the US to return the territory rented during the war. In the presidential election, 1948, Liberal Domingo Diaz Acrossmen (1948-1949) won the victory (1948-1949). A. Aarias challenged the results of the voting, but the National Guard supported his competitor. After Aroshemen has left the resignation in June 1949 for health, his successor Daniel Chanis Pinson declared an amnesty to political prisoners and liberated Arias, who was in prison for organizing civil unrest in previous elections.

In November 1949, he again became the leader of the "genuine RNP", saying that he won the election 1948. Arias sent his political opponents to prisons, forbade the Communist Party, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court and in 1951 created a new Pananist Party.

These actions of Arias caused a wide perturbation, which in May 1951 turned into universal strike and excitement and the National Guard, headed by Colonel José Antonio Related Kantera, shifted Arias from the post of president.

Before the 1952 election of the liberals, reformists, RNP, a genuine revolutionary party marking from Aryas and People's Soyuz Communicated in the national patriotic coalition (NPK), which put forward by Kantera Colonel Remon. Having won, he began negotiations with the United States to revise the Treaty regarding the Panama Canal. But on the eve of the signing of the agreement in 1955, he was killed. The contract did not differ significantly from the 1903 contract, but increased the rent until 1930 thousand dollars. In the presidential election, 1956, the Candidate of NPK - Ernesto de La Guardia Navarro (1956-1960) defeated.

For the elections in 1960, the opposition formed the National Liberal Union (NLS), which included the national liberal, republican, third national parties and the party of national liberation. This block won the NPK and the presidency was taken by National Liberal Roberto Francisco Chiary (1960-1964). In 1964, the elections won the Candidate of NLS Marco Aurelio Robles Mendez, who was ahead of A. Aarias. A coalition government was formed with the participation of all major parties, with the exception of Arnulfists, Christian Democrats and Socialists.

Since the late 1950s, mass demonstrations have unfolded in Panama demanding the return of the country's zone. In January 1964, US troops shot one of these manifestations. Under the pressure of the US public, the United States agreed to negotiate the revision of the status of the channel.

In 1967, President Robles Mendez concluded several new agreements with the United States, one of which provided for the sovereignty of Panama above the channel zone, but the opposition refused to ratify them. In November 1967, the government coalition broke up. In March 1968, Parliament dismissed Robles Mendez, but he did not obey this decision, and while in April the Supreme Court did not support the dismissed head of state, the "drochillation" remained in Panama.

The presidential election 1968 won A. Aarias, the main critic of agreements with the United States 1967. On October 1, he took the presidency, but already on October 11, he was shifted by the National Guard led by General Omar Torrichos Errhea. The activity of the parties was banned, Parliament was dissolved. Officially, the government was transferred to the temporary president of Demetrio Basilio Lakas (1969-1978), but in fact she moved into the hands of General Torrichos. The Constitution adopted in 1972 proclaimed the last "highest leader of the Panaman Revolution" and the head of government. She declared: "The territory of the country can never be given or alienated, temporarily or partially, a foreign state."

During the Torrichos period, hundreds of thousands of Hectares of the Earth were confiscated and transferred to peasants, transformations in the field of taxation, banking sphere, education were carried out. The government developed the public sector, adopted a law on labor and increased wages, created agricultural, transport and fishing cooperatives, nationalized (with compensation) ownership of US companies and expropriated the property of large local owners, took control of financial transactions outside the country.

In 1977, a new treaty was concluded between Panama and the USA under President J. Carter, which provided for the liquidation from October 1, 1979 the channel zones and the transfer of the Panama channel itself to 2000. Despite the fact that the possibility of US military presence to protect the channel was stipulated, a resolution was adopted About US Nearby in the internal affairs of Panama. The number of military bases on the territory of Panama decreased from 13 to 3.

In accordance with Torryhos promises, to restore democratic standards in the country, in August 1978 elections were held in the New National Assembly. After in October, Torrichos resigned from the post of the head of the government, the National Assembly conveyed power to the new president - Aristidees Royo Sanchez, the leader of the newly excited revolutionary-democratic party. He continued the independent line of Torrichos and supported the Sandinist Government Nicaragua, which caused US discontent.

In 1981, Torrichos, who remained the head of the National Guard, died as a result of a catastrophe with unclear circumstances. General Ruben Dario Paredes, headed by the National Guard in March 1982, was closely connected with US military circles. In August 1982, he made the early resignation of Royo Sanchez. The new president of Ricardo de la Espriel (1982-1984) promised to cooperate closely with the United States. After his resignation in February 1984, the head of the state was the former Vice-President Jorge Ilyuel Asumio.

In April 1983, defense forces were created instead of the National Guard in Panama. In August 1983, General Paredes, going to run into the presidency, resigned from the post of commander-in-chief of defensive forces. He was replaced by General Manuel Antonio Noriega, who was originally closely connected with the United States.

In the elections in May 1984, with the support of Norgi, Nicholas Ardito Barletta, Nicholas Ardito Barletta, nominated by the National Democratic Union, in which RDP, Liberal, Labor and Republican Party, and the People's Wide Front were entered. Only A. Aarias behind him slightly behind him, accusing the winner in travelers. President Barletta spoke with criticism of the IMF and a strict economic program dictated by Panama. In September 1985, under pressure from the opposition, Barletta resigned, His place was taken by Vice-President Eric Arturo Delval, a member of the Republican Party.

In the mid-1980s, General Noriega came out of US submission. After in June 1986, Panama defense forces seized the American vessel, which delivered weapons for antisandinian rebels in Nicaragua, the relations of Panama and the United States began to deteriorate rapidly. Unions of entrepreneurs, employees, workers and church organizations united in the National Civil Crusade and in June 1987 held large strikes and demonstrations, demanding the resignation of Noriegi. Supported by his trade unions organized a response procession, after which a state of emergency was introduced in the country.

The opposition requirements were supported by the United States, who accused Nortiga in involvement in drug trafficking and strengthened the diplomatic pressure on Panama. February 25, 1988 President Delval was dismantled by Norway from the post of commander-in-chief forces of defense. But the parliament of the country did not recognize this decision and dismissed the Delval himself, replacing him by Manuel Solis Palma. Delval fled to the United States.

The presidential election in May 1989 passed in a tense atmosphere of mutual intimidation and threats to American sanctions. Government candidate Carlos Duke, who was supported by the RDP, Agrarian-Labor, Labor, Republican and Revolutionary Panana Party, the Democratic Party of Workers, the Party of National Actions, People's Party (Communists), etc., opposed the Arnulfist Guillermo Endara. The latter also enlisted the support of Christian Democrats, Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement, as well as the US patronage. Both applicants declared their victory; There were collisions between their supporters. As a result, the National Voting Tribunal revoked the voting results. In September 1989, Francisco Rodriguez was announced a temporary president, and in December, Nortega became the head of government with emergency powers.

December 19-20, 1989 American troops invaded Panama. As a result, more than 50 thousand people remained as a result of airbobes. According to official data of the United States, more than 200 civilians and more than 300 Panaman soldiers, however, human rights organizations call a number of 3-5 thousand dead Panamans. Noriega was captured and taken away in the United States, where he was sentenced to a long-term imprisonment. The claims of Panaman citizens to the American administration with the requirement of damages were rejected by the American courts.

The conquering forces of the United States handed over the power of the Endara, declaring it by the winner of the elections 1989. However, the majority of the population did not trust his regime, considering it by the default of the intervention. Already in 1990, demonstrations against the new government were held, in which 50-100 thousand people participated. They condemned the United States and American military presence, demanded to stop the exploratory sale of public sector enterprises to US companies. In December 1990, there was an attempt at the state coup, suppressed by American troops. In August 1991, the Christian-Democratic Party was published from the government of the Endar. In 1992, the regime was defeated on the referendum on the change in the Constitution of 1972, without achieving, in particular, supporting the proposal for the prohibition of the regular army. The ruling camp continued to fall apart: at the end of 1993, the NDLD party refused to support the government candidate for the upcoming elections.

In 1994, the victory in the presidential election won a member of the RDP Ernesto Perez Ballades, supported by the Liberal and Republican and Labor Party. He collected more than 33% of the vote and was ahead of the M.E.Moskoso from the Unulfice, Liberal, Genuine-Liberal Party and the Independent Democratic Union (more than 29%). Over 17% of the vote went to the leader of the Indian movement "Papa Egoro" Ruben Blondes. Joining the presidential post, Perez Ballades (1994-1999) promised to achieve national reconciliation, to ensure the independence of legal proceedings, to deal with speculation and drug trafficking. He pardon more than 220 political prisoners, including supporters of Nortie. The President announced its intention to carry out more cautious economic policies. However, in reality, he continued neoliberal reforms that strengthened social contradictions and caused widespread discontent. More than a third of the population lived in poverty. The president made it clear that Panama could extend the stay of American troops in the channel zone after 2000 in exchange for appropriate concessions.

The country's parliament in 1994 adopted a constitutional amendment about the elimination of the armed forces and the transfer of their police functions. In 1998, the Government of Peres Balladars suffered a political failure, when most of the referendum participants refused to agree with him and supported by the Parliament, the point of the possibility of direct re-election of the president for a second term.

Presidential elections 1999 won the opposition candidate M.E.Moscoso, gathered almost 45% of the vote.

Mirereya Alice Moskoso Rodriguez - the first woman in this post, widow former president Arnulfo Arias. Born in 1946, helped Arias in the 1968 election campaign and accompanied him in emigration, studied the economy and design. In the late 1980s, he returned to Panama, in 1991 he was elected chairman of the Arnulfist Party, 1994 and 1999 put forward his candidacy in the presidential election.

A government representative, Martin Torrichos, the Son of the former military leader, gathered about 38%. However, the RDP accompanied the success in parliamentary elections.

In September 1999, Moskoso entered the presidency, stating that Panama intends to solely ensure the safety of the channel and is not going to negotiate with any country on the presence of foreign military bases on its territory. On December 31, 1999, US passed Panama full sovereignty over the Panaman Canal and the surrounding zone.

Panama in the 21st century

From January 1, 2000, the management of the Panaman Canal passed into the hands of the administration, which is headed guiding Council Of the 11th directors approved by the Panama authorities.

The government of M.E.Moscoso, mainly continued the policy of his predecessors. During its presidency, the government switched from the liberalization program to the liquidation program. Social insurance was increased; Made serious concessions in wage issues. Additional profits that gave the services sector were used to finance trade deficit. Prerequisites for introducing in 2004 in the political system of Panama of a number of new elements were developed, including the provision of votes to Panamans, located abroad, the introduction of a 30% representation of women in elected posts, direct election of deputies to the Parliament of Central America and the mandatory resignation of persons occupying state Posts, in case of nomination of candidates for elections.

In 2001, a diplomatic conflict between Cuba and Panama emerged, the reason for which the decision of the Panaman authorities was released to freedom of four Cubans, whom Havana accused of preparing an attempt on Castro. In addition, Havana suspected one of the detainees in Panama terrorists in the organization of the explosion in 1976 the aircraft of the Cuban airline, which killed 73 people. Castro did not achieve the extradition of criminals from Panaman authorities. Moreover, a few days before his departure from the post of President Panama, the President of the country of Mirere Moskoso released the detainees of Cubans to freedom. According to one of the versions, this decision was made at the request of the American administration.

The restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries occurred only at the next presidency, in 2005.

In the presidential election in May 2004, Martin Torichos won the victory, the leader of the Alliance "Pathology Nueva" ("New Rodina"), which includes such parties as the revolutionary-democratic party, which in the 70s founded his father-general Omar Torrichos, Former President Panama and the People's Party, previously - Demohistanskaya. He received more than 47% of voters.

Other parties seeking representative office in parliament were the nationalist republican liberal movement (prayed), the movement of Papa Ehoro, the Christian-Democratic Party, the party is a civil renewal, a genuine liberal party, etc.

The administration of President Martin Torrichos reached significant success. For 5 years of his presidency, the level of poverty in the country decreased by 5% and amounted to 28% in 2008; There were shifts in the distribution of income. A huge contribution was made to create a picture of Panama as the Financial and Trade Center of Latin America. In October 2006, Torrichos offered a plan of one of the largest investment projects in Latin America - Expansion of the Panama Canal. On the referendum held on this issue, the plan was supported by the majority of the population.

The total cost of the project is 5.25 billion dollars. As expected, work on the expansion of the transport artery connecting the quiet and Atlantic Oceanswill last until 2014. Modernization will double the bandwidth of the Panama channel up to 600 million tons of cargo per year and will provide an opportunity to serve especially big ships.

In May 2009, the New President Panama became Multimillionaire, a member of the Conservative Party "Democratic Changes" Riccardo Martinelli, who collected about 60% of the votes. In the election, he represented the Alliance for Changes. For a candidate from the ruling revolutionary-democratic party, Balbina Errera voted more than 30% of voters.

Martinelli in the elections promised to curb corruption and crime. However, first of all, the new president will have to deal with economic problems, first of all related to the Panaman Canal, which accounts for a third of all tax revenues to the country's budget. Currently, the number of ships passing through it markedly decreased.

Literature:

Kravts N.A. Panama. M., 1968.
Panama. 1903-1970.. M., 1974.
Panama is struggling. M., 1978.

Highlights

The majority of the Panama population (67%) make up the Spanish-Indian methuses. The remains of the Indian tribes (Kunas, Chocamis and Guiyamis) make up only 7%, they live mainly in hard-to-reach areas. About 15% make up blacks. The bulk of the population occupied in the service sector is concentrated in the zone adjacent to the channel. There are also the largest cities in the capital of Panama and the city of Colon.

Panama is a tropical country with violent evergreen vegetation, wet and hot climate with very smooth temperature fluctuations. On the coast there are many picturesque bays and bays. More than one and a half thousand coral islands fade over. Often, Panama is called the kingdom of butterflies (more than 1,100 species).

Nature and climate

sights

The most famous landmark of the country is Panama Canal. Tourists have the opportunity to examine it from the Miraflores gateway. Here you can see how the ships pass through the canal, and visit the museum where the film is shown about his story. It is also possible to admire the bridge, which connects South and North America.

A little east of Panama City is located the first city founded by Europeans on the shore of the Pacific Ocean - Panama Vieho. Despite the devastating pirate raid in 1671, several churches of the XVII-XVIII centuries are surprisingly preserved here., University, Royal Bridge. Panama Viejo was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1997.

Colon - the second largest city of Panama. Among its most famous attractions are the statue of Christ for Avenida-Central, Columbus statue, the first Protestant Church of Columbia. And of course, the duty-free trade of the column will be a duty-free trade in the tourist, with an annual turnover of more than $ 10,000,000.

The east of the colon is the city of Portobella, based on Christopher himself Columbomby. It is famous for the Forts of the XVIII century, which are four here. But a good condition, and, as a result, only two of them can boast of accessibility.

Nature lovers will not leave indifferent Daryaen National Park, where more than 500 species of birds and more than 200 species of large mammals live on an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 5,500 km2. It is pleasant to surprise the shipment price of the National Park - only $ 3.

In the south-west Panama is the village of Buke, the famous annual ten-day exhibition of coffee and colors. Beech begins the well-known Ketzal-Trail route, which will lead to the village of Cell-Punta. This is the most high mountain village of Panama. The unique ruins of an ancient city have been preserved around the Black Punta, which was destroyed in 600 of our era by eruption of the Baru Volcano. In addition, traveling on the Ketzal-Trail route, you can visit some Indian villages that have survived to this day.

Kitchen

Traditional Panama cuisine is a certain synthesis of Spanish and Indian dishes. The basis of nutrition is corn, rice, meat, beans. All sorts of spices, seasonings and sauces are served to dishes separately, which is the undoubted plus for tourists. Very often, fried bananas are served as a garnish to meat. Interestingly, many dishes Panamans are not served in plates, but in maize pellets.

It is characteristic of Panaman cuisine a huge amount of fish. By the way, the word "Panama" itself from one of the Indian adverbs translates as "a place where a lot of fish". Here you can try both the types of fish, such as tuna, and exotic. For example, such a fish as Tiburoon is difficult to separate even a strong man.

Eating food traditionally completes coffee, which drink from small cups, as this drink is very strong here.

Accommodation

Numerous Panama hotels offer accommodation, ranging from a budget version and ending with a chic number in a five-star hotel. So, night in a single meal room in a three-star hotel will cost about $ 40. In a five-star hotel, about $ 210 will have to pay for the same service. There is an option to rent housing in a private manner. The cost of renting a one-room apartment near Panama City is approximately $ 260 per month.

Entertainment and recreation

Kuna-Yala Mosquito - the most popular Panama Beach. It has more than 350 islands. Whole beach is covered with white sand. The only minus Kuna-Yala mosquito is a ban on scuba diving. Compensates this ban Isla Koyba Beach, specially designed for diving. Water luxury lovers will be interested to try themselves in Kayaking - especially popular in Panama sport. Kayaking resembles a swimming in a single kayak. Such swimming in a relaxed lagoon allows you to fully enjoy picturesque landscapes. For lovers, Extreme is kayaking on mountain rivers.

In February, flocks are suitable for the shores of Las Pearl large fishwho migrate to the Panama Bay. At this time of the year, fishing is especially successful here. Catch can be sea Yershi, Dorado, tuna. In August, the coast of the Pacific Ocean often can not be seen humpback whales.

In August, the traditional folklore festival is held in Panama City. Here you can see folk theatrical productions, hear national music, buy souvenirs handmade. In June, the Los Santos is held by the religious folklore holiday "Corpus Christi". The holiday combines Catholic and folk motifs. The brightest moment is a religious procession on the street, filled with live flowers.

Numerous nightclubs, bars and restaurants are located on the metropolitan streets of Uruguay and Zone Viva. There are also nightclubs in which you can learn to dance Salsa, for example, the club "Havana Panama".

In January, Indian Festival "Los Balservservation" is held in January. This is the most colorful procession of ethnic minorities Panama, where you can admire the national clothes of the Indians, listen to traditional music and even dance.

Purchases

The largest shopping center Panama Albruck-Mall is located near the Panama Canal. The center combines both expensive boutiques and small stores of local goods. In the season, sales can be made favorable purchases, for example, get a new set of branded clothing within $ 100. Not far from the center is the bus station, from where buses go to all cities of Panama.

The price level for all-consuming goods is low here. It is noteworthy that many American pensioners move into Panama precisely because the price level is lower than in America.

Transport

Panama is most convenient to reach the plane. The international airport is located 17 km from the capital. You can also go to the country, but the reception of international transport is performed only by one port. Intercity mini buses run, the main minus of which is the irregularity of flights. In Panama there is also the possibility of renting a car. International driver's license and credit card are needed for renting a car. The age of the driver of the leased transport must be more than 23 years. The state of Panaman Roads is considered one of the best in Latin America.

IN major cities The movement of buses is organized. To move around the city you can use a taxi. The cost of the trip is made to negotiate in advance.

Communication

Practically in all cities Panama has an Internet cafe. The cost of one hour in the World Wide Web - approximately $ 1.

For subscribers of the main cellular operators, roaming is available on the territory of Panama. The cost of the call and SMS is determined by the cellular operator.

On the streets of large cities, telephones are installed. The cost of cards for calls range from 10 to $ 50.

Safety

The crime rate in Panama is high enough. Recently, the amount of theft and fraud has increased, so tourists should be vigilant. It is not recommended to visit distant areas of cities alone. Traveling between cities On small courts may also be dangerous, as there are cases of a transimate in such drug transport. The state has no ban on prostitution, so you should be careful when dating in nightclubs.

Business climate

The Panama employs 110 international banks, which makes the country by the International Banking Services Center, open for investment. Tax benefits are provided for individuals and enterprises that are engaged in the development of the tourism sector and infrastructure in the country. There are more than 40 laws in the republic, which are designed to protect foreign business. For example, non-disclosure of banking information and the provision of equal opportunities for both local and foreign companies.

The property

The cost of the apartment in Panama directly depends on its location. The price of an apartment is up to 80 m² in one of the housing complexes Panama City ranges from 65-10 thousand $. At the same time, for such an apartment, but located on the coast, you will have to pay about $ 175 thousand. The villa on the coast will cost approximately $ 900 thousand.

To purchase real estate in Panama, it is not necessary to be a resident of this country. It is necessary to deposit in the amount of from 2 to 10% of the value of the real estate object, pay the remaining amount, sign the contract of sale, as well as to carry out a notarial design of the transaction.

The local population speaks primarily in Spanish. English here is a few, therefore, the Russian-Spanish phrasebook will be alike.

The sun in Panama is pretty aggressively, the difference between the night and day air temperature is only +5 s °, so it is necessary to purchase protection against ultraviolet rays.

Visa

Tourist visa to Panama is issued for a period of no more than 90 days. The consular fee is $ 75. Citizens of Belarus and Ukraine can visit the country with a goal of tourism without a visa. When? If the tourist has a valid Schengen visa, you do not need to open a visa to Panama.

Address of the Panama Embassy in Moscow: Mosfilmovskaya st., 50, Corp. 1. Phones (+7 495) 956-0729, 234-3671, 234-2951

Politics

The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by a general vote for a five-year term. In 1999, the President of Mire of Alice Moskoso Rodriguez was elected president - the first woman in this post, the widow of the former president Arnulfo Arias. Born in 1946, helped Arias in the 1968 election campaign and accompanied him in emigration, studied the economy and design. In the late 1980s, he returned to Panama, in 1991 he was elected chairman of the Arnulfist Party, 1994 and 1999 put forward his candidacy in the presidential election.

Panama consists of nine provinces (Daryaen, Panama, Colon, Kokoney, Herrera, Los Santos, Veragas, Bocas del Toro, Chiriki) and Indian Territory San Blas. Governors of provinces and municipal authorities are appointed by the president.

Economy

Since the 1950s, on the initiative of the government, Panama began to expand the sphere of its services. In 1953, a free trade zone was created in the port of the city, where foreign companies could be duty free to enjoy warehouses for transit cargo and other services. By the beginning of the 1980s, the column turned into one of the largest free trade zones, yielding only Hong Kong, and became the second to value the source of Panama income. Here were engaged in entrepreneurial activities more than 350 firms, mostly North American. Thanks to the new banking laws adopted in 1970, Panama became the sixth largest financial center for the beginning of the 1980s.

Panama and Color cities that have become the centers servicing international transit, absorb half the entire working force of the country and give 2/3 of GDP. Panama is concentrated in the manufacturing industry. From the mid-1970s, the Panaman government began to encourage the development of the national industry; In 1976, a financial corporation was founded to attract private investment in industry. However, despite all measures, by 1999, industrial products of Panama did not exceed 17% of GDP. At this time, agriculture in which 28% of the able-bodied population was employed, provided 7% of GDP. Although in the 1960-190s, the share of agriculture in the economy of the country has been steadily reduced, in 1983 it brought 54% of export revenues. For 2002, export revenues amounted to $ 5.8 billion.

In 2002, the inner gross product Panama amounted to $ 18.06 billion or $ 6,200. In terms of per capita. This is the highest indicator among Central America. During the 1970s, Panama GDP increased by approximately 6%, with the exception of the 1972-1976 period. In 1980-1986, an annual economic growth was 2.7%, which generally complied with the growth of the country's population. By 2002, this figure decreased to 0.7%. Panama GDP began to detect signs of growth with the election of the President of the Economist and Entrepreneur Ernesto Perez Ballades in 1994. The high level of unemployment is also preserved - 16% of the working-age population. The main reason for the economic difficulties of Panama is to pay high interest on external debt.

Culture

Panama culture developed on a Spanish basis, experiencing significant influences of African, Indian and North American cultures. The cultural center of the country is the capital, where the University of Panama is located (Osn. 1935), the National Museum of Panama (Osn. 1925) and the National Library (OWN in 1892). The Ministry of Education is headed by the Department of Fine Arts, contains museums and cultural monuments, implements a wide publishing program and organizes musical and theatrical views.

Folk music and choreography Panama are distinguished by a large genre variety. One of the most common folk dances is Tamborito. This pair dance, executed under the accompaniment of drums and cotton in your hands, is accompanied by a song rising to 17 V. Mehorana, the song-choreographic genre of Spanish origin, is executed collectively under the accompaniment of two five-stringed guitars (Mehoraras); Its main elements - Sapateo (Chechet) and Paseo (procession). Another popular song-dance genre, Punto, is distinguished by mobile cheerful melody. The emblem of the National Folklore became Kumbia - the dance of African American origin. Folk musical instrument includes in addition to five-string guitars, a three-stronfree violin called Ravel, drums, rattles of dried pumpkin (maracas) and a wooden xylophone marimba; In urban folk ensembles, classic violin, cello and spanish guitar are used. The National Conservatory was founded in 1940. The capital has created a national symphony orchestra.

From Panaman artists, the most famous painter and sculptor Roberto Lewis (1874-1949) and Umberto Ivaldi (1909-1947). Poets Gaspar Oktavio Hernandez (1893-1918) and Ricardo Miro (1883-1940) became the nasal literature. The largest figure of Panaman literature is a poet, Prose, Essuraist Rokhelyo Sinin (P.1904), author of the famous novel Magica, 1977).

Children from 7 to 15 should visit free public schools. The basis of higher education is two metropolitan universities: Panama University (40 thousand students) and founded in 1965 Catholic University of Santa Maria La Antigua (3,900 students).

History

Soon the first president of Panama Manuel Amador Gerrero (1904 - 1908) signed the Hay-Buno-Crow agreement, according to which the United States received "for eternal times" all the rights to build and operate the channel together with the right of unlimited control over the land strip through the experiments 10 miles wide and The right interference in the internal affairs of the state. For a long time, this agreement actually turned Panama to the US Protectorate. An agreement with the United States was revised in 1936 and 1955, but the United States retained control over the channel zone. Under the supervision of the American Armed Forces, elections were held in 1908, 1912 and 1918. American troops occupied the cities of Panama and Colon (1918) and the province of Chirik (1918-1920), they suppressed social protests and strikes in Panama in the 1920s. The country's economy was completely depending on American firms and companies.

In 1940, the representative of the "Genuine RNP" Arnulfo Arias Madrid was elected president of Panama. He put into circulation national currency and paper banknotes, proclaimed a new constitution, which increased the term of presidential powers. In foreign policy, he, seeking greater independence from the United States, tried to develop relations with Germany and Italy. In 1941, A. Aarias was accused of dictatorial aspirations and protashist sympathies and overthrown by the National Guard. President Ricardo Adolfo de la Gardia (1941-1945), a representative of the RDI, allowed the United States to create 134 military bases for the protection of the channel on the territory of the War in Panama.

Before the election of the 1952 batch of liberals, reformists, RNP, a genuine revolutionary party, marked from Arias, and the People's Union united into the National Patriotic Coalition (NPK), which put forward by Kantera's colonel. Having won, he began negotiations with the United States to revise the Treaty regarding the Panama Canal. But on the eve of the signing of the agreement in 1955, he was killed. The contract did not differ significantly from the 1903 contract, but increased the rent until 1930 thousand dollars. In the presidential election, 1956, the Candidate of NPK - Ernesto de La Guardia Navarro (1956-1960) defeated.

December 19-20, 1989 American troops invaded Panama. As a result, more than 50 thousand people remained as a result of airbobes. According to official data from the United States, more than 200 civilians and more than 300 Panaman soldiers died, but human rights organizations call a number of 3-5 thousand dead Panamans. Noriega was captured and taken away in the United States, where he was sentenced to a long-term imprisonment. The claims of Panaman citizens to the American administration with the requirement of damages were rejected by the American courts.

Presidential elections 1999 won the opposition candidate M.E.Moscoso, gathered almost 45% of the vote. A government representative, Martin Torrichos, the Son of the former military leader, gathered about 38%. However, the RDP accompanied the success in parliamentary elections. In September 1999, Moskoso entered the presidency, stating that Panama intends to solely ensure the safety of the channel and is not going to negotiate with any country on the presence of foreign military bases on its territory. On December 31, 1999, US passed Panama full sovereignty over the Panaman Canal and the surrounding zone.

From January 1, 2000, the management of the Panaman Canal has passed into the hands of the administration, which is headed by the Steering Council out of 11 directors approved for 9 years of Panama authorities.

The government of M.E.Moscoso, mainly continues the policy of its predecessors. It must be in power up to the following general elections, which will be held in 2004. Starting from this date, a number of new elements should be introduced into the political system of Panama, including the provision of votes to Panamans, which are abroad, the introduction of 30% representation of women in elected posts , Direct election of deputies to the Parliament of Central America and the mandatory resignation of persons occupying state posts, in case of nomination of candidacy for elections.

The restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries occurred only at the next presidency, in 2005.

The administration of President Martin Torrichos reached significant success. For 5 years of his presidency, the level of poverty in the country decreased by 5% and amounted to 28% in 2008; There were shifts in the distribution of income. A huge contribution was made to create a picture of Panama as the Financial and Trade Center of Latin America. In October 2006, Torrichos proposed a plan of one of the largest investment projects in Latin America - the expansion of the Panama Canal. On the referendum held on this issue, the plan was supported by the majority of the population.

The total cost of the project is 5.25 billion dollars. As expected, work on the expansion of the transport artery connecting the quiet and the Atlantic Oceans will last until 2014. Modernization will double the bandwidth of the Panaman channel to 600 million tons of cargo per year and will give the opportunity to serve especially large courts.

Exotic Panama - a country located on the border between the central and South America. It is located on the Panama Isthmus and practically hesitated between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.

In the north, the country borders with Costa Rica, and in the south - with Colombia. The name of the country is translated from the Kueva Indian language as "a place where a lot of fish." This immediately suggests that it is the basis of the state economy. is the city of the same name, which is sometimes called Panama City.

The first residents of this territory were the Indians tribes Guayami, Choco and Kuna. Then the European Panama history period begins. IN beginning of XVI The centuries occurred the first contacts of local natives with the Spaniards, in particular, Christopher Columbus.

Climatic features and nature of the country

The climate throughout the country is a subequatorial, so the rainy season here lasts long enough - from May to December. And from December-January to mid-April, tourists will be able to enjoy dry weather. The air temperature ranges within + 25 ... + 28 ° C all year round, varying in winter and summer time within 2-3 degrees. The rains go more intensely in the foothills of the Caribbean coast, where tropical hurricanes often raise.

If you look at the photo Panama, shot from the plane or satellite, then you will see why the locals are proud of their amazing nature. The relief here is predominantly uneven, with many elevations. Through the entire central part of the country, the mountain range extends, on both sides, bordered by coastal lowlands, and Jungle Panama please travelers with their luxurious vegetation and rich fauna. From birds here you can see the sacred Indian bird Ketzal, the largest feathered predator of the planet - Eagle Garpy, many parrots, herds and Tukanov. Panama also explores such animals as monkeys, pums, amusements, sloths, ocelot, deer, bakers, armadors, alligators, snakes and kinka.

The highest point of the country is considered (3475 m), located in the province of Chiriki. Between the mountain ridges of the Western and Eastern Panama Panama laid the famous, breakthrough in the lowest side of the car.

And for Caribbean, and for the Pacific coasts, it is characterized by the presence of deep bays and small islets located near the sushi. Some of the most famous in Panama - where the pearls have been mined for several centuries.

State system and symbolism

In the Democratic Republic of Panama head of state and government is the president. He appoints the Cabinet of Ministers, and the president and vice president himself are elected to their post with a nationwide vote after a five-year term. The legislature of the state of Panama is a unicameral National Assembly. The country consists of 10 provinces and includes 3 autonomous areas - mosquitoes. The coat of arms and the Panama flag look quite interesting. In the central part of the coat of arms, there is an image of the Panama isthmus, a rifle and a silver sword are drawn in the upper two quarters, in the lower quarters - a bird and a villium horn.

The country flag consists of two white, blue and red rectangles, symbolizing the conservative and liberal batch. Two stars are drawn on a white background: blue and red.

National Currency Panama - Balboa, which is produced by the dignity of 1 and 5 Balboa. However, in practice, the American dollar is used more often during calculations.

Panama's population, as the census shows, is very soluble in its composition. Its most of it is the descendants of the indigenous Indian population and Spanish colonialists who join the marriages. The official language of Panama is Spanish, but many local residents also own English and French.

The largest cities of the country

The largest city is located on the Pacific coast, with a population of over 1 million people. The basis of its economy is the banking sector, the construction of real estate, transport and services. Most exports and imports in Panama passes through the port of the city, located at the entrance to the Panama Canal. But this is not the only important transport node countries. On the Caribbean coast of Panama, competing him is a column associated with the capital also high-speed highway and railway.

Resort life of the country

Importation of any currency is not limited, but amounts of over $ 10000 and gold jewelry should be made to the declaration. It is impossible to import vegetables, perishable products, fruits, drugs, weapons. You don't need to pay a duty if you are carrying out with you no more than 500 g tobacco, gifts worth not more than $ 50, three bottles of alcohol and as many vials of perfumery products.

In Panama two climatic belts: Nizin (including Panama City) with wet tropical climat and mountain regions where the average (Spring ") temperature without exhausting heat and strong cold weather. In the lowlands, the average daily temperature of 25-30 degrees, evenings becomes cooler. ...

In Panama, two climatic belts: lowlands (including Panama City) with a wet tropical climate and mountain regions, where the average (Spring ") temperature without exhausting heat and strong cold weather. In the lowlands, the average daily temperature of 25-30 degrees, evenings becomes cooler. IN mountainous areas Temperature can be from 10 to 27 degrees.

In Panama, two seasons: dry and wet. Dry season lasts from mid-December to May, wet - from May to December. During the dry season, rain is very rare, during wet - after dinner, it usually rains. The rain usually does not go all day, so it is not a serious obstacle to tourists. The exception is the islands of the Bocas del Toro and the mountain region by a bookhek. The beam may rain periodically. In the boolee September and October are the most rainy months.

Climate Panama

The subequatorial belt defines the Panama climate almost throughout its territory. Throughout all twelve months in a year, it is wet and hot here, and changes in average monthly temperatures usually do not exceed 1-2 degrees. The roast region is the Pacific coast, there are temperature indicators higher than 3-4 degrees than in common country. In the central regions of the country, which prevails the mountain relief, the average daily air temperature by 6-7 degrees is lower than in coastal areas. Also for Panama climate is characterized by year-round high humidity. During the year on the Pacific coast, up to 2,000 mm of precipitation falls, and on the Caribbean coast and on the northern slopes of the mountains, the annual number reaches 3500 mm. The rainy season continues from May to December, and a short dry season lasts here from December to mid-April. The best time for a trip to Panama is a dry season, since with the arrival of the rain, the movement in the country turns into a real torture. At this time, the shower, although short, but very strong, and then the sun quickly dries the ground, saturating the air moisture.

Winter in Panama is hot and almost without precipitation. In December and January, the average temperature is + 30 ... + 31 ° C day and + 23 ... + 25 ° С at night. On the Panama coast of the Caribbean Sea, the temperature change during the day is not as noticeable. Warm air masses and warm currents fully determine the weather in Panama in winter. In February, in Panama, the temperature indicators rise slightly and reach + 31 ... + 32 ° C during daytime and + 24 ° C in the night. The amount of falling precipitation in winter is slightly. The water temperature at this time of the year is kept at + 26 ° C.

Panama winter smoothly goes into the spring, while the temperature of the air and water almost does not change. In March, the thermometer column holds at + 31 ... + 32 ° F, and + 24 ... + 25 ° С at night. In April and May in Panama, the average daytime temperature is + 31 ... + 33 ° C, and the night reaches + 25 ... + 26 ° C. Due to the start of the rainy season, the weather in Panama in spring from sunny can become rainy, but at the same time the temperature remains Stably high. The precipitation in March and April in Panama is insignificant. The amount of rains increases sharply, starting from mid-May. The temperature of the water on the coast of the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean in March is kept at + 25 ° C, and in April and May Water warms up to + 26 ° C.

Summer is the rainy season. At this time of the year, the humidity of the air is improved, stuffy and hot. In June and July, average temperature indicators are + 30 ... + 31 ° C day and + 24 ... + 25 ° С at night. In August, in Panama, the temperature is usually lowered by 1-2 degrees and equals + 29 ... + 30 ° C and + 23 ... + 24 ° C, respectively. It is believed that the weather in Panama does not have to travel to tourist trips. In the summer, a large amount of precipitation falls throughout the state. The temperature of the water in Panaman coast in June is + 26 ° C, in July heated to + 27 ° C and in August is cooled to + 26 ° C.