Synopsis of morphological norms of the Russian language. Morphological norms of the Russian language. Genitive plural nouns
Morphological norms of the Russian language are norms associated with the features of the formation of forms various parts speech.
Difficult cases of using a noun
gender of nouns
In Russian, the gender of nouns is determined not only by its meaning, that is, on the basis of the real gender of the persons or animals called the noun, but also on the basis of the formal factor - at the end of the nominative case singular.
There are 4 groups of nouns in relation to the gender category: masculine, feminine, neuter and common.
Masculine nouns are nouns that end in a solid consonant ( verb, wolf) or suffix -tel ( guardian, denominator), borrowed words in –l, -r, -n ( aerosol, shampoo), as well as the names of the months; feminine gender includes nouns ending in -а, -я and ending in a soft consonant and hissing ( rye, corn); neuter gender includes nouns ending in -o, -e ( removal, minority), on –me ( banner, time) and the word child.
Common nouns include words with the ending -а, -я, which can denote both female and male persons, depending on who is being spoken about ( grump, greedy, bully, touchy, rake, dupe, clever). If common nouns denote persons as male, then they agree with adjectives, pronouns and verbs in the masculine gender, if they denote female persons, then, accordingly, they agree with these parts of speech in the feminine gender ( Kolya is such a know-it-all. Lena is such a sweetheart).
Masculine nouns denoting females by profession, occupation ( doctor, professor, accountant, cashier, director, architect, librarian, deputy, foreman, veterinarian, manager etc.) can agree with the verb in the feminine form, and in recent decades in literary language this trend dominates Our strict director has always taken discipline seriously).
Kind of abbreviations most often determined by the key word ( IMF (fund) received interest on loans). In some cases, if the word has a long tradition of use, it is difficult to decipher by a native speaker and appearance resembles a word of some kind, its gender can be determined by analogy. (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministry) received a note of protest).
Gender of borrowed nouns, if they are indeclinable, is determined primarily by the meaning of the word, correlated with the category of animation - inanimateness. Most indeclinable inanimate nouns of foreign origin are neuter, for example: bureau, ghetto, depot, jelly, mango, metro, coat, puree, stew, sago, jam, dressing table, fillet, jury, slang, foyer, interview.
An exception are nouns, the gender of which is determined by the gender of similar Russian words. These are nouns avenue (cf. street - f.r.), kohlrabi (cf. cabbage - f.r.), penalty (cf. free kick - m.r.), salami (cf. sausage - f.r.).
Pay special attention to the noun coffee, which for centuries should have been used in Russian only as a masculine word (once, in the 18th century, this word was pronounced and written as a masculine word - coffee or coffee). In modern literary language it is considered acceptable in oral colloquial speech by analogy with other borrowed nouns, use coffee as a neuter word. However, it should be taken into account that educated, intelligent people still use this word more often in the masculine gender.
Animated borrowed indeclinable nouns are masculine or feminine, depending on the gender of the designated person. Therefore nouns attache, bourgeois, dandy, impresario, entertainer, croupier, maestro, rentier, porter- masculine and lady, frau, madam, miss, pani- female.
Animated borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting animals are masculine, unless it is specifically stated that female is meant. For example: A white cockatoo was sitting on a branch, a little pony was walking, a pink flamingo could be seen in the distance; but A hummingbird laid a tiny egg, a kangaroo carried a baby in a pouch.
Borrowed indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names belong to the same gender as nouns - generic concepts ( lake, mountain, city etc.): picturesque Missouri, full-flowing Orinoco, beautiful Ontario, lively Montevideo.
In Russian, there is a group of nouns whose gender cannot be determined, since they do not have a singular form: gate, name day, holidays, pants and etc.
Exercises.
Exercise 1.Make up the phrases "noun + adjective" with the given words, independently choosing adjectives of the appropriate gender.
Avenue, aerosol, parcel, meringue, borjomi, sconce, bourgeois, veil, riding breeches, house, jury, cockatoo, kohlrabi, coffee, lady, salmon, menu, callus, mocha, moth, penalty, pony, purse, salami, tulle, flamingo, foyer, frau, tsetse, shampoo, San Francisco, Nagasaki, Mississippi, Tbilisi, Tokyo, Ontario, Delhi.
Exercise 2. From the following nouns, write out the indeclinable ones, determine their gender. Which words have gender fluctuations? Which words only have a form plural?
Curler, bikini, biennale, bureau, whiskey, tour, ghetto, depot, child, domino, blinds, jelly, koala, coffee, mango, subway, coat, jam, journeyman, puree, stew, soprano, spaghetti, dressing table, fillet, hippie.
Exercise 3. Divide nouns into three groups: 1) feminine nouns; 2) masculine nouns; 3) common nouns.
Attache, author, jury, bulldozer, mediocrity, grouche, counterpart, bigwig, doctor, head, thug, dandy, greedy, victim, bully, arrogant, boss, snake, impresario, incognito, cockatoo, hummingbird, entertainer, croupier, maestro, touchy, playboy, porter, protege, dupe, pig, sweet tooth, servant, penny, jersey, daredevil, warden, judge, toastmaster, travesty, smart girl, chimpanzee, sneak, taxi, Hindi.
Exercise 4Define the type of abbreviation. Decipher these abbreviations
UN, USA, RUVD, HPS, ZhEK, ZhSK, SPbSPU, CIS, BDT, FIFA, VGTRK, STSI, minimum wage, GDP, LDPR, IMF, ZAGS, OVIR.
Declension of nouns
proper names. Some difficulties in declension of nouns can arise in connection with proper names, since not all proper nouns change in cases. This applies primarily to Russian surnames ending in -yh, -ih, -ago, -yago, -evo, and Ukrainian surnames ending in -ko, for example: Black, Bad, Durnovo, Zhivago, Solovago, Chernenko, Vasilenko, Kovunenko, Shevchenko.
The problem of declension of proper nouns is connected primarily with foreign proper names. It should be remembered that foreign proper nouns (names and geographical names) ending in a vowel do not change in cases, for example: Orly, Erie, Falcone, Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Domenico El Greco, Filippino Lippi, Géricault, Olivier, Consuelo, Audrey, Lee. Foreign male surnames ending in a consonant, unlike surnames ending in a vowel, are inclined, for example: Peter Paul Rubens - Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck - about Anthony van Dyck, Balzac - Balzac, Charles Dickens - Charles Dickens. Foreign languages also do not change in cases female names and surnames ending in a hard consonant, and ending in a hard consonant foreign and Russian female surnames, for example: Kaufman, Vivienne, Carmen, Voynich, Topar, Kogan, Avlas, Windmill, Baronchuk, Bogorad, Lilich.
Exercises.
Exercise 1. Open the brackets, form the correct form of proper nouns.
I really like the works (Erich-Maria Remarque);
He never agreed with (Charles Darwin) and his theory;
Our firm signed a contract with the director of Gazprom (Alexey Miller);
Yesterday negotiations took place between the presidents of Russia and France (Dmitry Medvedev) and (Nicolas Sarkozy);
The director has already received from (Nicole Kidman) consent to participate in the filming;
This is not the first visit (Orhan Pamuk) to our country;
The duel that took place between (Pushkin) and (Dantes) ended tragically for the Russian poet;
The journalist interviewed a famous Russian artist (Andrey Makarevich), a State Duma deputy (Pavel Medvedev) and a writer (Victoria Tokareva);
She was an ardent admirer of creativity (Georges Sand).
The category of animation - inanimateness is based on the distinction between living and inanimate, but grammar does not always correspond to this principle. So, in Russian the word dead man- animated, and the word dead body- inanimate. Animate nouns have the same plural forms of the accusative and genitive cases, while inanimate nouns do not. For example:
Exercises.
Exercise 1.Open the brackets, choose the correct form of the noun
We study (bacteria / bacteria).
"Domestos" kills (all known microbes / all known microbes).
From the crime report: “This morning, passers-by found in the park (corpse / corpse, dead / dead).
Children in the park flew (kite / kite).
It seemed to him that at the end of the alley he saw (ghost / ghost).
The writer introduced (new character / new character) into the story.
He loved (his teddy bear) so much.
The fisherman caught (three fish).
For supper he fried and ate (three fish).
As Russian souvenirs, all foreigners buy (matryoshkas).
Morphological norms are rules for the use of grammatical forms different parts speech. Morphological norms are regulated by morphology - a section of linguistics, which includes the doctrine of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the doctrine of parts of speech and their features.
Grammatical meaning is a characteristic of a word in terms of belonging to a certain part of speech, most general meaning, inherent in a number of words, not depending on their real-material content.
The words cheese and litter have different lexical meanings: cheese is a food product; rubbish - rubbish. And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
The material expression of grammatical meaning is a grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes (prefixes, suffixes and endings). It can also be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values are combined into a system of number values. In such cases one speaks of the grammatical category of number. Exist grammatical categories tense, gender, mood, type, etc.
Morphological norms for the use of nouns
The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variants that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms.
Among the morphological norms for the use of nouns, the norms associated with the categories of gender and case cause the greatest difficulties.
The gender of many nouns is fairly easy to determine based on the ending (“zero”, -а/-я, -о/-е), however, there is a group of words whose gender is not determined in this way. Most often, fluctuations are observed in the attitude
nouns to the masculine or feminine gender. These vibrations form variant forms generic affiliation words.
1) equal options: unt-unta, shutter shutter, stack stack;
2) stylistic options: shoe (common) - shoes (colloquial), key (common) - keys (professional);
3) modern and obsolete options: hall hall, shoe boot, off-rail rail;
4) semantic variants (words in which the generic ending helps to distinguish lexical meaning): district (subdivision of the state territory) - districts (surrounding area), quarry - 1) place of open mining, 2) accelerated horse running - quarry (prominent position in society).
There are different forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank, since there are not always analogues for denoting persons of both sexes. There are the following options:
1) two-gender nouns are masculine nouns that can also be used to refer to females: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain;
2) parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student;
3) stylistic variants in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced, has a colloquial or colloquial character: a doctor is a doctor, a conductor is a conductor, a director is a headmistress.
special attention requires the assignment of gender to indeclinable nouns: for many of them it is impossible to be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian is different. For example, what kind of word is sconce? There is different variants its translation: lamp / night light - masculine, lamp - feminine. It is impossible to use translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are the following rules:
1) inanimate foreign nouns belong to the middle gender: cafe, subway, taxi, interview, aloe. Some exceptions: masculine: coffee, sirocco (dry wind), names of drinks (brandy) and languages (Hindi, Dari); feminine: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. In a number of cases, parallel forms gradually develop: whiskey, coffee, auto, penalties (m.r. and sr.r.), tsunami, madrasah (m.r. and f.r.);
2) animate foreign nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine: my / my counterpart, this / this attache;
3) in the names of animals (cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony), the masculine gender acts as the main one, and the feminine as an additional one - it depends on the context: funny pony (m. R.), bright hummingbird (f. R.);
4) in geographical names, the genus is determined by the type of reality they designate: full-flowing Mississippi (river → zh.r.), multimillion-dollar festive Tokyo (city → m.r., capital → zh.r.);
5) in abbreviations and compound words, the norm is unstable. In general, gender is determined by the main word: USTU (university → m.r.), UN (organization → f.r.). But there are exceptions here too: a university (s.r. → m.r.), NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.r. → c.p.), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. The above words began to be perceived as independent and "changed" the gender.
Various variants are also found in the case system of the Russian language.
Nominative
There may be variant endings -ы -и and -а -я in the plural forms of masculine nouns: contracts - contracts, locksmiths - locksmith. The norm is the endings -s -i, the variant -а -я acts as colloquial.
Genitive
1. For some masculine nouns in the genitive singular, the main variant of the ending -а -я (tea, sugar) and the additional variant -у/-ю (tea, sugar) vary. The endings -u -yu can be used in the following cases:
In nouns with a real value to denote part of the whole (a glass of tea, a kilogram of sugar, a piece of cheese). However, if the noun is accompanied by a definition, you should choose the form with the ending -а/-я (a cup of hot tea, a pack of dried tobacco)",
In collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity (few people, a lot of noise)",
In negative sentences (there is no peace, there was no refusal).
In phraseological units, the ending is accepted - y: (a week without a year, eye to eye, with the world on a thread).
2. In the genitive plural of masculine nouns, the following case endings are: -oβ!-eβ (many tables, museums), -ey (many pencils) and zero ending (many boots). Groups of masculine nouns have a zero ending:
Names of paired items (boots, boots, stockings (but socks, shoulder straps)",
Names of some nationalities, mainly nouns with the basis of the letters -н and -р (English, Armenians, Bulgarians)",
Names of units of measurement (amps, watts, volts, but: grams, kilograms).
Prepositional
In the prepositional case of the singular number of masculine nouns, there may be two variants of endings: -е and -у.
1) option -y - colloquial: in the shop - in the shop,
2) the ending indicates the difference between adverbial and objective meanings: to grow in the forest - to know about the forest",
3) in expressions of a phraseological nature: on a current account - to be in good standing.
When choosing an ending option, context should be taken into account: pay attention to what meaning is realized in the word.
Morphological norms of adjectives
The most complex issues in the morphology of adjectives from a normative point of view are the formation of forms of degrees of comparison and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives
There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. Simple comparative form formed with the help of suffixes -ee and -ee (colloquial): faster - faster. Some adjectives form a comparative degree with the help of the suffix -e \ smarter, louder, sweeter. simple form The superlative degree of adjectives is formed with the help of suffixes -aysh(y) (highest), -eysh(y) (most beautiful).
The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and the superlative form is formed using the word most. This house is tall, but the neighboring one is taller. This house is the tallest in the city).
Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) with a mixture of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison (higher), 2) using simple and compound forms of superlatives (the most beautiful) and 3) with the absence of an object of comparison (This room lighter).
Full and short forms of adjectives
There are differences between the full and short forms of the adjective, so such forms cannot always replace each other:
1) stylistic difference: short forms are characteristic of book speech, full forms are neutral in their stylistic coloring (a child is capricious - a child is capricious);
2) semantic differences:
a) short forms indicate a temporary sign of an object, full ones - permanent (a person is sick, a sick person)",
b) short forms indicate a sign in relation to something, full forms - an irrelevant sign (the skirt is short - the skirt is short, the trousers are tight, the trousers are narrow);
3) syntactic difference: short forms have dependent words, full ones do not (the child has the flu). In some cases, the meaning of short and full forms diverges so much that they are perceived as different words (Eminent scientist, specialist. - The house is visible from afar; Free wind. - He is free to do as he knows).
Morphological norms of nouns
1. In complex and compound cardinal numbers, all parts decline (a book with one hundred and fifty-six pages).
2. When declining compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes in them (to be born in one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two).
3. Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral one) do not combine with nouns that are used only in the plural, such as sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses, etc. It is impossible: twenty-two days, thirty-three scissors, follows: passed twenty-second day / twenty-two days. Bought scissors in the amount of thirty-three pieces.
4. Collective numerals are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two young men, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (one cannot say: three girls, only: three girls).
5. When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the genitive case of the singular (not allowed: 12.6 kilometers, only: 12.6 kilometers).
6. The numerals one and a half and one and a half hundred have only two case forms: in the nominative and accusative- one and a half / one and a half and one and a half hundred, in all other cases - one and a half and one and a half hundred.
Morphological norms of pronouns
1. The pronoun they does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is impossible: The people went to the polls together, because they understood how important it was. Follows: people → he or people → people.
2. Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is impossible: Plyushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel.
3. In the presence of two subjects of action, personal and possessive pronouns require additional explanation or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is impossible: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report (Whose? Professor or graduate student?)
4. In indefinite pronouns with suffixes -that, -either, -nibud, the suffix -that forms the meaning of "unknown", the suffix -or - the meaning of "any", the suffix -nibud - the meaning of "unimportant" (It is impossible: Someone or someone knocks on the door (only: Someone knocks).
5. Definitive pronouns everyone, anyone and everyone cannot replace each other (It is impossible: Any person is responsible for his own life. Only: Every person ...).
Morphological norms of verbs
1. Verb pairs are stylistically different: see - see, hear - hear, raise - raise, climb, climb, etc. The first option is bookish, the second is colloquial.
2. Verbs with alternating o / / a in the stem (condition - condition, focus - concentrate, etc.) also differ as a book version (form with o) and colloquial (form with a).
3. In the so-called insufficient verbs (to win, to convince, to find oneself, to dare, to feel), the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character (I can / I will be able / I must win).
4. The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waving - waving (book and colloquial versions), moves (moves) moves (leads, encourages).
5. Some verbs in the past tense form forms without the suffix -nu- (get wet, get used to - used to).
6. The unity of the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs is the rule according to which all verbs within the same sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is impossible: On vacation, he rested and again did what he loved. Only: busy.
7. In a special form of the verb - gerunds - the suffix -v is normative, the suffix -lice is colloquial. Don't: After reading a book. Only; After reading a book.
In case of difficulties in the formation of forms of various parts of speech, it is recommended to refer to grammar dictionaries.
Theory for task 7 from the exam in the Russian language
Morphological norms are the rules for the formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech.
Morphological norms of nouns
1. Indeclinable nouns that denote inanimate objects belong to the neuter gender: coupe, potpourri, bikini.
Exceptions: curlers, riding breeches (plural), blinds, kiwi, whiskey, brandy, coffee (m. and sr.r.), mocha, penalty, euro (m.r.).
2. The gender of nouns denoting persons is determined based on the gender to which they refer: beautiful madam, serious monsieur, cunning frau etc.
3. The gender of geographical names, names of press organs is determined by the generic word: Capri - island (m.r.), Jungfrau - mountain (m.r.), Monaco - principality (m.r.), Borjomi - city (m.r.); "Times" - newspaper (female).
4. Abbreviations are usually assigned to the genus to which the reference word in them belongs: NATO - alliance (m.r.), CIS - commonwealth (sr.r.); Moscow State University - university (m.r.).
However, the following rules must be kept in mind:
- If an abbreviation ends in a consonant, then it may agree in the masculine gender, despite the fact that the reference word belongs to the feminine or neuter gender. Moreover, in some cases, agreement on the masculine gender is the only possible one. For example, only masculine words university(although the institution), MFA(although the ministry), marriage registry(although the record). In some cases, fluctuations are observed: for example, MKAD- masculine in colloquial speech, feminine in stylistically neutral contexts. In some cases, masculine agreement is not possible: hydroelectric power station, CHP- Only feminine nouns. The generic affiliation of such abbreviations should be consulted in dictionaries.
- The genus of a foreign language abbreviation is determined by the key word in Russian transcription: FIFA(federation) made a decision; CERN(center) conducted research. However, in some cases, the external phonetic appearance of the word can influence the generic affiliation. For example, the abbreviation NATO is used as a masculine noun (as a result of the influence of a combination with the words alliance, bloc, agreement), feminine (according to the key word organization) and neuter (according to phonetic appearance, compare with other words in -O: coat, subway, cinema). Experiencing fluctuations in gender abbreviation UNESCO(the phonetic appearance suggests the neuter gender, and the reference word organization- female).
1) monosyllabic nouns: side - sides, forest - forests, eye - eyes, house - houses, eye - eyes, century - centuries, silk - silk, food - feed, board - sides etc.;
2) two-syllable nouns, in which, in the singular form of the nominative case, the stress is on the first syllable: buffer - buffers, coast - coast, pearls - pearls etc.
6. The gender of compound nouns is determined by the word that expresses the broader meaning of the noun: Butterfly Admiral, pay phone, sofa bed.
And if both concepts are equivalent, the gender is determined by the first word: armchair-bed, cafe-restaurant.
7. For the correct formation of the genitive form of the plural of nouns, the following trends should be known: For most masculine nouns, in initial form ending in a hard consonant ( orange, tomato, fly agaric, computer, sock), the ending -ov is characteristic in the form of the genitive plural: oranges, tomatoes, fly agarics, computers, socks etc. An extensive number of exceptions can be distinguished from this rule, having a zero ending in the form of the genitive plural:
- Names of people by nationality (in words with a base on -p, -n) and by belonging to military formations, mainly used in plural forms in a collective meaning: live among Turkmens, Romanians, Turks, Ossetians, Armenians, Georgians, Gypsies, Bulgarian Tatars; see partisans, soldiers, hussars; this also includes the form r. n. pl. h. person.
- Names of paired items: a lot of boots, for the eyes, without shoulder straps, near the stockings, for the sake of an epaulette, from boots.
- Names of measures and units of measurement: 220 volts, 1000 watts, 5 amps, 500 gigabytes. If such names are used outside the “measuring” context (in other words, the genitive form is not countable), then the ending -ov is used: live without extra pounds, not enough gigabytes.
8. Unstressed nouns -я and -е have the ending -й in the form of the genitive plural: minx - minx, wrist - wrists, and on hit -ya and -yo - ending -her: bench - bench, gun - guns. But: spear - spear.
9. In the form of the genitive plural of nouns on -nya with a preceding consonant or letter y, the letter ь at the end is not written: cherry - cherries, bedroom - bedrooms, slaughterhouse - slaughterhouse. Exceptions: young ladies, young ladies, villages, kitchens.
10. Russian surnames on -ov (ev) / -ev, -yn / -in have the ending -ym in the instrumental case of the singular: Nekrasov, Ptitsyn, Nikitin. Foreign surnames ending in -ov and -in end in -om: Darwin, Chaplin.
11. Names settlements on -ov / -ev, -yn / -in, -ovo / -evo, -yno / -ino have the ending -om in the instrumental case: behind Lgov, near Kyiv, above Pushkin, behind Ukleev, near Borodino, behind Golitsyn.
Morphological norms of adjectives
1. It is impossible to combine simple and complex forms of the comparative degree of the adjective into one construction: a better essay / this essay is better (not this essay is better)
2. Do not mix simple and complex shape superlative adjective: the wisest old man/the wisest old man (not the wisest old man)
Morphological norms of pronouns
1. The mistake is the formation of the form possessive pronoun theirs instead of them: them a son.
2. After the prepositions of personal pronouns he, she, they, a letter appears in oblique cases n: to him, from her.
Morphological norms of nouns
1. When declensing compound ordinal numbers, their last part changes, which, when declensed, takes on forms that coincide with the form of full adjectives: first, first, first etc. The rest of the compound ordinal noun remains unchanged in all types of declensions, and any changes to it are considered morphological error: in two thousand two.
2. Each part and each word that makes up a compound and complex quantitative numeral is declined separately: saw twenty-four classmates.
3. Cases when it is correct to use collective numbers:
- with nouns denoting males: two brothers, three men, four boys.
- with nouns children, people: two children, four people.
- with nouns denoting baby animals: three puppies, seven kids.
- with nouns that have only the plural form. hours: five days.
- with nouns denoting paired or compound objects: two goggles, two skis.
- with pronouns: two of us, five of them.
4. Numerals both used only with nouns f.r.: both girls, both books. With nouns m. and cf. R. the form is used both: both brothers, both elephants.
Morphological norms of verbs
1. For verbs win, convince, convince, dissuade, find oneself, feel, outshine, dare, vacuum and some others do not have a form of 1 person singular. h.
2. Education return forms: met, wanted to say hello(after vowels -s is used), Sorry(no return form).
3. Formation of imperative mood forms: ride, wave, drive away, lay down, buy, lie down.
4. Formation of past tense forms: hardened, dry, wet(not hardened, dried out, wet).
Morphological norms of participles
1. Formation of participles: rinsing, waving, wanting(not rinsing, waving, wanting);
2. Present participles are not formed from perfective verbs.
Morphological norms of gerunds
1. Perfect participles are formed from the stem of the infinitive with the help of a suffix -in: spill - spill, save - save, thin out - thin out.
There are perfective verbs from which gerunds can be formed using the suffix -and I or -shi, -lice: go in - go in, look - looking, lean - leaning.
2. Imperfect gerunds are formed from the stem of the infinitive with the help of suffixes -and I: think - thinking, walk - walking, fly - flying.
Morphological norms of adverbs
1. Formation of adverbs: from there, come off, inside, I can hardly, we will divide in half.
2. Formation of the comparative degree of adverbs: bad - worse, beautiful - more beautiful, good - better, hard - harder.
Accent norms
The features and functions of stress are studied by the section of linguistics called accentology(from lat. accentus - stress). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages in which stress is assigned to a particular syllable. For example, in English language the first syllable is stressed, in Polish - the penultimate one, in Armenian, French - the last one. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous. Stress in Russian is mobile and fixed. If in various forms words stress falls on the same part, then such stress is motionless (shore, save, save, save, save, save - the stress is assigned to the ending). An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called mobile (right, right, right; I can, you can, they can). Most of the words of the Russian language have a fixed stress.
The stress has great importance in Russian and performs various functions:
The semantics of the word depends on the stress ( cotton - cotton; cloves - cloves).
It refers to the grammatical form ( hands - nominative plural, and hands- genitive singular).
Stress helps to distinguish the meaning of words and their forms: protein- the genitive case of the word protein, and protein- the nominative case of a word that names the component of the egg or part of the eye. The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are variants of stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, for example, kitchen, tool, solicitation, not right: kitchen, tool, petition.
Orthoepic norms
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepy is also called a set of rules literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Orthoepic errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech; the attention of the listener is distracted by various irregularities of pronunciation and the statement in its entirety and with sufficient attention is not perceived. Pronunciation corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication. therefore social role correct pronunciation is very great, especially at present in our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses. Consider basic rules of literary pronunciation that must be followed.
Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose their clarity and clarity of sound, they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the law of reduction. Reduction can be quantitative (when the sound changes only the length of the sound) and qualitative (when the sound changes its quality). Vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced like [a]: ravine - [a] enemy, autonomy - [a] vt [a] nomia, milk - m [a] l [ a] to. The letters e and i in the pre-stressed syllable denote a sound that is intermediate between [e] and [i]: nickel - n [i] so, pen - n [i] ro. The vowel [and] after a solid consonant, preposition, or when pronouncing the word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical [s] institute, from a spark - from [s] hide.
Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation.
In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. We pronounce bread [p] - bread, sa [t] - garden, lyubo [f '] - love, etc. This stun is one of characteristic features Russian literary speech. It should be noted that the consonant [g] at the end of the word always turns into a paired deaf sound [k]: le [k] - lay down, vice [k] - the threshold, etc. The pronunciation in this case of the sound [x] is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word god - bo[x]. [G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations of gk and gch: le [hk ’] y - easy, le [hk] o - easy. You should pay attention to the combination of ch, since mistakes are often made in its pronunciation. There is fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination ch is usually pronounced like this [ch], especially this applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing). The pronunciation [shn] instead of the orthographic ch is currently required in female patronymics in -ichna: Ilini[shn]a, Lukini[shn]a, -Fomini[shn]a, and is also preserved in separate words: kone[shn]o, transfer[shn]itsa, laundry[shn]aya, empty[shn]y, square[shn]ik, eggs[shn]itsa, etc.
Some words with a combination of ch in accordance with the norm are pronounced in two ways: order [shn] o and order [ch] o. In some cases, the different pronunciation of the combination ch serves for the semantic differentiation of words: heart [ch] beat - heart [shn] friend. Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern orthoepic norms and only in some cases differ in features in pronunciation. For example, the pronunciation of the sound [o] is sometimes preserved in unstressed syllables (m [o] del, [o] asis, [o] tel) and solid consonants before the front vowel [e] (s [te) nd, ko [de] ks, porridge [ne]). In most borrowed words, before [e], the consonants are softened: ka[t ']et, pa[t']efon, faculty[t']et, mu[z']her, [r']ektor, pio[n' ]ep. Back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa [k '] et, [k '] egli, s [x '] ema, ba [g '] et. Pay attention to the table, which presents spelling errors, the list of which could not be explained in the previous material:
EXAMPLES OF SPELLING ERRORS
1. Assimilation(similarity of sounds) laboratory(instead of laboratory); fireboat(instead of hose); corridor (corridor); biton (can); cardon (cardboard).
2. Epenthesis(unjustified insertion of sounds): b extraordinary ( norm: unprecedented); military leader (military leader); dermatin (dermatin); porcupine (porcupine); competent (competent); compromise (compromise); competitive (competitive); state (state); reckoning (chronology); perspective (perspective); perEturbation (perturbation); to slip (to slip); light performance (light doomsday - the light is reposed, i.e. dies); sTram (shame); extraordinary (extraordinary), yaVstva (dishes).
3. Diereza(erroneous elimination of sounds): should be said keychainOka(R.p., singular), and not keychain; Azerbaijan(but not Azerbaijan); time forwarding(but not pastime)
4. Metathesis(changes of sounds), simplification: scrupulous(norm: scrupulous); tram (trauma); trauma (tram); colander (colander).
Lexical norms
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, the use of a word in the meanings that it has in the language, the appropriateness of its use in a given situation. Compliance with lexical norms - essential condition correct speech. The correct choice of the word and its use in the right meaning always allow you to accurately express the content, the meaning of the statement.
Mastering the norms of word usage occurs throughout a person’s life, because the vocabulary of the language includes, for example, the Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes (Big Academic) 120480 words. And this is far from a complete volume of vocabulary, moreover, the vocabulary of only the literary language. The lexical system is constantly evolving, replenished with new, including borrowed words. It is difficult to formalize and unify. That's why it's impossible to list difficult cases implementation of the norms of word usage, some kind of set of rules. Turning to explanatory dictionaries, thoughtful reading of fiction and other texts contribute to the expansion of your vocabulary, the development of language flair.
1. Remember the need to accurately understand the meaning of the word, in case of difficulty, refer to explanatory dictionaries or look for a replacement given word the equivalent you know. The applicant who wrote in the essay: “He vegetated in the evenings in the theater,” obviously did not know exact value the words "vegetate" - to lead a miserable, meaningless, aimless life.
2. It must be borne in mind that incorrect word usage may be due to the indistinguishability of shades of the meaning of synonyms, that is, words that are close, but not identical in meaning. For example, the use of the word extensive in the context: “It remains to be surprised at his vast (instead of great) love” is incorrect, since the adjective “vast” is synonymous with the adjective “large” when denoting size, magnitude (large territory, vast territory), but not when denoting the power of feeling.
It is useful to refer to special dictionaries of synonyms. So, in the "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" Z.E. Alexandrova, the word extensive is given as a synonym for the adjective large with appropriate clarifications: extensive - large in volume.
3. We must not forget about such a phenomenon as the polysemy of a word. Many words in the language have this property, that is, the ability to be used in different meanings. Different meanings of words are given in explanatory dictionaries: the main is indicated first (it is also called direct, primary, main), and then derivatives from it (portable, secondary). For example, the verb touch has the primary meaning "to touch someone or something" and two figurative, secondary meanings - "to relate to someone or something" (This does not concern you); “to touch on some issue in the presentation” (to touch on a topic, problem, issue). A word taken in isolation, out of context, is perceived in its main meaning, while derivative meanings are revealed only in combination with other words.
4. Remember that polysemantic word can have different lexical compatibility, that is, the ability to connect in meaning with other words. In the language, the prohibition on combining words with each other is imposed primarily by their inherent meanings, as well as by the tradition of use, a historically established norm. For example, the word round in its basic meaning - “having the shape of a circle” is combined with the words table, box, face, etc. But, speaking in the meaning of “whole, whole, without interruption (about time)”, the word round is combined only with nouns year, day, and in the meaning of “full, perfect” - with such as an ignoramus, an excellent student, an orphan. Violation of lexical compatibility often occurs in speech.
Examples from the essays of applicants: “to produce special interest on the reader” (instead of “to impress” or “arouse interest”), “to apply folk art in their works” (instead of “refer to folk art”), “to wear a symbolic image” (instead of “to have a symbolic meaning”). In some cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the consolidation of the word in set expressions. Stable combinations (that's why they are called so) have well-defined connections that cannot be destroyed: pay attention or attach importance, and not “pay attention”; play a role or make a difference, not "make a difference"; protest, not protest. That is why the following usages are erroneous: Moral problems are now given great importance. The novel played a great role in Pushkin's life. Going on a date, Katerina makes an open protest to the dark kingdom.
5. It is necessary to take into account the existence of paronyms in the language (from the Greek para near + onoma - name), that is, similar, consonant cognate words with different values, and paronomazov, that is, words of different roots, distant in meaning, but similar in sound. For example, dress and put on, economy and economy (paronyms); to accustom and tame (paronomases). The presence of a similar sound image creates additional difficulties in choosing a word if you know its meaning only approximately. Hence such violations of the norms of word usage, such as a monogram instead of a monograph in the following statement: “This is a thought worthy of the depth of an entire monogram” (a monogram is “a link of two or more letters”, a monograph is “ Scientific research dedicated to one issue, topic.
6. Be careful when using words that have recently entered our everyday life (neologisms), and especially vocabulary of foreign origin. You should not use borrowed words without special need, and even more so if the meaning of the word is not entirely clear to you. It can hardly be considered correct, for example, to use the word vernissage in the following context: "At least a hundred people visit the vernissage of this artist's paintings every day." Referring to the dictionary S.I. Ozhegov, it is not difficult to find out that the vernissage is “the solemn opening of an art exhibition”, which cannot be held every day. It would be appropriate to replace the word vernissage in our proposal with the word exhibition.
7. Avoid semantic redundancy in speech. When using words that are superfluous in meaning, so-called pleonasms arise (from the Greek. pleonasmos overabundance) - speech excess, interspersed in speech with words that are unnecessary from a purely semantic point of view, partial coincidence of the meanings of words that form the phrase: my autobiography (auto = mine), most the best (best = the best), memorable souvenir (souvenir = keepsake), joint cooperation (collaboration - teamwork), price list (price list - reference book, list of prices). Failure to comply with the rules leads to errors and curiosities.
Lexical norms also include the rules for the use of phraseological units. Phraseologism is an indivisible, holistic in its meaning, stable combination of words, reproduced in the form of a finished speech unit. It is also called an idiom, or a stable combination of words. If the author of a phraseological phrase is known, then the latter is called a winged word.
It is impossible, as a rule, to insert a new word into a phraseological unit or throw out any component, it is impossible to replace a word even with those close in meaning and structure. Therefore, such an expression is erroneous, how to take care of your mind(necessary: take up mind). For example, in the phrase: Distributing honors, the chairman began to measure everyone with the same brush(necessary: or cut with the same comb, or measure by one arshin).
Morphological norms of the Russian language
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories. The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the variants may differ in shades of meanings, stylistic coloring, scope of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express an idea, diversify speech, testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.
most large group constitute options, the use of which is limited functional style or genre of speech. So, in colloquial speech, there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; at her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm. Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to designate varieties, varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marble. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use. There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical , equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in spring - in spring, doors - doors. In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language : right rail, but not rail, right shoe, but not shoe and shoe. There are many masculine and feminine words in Russian to designate people by their position, profession. With nouns denoting the position held, profession, rank, rank, the difficulties that arise in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words.
The words professor, doctor have the meaning "professor's wife", "doctor's wife" and a colloquial connotation, and as the titles of the position become colloquial. Generic Parallels cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, janitor, usher qualify as colloquial, and doctor- as spacious. Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language.
As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, business correspondence, more and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the called person is used, when, with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable, not violating the standard of the literary language. In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants " grammatical correctness Russian speech” regarding such use of definitions, it is said: “In written, strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the noun being defined is adopted: the outstanding mathematician Sophia Kovalevskaya; new prime minister India Indira Gandhi. Thus, the most common grammatical errors associated with the use of nouns are:
1. Can be heard incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel. But the nouns rail, shampoo- masculine and corn, parcel- feminine, so you should say : railway rail, french shampoo, big corn, registered parcel.
2. Foreign indeclinable words denoting inanimate objects, as a rule, belong to the middle gender: highway, cafe, coat.
3. In the genitive plural, the following forms are used:
masculine words: a pair of boots, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volt (grams, kilograms ); feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets; neuter words: saucers, towels, blankets, mirror;
words without singular: manger, weekdays, twilight.
4. Prepositional case of type forms on vacation, on vacation preferable to -e(in -y - colloquial forms).
5. In the literary language, forms are used with an ending in -and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, holidays, passports, etc.; with the end -i, -s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc..
6. Collective numbers two, three etc. are used in the following cases: with nouns naming males (two friends); with nouns children, people, guys, faces(in the meaning of a person); with nouns that are used only in the plural (three days).
There are many variants in the verb inflection system.
Of the options raise - raise the second has a colloquial coloring: Gypsies ... raised their (horses) legs and tails, shouted, scolded (T.). Of the options to suffer - to suffer (to suffer, to suffer, to suffer etc.) the second is colloquial. Opposed variant forms prefixed verbs with suffix - well- and without it: withered - withered, disappeared - disappeared, got wet - soaked, arose - arose, subsided - subsided. The first ones are out of use.
Many verbs cannot form the 1st person : to win, to convince, to find oneself, to be weird, to be wonderful, to blow, to please, etc.
Verbs that have in the infinitive - whose: burn, flow, bake(total 16 word forms), form variant forms of the 3rd person singular: along with the literary ones: burns, flows, bakes - colloquial: burns, flows, bakes.
Separate verbs do not have imperative forms: want, be able, see, hear, go, crave, rot and others. The Old Slavic forms used in the 19th century, vizhd, were attentively archaic; colloquial variants can't go remain outside the literary norm, form drive is conversational. Literary form go, as well as forms derived from verbs listen, watch - listen (those), look (those). The formation of comparative and superlative degrees causes difficulties: one cannot say - the closest.
Pronouns are often misused: right - I think about you, miss you, miss us, I go to you, their choice (not theirs).
A large number of errors associated with the use of compound forms of numerals. 1. The rules for declension of this part of speech are simple - when declining compound cardinal numbers, all the words included in it change, when declining compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:
“The current of the river reaches 120 (one hundred and twenty) - 400 (four hundred) meters per minute”; "On the night of June 26 (twenty-sixth) it was raining."
2. Education phrases "numeral + noun, having only the plural form (day, sleigh, scissors, trousers, glasses)", Collective (up to 5) or quantitative (from 5) numbers are used: “two (three, four) days” - “five (six, seven, etc.) days”. You can’t say “twenty-two (three, four) scissors”, but you can say “twenty scissors and a couple more”, “twenty-two pieces of scissors”.
3. The declension of the numeral depends on the gender of the noun "one and a half". The masculine and neuter genders in the nominative and accusative cases take the form "one and a half" in other cases - "one and a half". Feminine in the nominative and accusative cases - "one and a half". In the rest - "one and a half". In this case, nouns change in accordance with the rules.
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of pretexts
because of and thanks. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore it is used to indicate the cause that produces the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the right treatment. With a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning preposition thanks with an indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it is correct to say - because of illness.
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