Control over the basp of Bosphorus and Dardanelles and unexpected history lessons. Strait Dardanelles - "Sea Gella" (Solving Bosphorus and Dardanelles on the world map)

What strait, connects the Black and Mediterranean Sea?

1. No strait does not connect, see the map
2. According to http://ru.wikipedia.org.

   Bospho # 769; P (tour # 304; Stanbul Bo # 287; AZ # 305; Istanbul Strait) Strait between Europe and Malaya Asia, connecting the Chrnny Sea with marble, and in a pair with Dardanelles with Mediterranean. Bosphorus is part of the Ostrazian border. On both sides of the Strait is located the largest Turkish city of Istanbul.

   The length of the strait is about 30 km. The maximum stratum width is 3700 m in the north, the minimum width is 700 meters (this is the narrowest intercontinental strait) 1. The depth of the fairway from 33 to 80 m 2.

   According to one of the most common legends, the Strait received its name thanks to the daughter of the ancient Arginian king, the beautiful beloved Zeus called IO was turned into a white cow in order to avoid the anger of his wife Ges. Unhappy Io chose a waterway to salvation by diving into the blue of the strait, which since then is called a cow brother or Bosphorus 3.

   The shores of the Strait connect two bridges: a Bosphorus bridge with a length of 1074 meters (completed in 1973) and the Sultan Mehmed Fatiha Bridge 1090 meters long (built in 1988) 5 km north of the first bridge. It is planned to build a third road bridge in the northern part of the strait on the Black Sea coast. The bridge is a length of 1275 meters will connect the Northern Marmara highway with the Trans-European Main. The preliminary price of the project is about $ 56 billion. The path on the bridge will consist of eight bands 4. time runs Construction of the MarmaAy5 railway tunnel (grade 2013), which will unite the high-speed transport systems of the European and Asian parts of Istanbul.

   It is assumed (the theory of the Black Sea Flood) that the Bosphorus was formed only 75005,000 years ago. Previously, the level of the chrk and the Mediterranean seas was significantly lower, and they were not connected. At the end of the last glacial period as a result of melting of large ice masses and snow, the water level in both vacifics has sharply increased. A powerful stream of water in just a matter of days struck his way from one sea to another. This is evidenced by the Relief of the bottom and other signs.

   Ancient Greeks by Bosphorus also called Kerch Strait Bosporge Kimmerisk.

   Bosphorus is one of the most important straits, as it provides access to Mediterranean Sea. and world oceans in Russia, Ukraine, Transcaucasia and South-Eastern Europe. In addition to agricultural and industrial products, oil from Russia and the Caspian region plays a large role in exporting through the Bosphorus.

   In winter, 16211669, the strait was covered with ice. These times were characteristic of a total decrease in temperature in the region and got the name of the Small Ice Age.

3. Strait of Bosphorus from Greek translates as a price program. And this statement needs to be perceived literally, that is, this name arose during the times when the cattle could cross the strait from one shore to another, with a depth of the brude about one meter. And the ferrod This existed appears to be at the bottom of the bottom threshold of the Bosphorus with his depth of 27.5 meters. Work is known to determine the terraces of erosion of the coastal slopes of the eastern and Western coast of the Atlantic Ocean. They are exactly 31: from the depth of 155 meters to the surface of the ocean. Their genesis is a meteorite-car-asteroid: in their consecutive fallouts into the ocean, its level has increased periodically. And for the threshold of the Bosphorus depth of 27.5 meters Age of the rehearse of this height of sushi mass sea water 6 m height is equal to age - 146575 BC. e. In 117260 BC. e. Such a catastrophe again repeated. Researcher
4. orshest straits are consistently connected by the Chrn Sea with marble, and marble with Aegean, which is part of the Mediterranean. They also separate Europe (Frace) from Asia Minor (Anatolia). Straits provide access to the Mediterranean Sea and the world's oceans of Russia, Ukraine, Transcaucasia and South-Eastern Europe. In addition to agricultural and industrial goods, a significant proportion of exports through the straits is oil from Russia and other Caspian countries.
   Contents remove
   1 Description
   1.1 Bosphorus
   1.2 Dardannella
   2 Question about the sheds
   3 Notes
   4 cm also
   5 literature
   6 Links
   edit Bosphorus
   Bospho # 769; P (tour. # 304; Stanbul Bo # 287; AZ # 305;, Greek. # 914; # 972; # 963; # 960; # 959; # 961; # 959; # 962;) Strait, Connecting the Chrn Sea with marble. The length is about 30 km, the maximum width is 3,700 m in the north, the minimum width of the strait is 700 meters. Farwiter depth from 36 to 124 m. On both sides of the Bosphorus is located historical city Constantinople, now Istanbul.
   The shores of the Strait connect two bridges: a Bosphorus bridge 1074 meters long (completed in 1973) and the Sultan Mehmed Fatija Bridge 1090 meters long (built in 1988) 5 km north of the first bridge. The third road bridge is planned, but the construction site of Turkey is still kept secret to avoid the rise in land prices. Currently, the Marmaray railway tunnel is being built (the end time 2012), which will unite the Istanbul transport systems in the European and Asian parts of the city.
   edit Dardanenella
   Dardan # 769; Lyla (tour. # 199; Anakkale Bo # 287; AZ # 305;, Greek. # 916; # 945; # 961; # 948; # 945; # 957; # 941; # 955; # 955; # 953; # 945;), the ancient Greek name Gelles # 769; NT. Strait between the European Peninsula Gallipoli and the North-West of Malaya Asia. It connects the Marmara Sea with Aegean. The coordinates of Dardanelle 4015 northern latitude and 2631 Eastern longitude. The length of the strait is 61 kilometers, width from 1.2 to 6 kilometers. The average depth of the fairway is 55 meters.
5. There is a strait, but there are few people notes. This is Bosphorus
6. bosphorus - but not directly
7. The chrno and the Mediterranean Sea are not directly related. The church through the Bosphorus is connected with the marble sea, marble through Dardanelles is connected with Aegean, Aegean through several straits is associated with Mediterranean.
8. Thank you
9. right now, Give, a bit left and call your name.
10. There is no such strait
11. chernozem

Straits, Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Commonly referred to (together with the marble sea located between them) "Black Sea Straits" or simply "straits" - the only path of the message between the Black and Mediterranean seas; "The question of the straits" is one of the oldest problems of international relations, preserving and renewing its relevance.

The political content of this problem for the Black Sea Powers is essentially comes down to ensure reliable communication with the Mediterranean Sea and at the same time completely protect the safety of the Black Sea. Non-Black Museums are considering the problem of straits at the opposite angle of view, seeking broad access for their armed forces in the Black Sea and at the same time preventing the release of military fleets of the Black Sea countries to the Mediterranean Sea. The acuteness of the problems of the straits arises from the primary strategic and economic value Straits caused by their geographic and historically existing features. First, the straits are very narrow (in the Bosphorus, the most narrow place has about 600 m, in Dardanelles - about 1300 m); Therefore, they are easy to "lock", i.e., do not miss the trial through the straits or, having missed some courts, do not miss others. Secondly, both shores of the straits belong to the same state - Turkey. Thirdly, and this is the most important feature Straits, they connect the open sea (Mediterranean) with closed (black), from which there is no other exit, except for the straits; Thus, the regime of navigation in the straits affects the vital interests of all Black Sea powers, and not only Turkey alone, because it automatically predetermines the order of entry of ships into the Black Sea and the exit of them from there.

Complications in the question of the straits arose whenever attempts were made to ignore the interests of Black Sea countries and put them and the safety of the Black Sea dependence on the unilateral actions of the Power, which owns the shores of the straits. This kind of attempt was becoming less successful as the economic and political development of the largest Black Sea state - Russia. They only emphasized the sharp inconsistency between the growth in the volume and the value of Russian interests on the Black Sea, on the one hand, and in parallel the process of decline and weakening the Ottoman Empire, on the other. The situation worsened when the Sultanian Turkey, losing the first foreign policy, and then internal political independence, turned into a semi-colony of capitalist powers. From this point, the role of the ports in the question of the straits decreased to such an extent that practically the establishment of the strait regime passed entirely to the European "Great Power", of which only Russia was the Black Sea country. Western powers and above all, England, who claimed world marine dominance, made the issue of the straits to the gun of their anti-Russian politics, seeking to limit the freedom of Russian navigation in the straits and at the same time get wide access to the Black Sea to keep the Black Sea coast of Russia under the constant military threat. In the expansionist plans of England also included the seizure of the zones of the straits and some other areas of the Ottoman Empire, marked by the British as their share of "Ottoman's inheritance". In turn, the ruling circles of the Tsarist Russia subjugated the question of shedding the aspiration for the annexation of Constantinople and Straits, seeing the only way Permissions of the problem.

For all these reasons, the question of sheds, as well as a more common oriental question (section of the Ottoman Empire, especially its European possessions), is hopelessly confused. Back in the middle of the 19th century. Marx noted that the diplomacy of capitalist powers would not be able to satisfactorily resolve the eastern issue. "The decision of the Turkish problem, like many others, was written by Marx," the European Revolution will fall out ... Since 1789, the revolution covers an increasingly extensive area, its border is expanding further. Her latest border pillars were Warsaw, Debrecin, Bucharest. , the extreme limits of the nearest revolution should be St. Petersburg and Constantinople. " Indeed, after the Great October Socialist Revolution, an oriental question was liquidated as a problem of the "Ottoman inheritance" section. However, the question of the straits remained unresolved. His settlement was prevented by the imperialist powers headed by England, who used him in their struggle against Soviet Russia. At one time it seemed that the Kemalist Turkey, successfully reflected with the support of Soviet Russia an imperialist intervention, would contribute to the achievement of the contractors acceptable for the Black Sea countries. but low level The socio-economic development of Turkey and the weakness of the Turkish proletariat predetermined the top and half nature of the Turkish bourgeois-national revolution. As I. V. Stalin indicates, this revolution "is the top revolution of the national trade bourgeoisie, which arose in the fight against foreign imperialists and aimed in its further development, in fact, against peasants and workers, against the possibilities of the agricultural revolution."

Although bourgeois Turkey differed in many ways from the feudal-clerical Ottoman Empire, it did not become a democratic country. The reactionary regime established in Turkey in Turkey put Turkey into direct dependence on imperialism. During the Second World War, Turkey has rummaged to the shame of the company with fascist aggressors, and after the war it turned out to be in direct submission from the Anglo-American imperialists.

As a result, the question of the sheds even in the newest time did not receive a satisfactory permit, continuing to burden the Soviet-Turkish relations and preventing the stabilization of peace in the Middle East.

The history of the struggle for the straits is many centuries. Another East Roman Empire (Byzantium) put swimming in the straits and in the Black Sea dependence on its discretion. Constantinople's conquest (1453) and then the entire coast of the Black Sea subjugated the passage of vessels through the strait of the Turkish authorities. Obstacles that reinforced by the Turks as a report between the Mediterranean and the Black Seas and especially trade between Europe and Asia, prompted Western European countries to find new ways to the east, and the great geographical discovery of the end of the 15th century - the establishment of the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope - was a kind of bypassing the flank of the Ottoman Empire. The brilliant port from time to time missed foreign vessels through the straits and issued something alone, then the other state of the company for commerce with the Black Sea regions (in the 17th century, the Dutch and the British were used by the Dutch. But these firms could be annulled at any time, and they really canceled the port, if she found it for themselves favorable. The friction tested on this soil led a number of powers to conflicts with Turkey, sometimes those who have taken a very acute character. Nevertheless, the question of the sheds then did not yet have the meaning of the international problem in contemporary concept of this term. On the shores of the Black Sea, there was no other power except Turkey, and the path through the straits was only Turkish, and not to any other possession, that is, in the inner Turkish sea. In view of this, the question of the straits, which is the competence of the Black Sea and only Black Sea countries, was supposed to consider internal affair The only one at the time of the Black Sea Power - Turkey.

The situation in the root changed in the second half of the 17th century, when Russia began to return to its original lands on the shores of the Azov and the Black Seas, from which it was pushed into previous centuries. In 1696, Peter I took the Azov and in the same year issued a decree on the construction of the Russian fleet, putting a question about swimming Russian ships in the Black Sea and in the Strait. Since that time, the question of the straits went beyond the framework of the internal Turkish policy and, since the second power appeared on the Black Sea in addition to Turkey - Russia, acquired international Character.

From this point of view, the history of the issue of sheds as an international problem begins at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. It can distinguish the next three periods: 1) Since the end of the 17th century, when Russia was first put forward to the discovery of straits for Russian courts, until the 40s of the 19th century, when the international regulation of the strait regime was established; 2) from the 40s of the 19th century until the end of the First World War - the period during which the question of the sheds, being part of the Eastern Question, was entirely subordinated to the imperialist interests of the "Great Powers", and the strait regimals were regulated by multilateral agreements; 3) From the moment of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia - a not yet completed period, during which the Soviet government has steadily achieved and achieves a fair decision on the sheds by the Agreement by the Agreement of Black Sea countries on the basis of equality and with the full provision of their interests and safety of the Black Sea.

In the first period The question of the straits was allowed mainly by bilateral Russian-Turkish agreements without the participation of non-Black Sea. Russia had to make great efforts and spend the long decade to break the resistance of Turkey, to achieve the opening of the Black Sea and the straits first for trading, and then for their military vessels.

In 1698, the prophyuse of the Racing (...) tried to negotiate on this occasion with Turkish representatives on the Karlovitsky Congress (...), but received a categorical refusal. His attempt continued Emelyan Ukrainians (see) at the conclusion of the Constantinople peace treaty of 1700 (...). Using support for hostile Russia Power, the port continued to persist. At the conclusion of the Belgrade Peace Contracts of 1739 (...), she again succeeded with the help of the French ambassador Vilnev, who spoke as an intermediary, reject the requirements of Russia on the opening of the Black Sea for Russian shipping. Only the decisive success of Russia in the war of 1768-1774 forced Turkey to recognize the fact of the transformation of the Black Sea from the inner Turkish to the Russian-Turkish Sea and agree to the opening of both the Black Sea and the strands for Russian commercial navigation (see Küchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty 1774).

Having received the right of passing through the straits and swimming in the Black Sea by Küchuk-Kainardzhi Agreement for its own merchant ships, Russia has achieved the same right for commercial vessels of other states. This was reflected in a number of Russian-Turkish contracts and agreements, and the port at that time unequivocally recognized that Russia is entitled to control the fulfillment of Turkey obligations on the free passage of commercial vessels through the straits. The most significant in this regard was the Adrianopol Peace Treaty of 1829 (...). Making a commitment to Turkey not to prevent the passage through the straits of Russian commercial ships, and equally and commercial vessels of other states, "with which the Ottoman Empire is not in the declared war", an agreement read it: "... and if (from what God is sorry) what -Lo from the decisions contained in this article will be violated and on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ses of the Russian minister will not follow perfect and soon satisfaction, the brilliant port pre-recognizes that the Imperial Russian Dvor has the right to take such a violation for hostility and immediately enter the Ottoman Empire immediately By the right of retribution. "

Kychuk-Kainardzhiy and Adrianopol Treaties finally allowed one part of the problem of straits - the discovery of them for trade marine waters. The difficulties in this issue were happening in the future: Turkish authorities violated freedom of passage, taxed transit vessels with excessive fees, created soldiers in the field of sanitary control, etc. However, the most principle of freedom of commercial navigation in the straits was firmly approved, and no one has already disputed .

A much more difficult matter was to resolve the question of the passage of warships through the straits. Here, Russia had to take care of not only the opening of the straits for Russian warships, but also to ensure the safety of the Black Sea from possible aggression from the Non-Black Causes, it became that foreign military vessels do not penetrate the Black Sea.

The view of Russian diplomacy on the Black Sea, as a closed for military fleets of the non-Black Sea Power, was clearly formulated by A. R. Vorontsov at the very beginning of his chancertering, in 1802. Offering the Russian ambassador in Konstantinople A. Ya. Itali to insist on rejecting the port of Talleyran on the admission of French warships in the Black Sea "to protect trade from Corsaars" (which, by the way, has never been to this sea), Vorontsov pointed out: " The Black Sea otherwise it should not read as a lake or sea locked, in which there is no other in the entrance, as through the channel (i.e., the straits - ed.), And the possession of which belongs only to those powers that are surrounded by their shores.

At that time, Turkey recognized the need, opening straits for Russian warships, prevent the passage of military ships of other powers. Russia received the right to hold their military ships through the straits in the Russian-Turkish Union Agreement of 1799 (...). This right was confirmed by Art. 4 Russian-Turkish Union Treaty of 1805 (...), which included the following important decree, which approved the principle of closing the Black Sea for the warships of non-Black Countries: "Contracting Parties agreed to consider the Black Sea closed and not allow the appearance of there any military the ship or armed vessel of any (third - ed.) Power; if any of these powers tries to appear there with armed forces, high Contracting Parties undertake to consider such an attempt as a reason for the war and to resist her with all their seasy forces, recognizing the only means to ensure its mutual security "(Art. 7, secret). Essentially, this decree meant that Russia and Turkey in principle agreed on the joint Russian-Turkish defense of the Black Sea from the invasion of the naval forces of non-Black Sea countries through Straits.

Defined by bilateral Russian-Turkish contracts, the regime of straits in general responded to the interests of both Black Sea powers - Russia and Turkey, but speaking that the most union with Russia fencing Turkey from external, and largely from the internal shocks. But Turkish's foreign policy was no longer independent. When exposed to one, then the other power, the port gradually turned into a born tool to the international political game. The efforts of Napoleon's ambassador. Sebastiani led in 1806 to violate the Turkey of the Union and other agreements with Russia, which caused a six-year-old Russian-Turkish war (see the Bucharest Mirny Treaty of 1812). At the same time, England, who was then the Allian Russia, tried to take advantage of the case to solve the question of the sheds. A breakthrough of the Admiral Devort Equader in 1807 ended with a planic retreat, but the Anglo-Turkish agreement of 1809 (...) brought England a tactile advantage, introducing it to regulation of the regions and fixed the "Ancient Rule of the Ottoman Empire" for the first time War ships of any foreign power, not excluding Russia.

This so-called Dardaneel Treaty of 1809 was the first agreement on the passage of warships through the straits, Turkey's concluded with the Nefthern Power. Its value was at first small, and the "Ancient Rule of the Ottoman Empire" did not prevent Turkey another quarter of a century to negotiate about the regions directly with Russia. The most important among bilateral Russian-Turkish agreements of this period was UNKYAR-SECELLSII TEGE 1833 (...) According to which Turkey pledged to close Dardanelles at the request of Russia for the passage of foreign warships. He caused a storm of indignation by rivals of Russia. England and France sent the Russian government a protest note, in which they threatened that the Unnuna-Iskelian agreement would be considered "as if non-existent." In a retaliatory note russian ministry Foreign affairs rejected protest, indicating that it will consider the English and French notes "as if non-existent." An attempt to intimidate Russia and Turkey the parcel of the Anglo-French squadron to the straits was also not successful.

Nevertheless, the Unionar-SKELEELIA agreement was short-lived. Nicholas I considered the most important task of his foreign policy against the "revolutionary contagion" in Europe and, above all, against the "King of Barricades" Louis Philipp. Submissive of this main goal of all other foreign policy interests of Russia, he was ready to make concessions on various other issues, including on the issue of Turkey and about the sheds, just to isolate France and form a pan-European block against it. In the fall of 1833, the Austro-Russian Munich Munich Convention was signed (see), which limited the freedom of action of Russia in the Middle East, and in 1839 Nicholas I finally refused to benefit the benefits of the ISKELIA, so that this price would get the consent of England to the joint speech Egyptian Pasha Mohammed Ali (see) and standing for him France. Concluded on this basis London Convention 1840 (...) really wore an anti-brand character, but at the same time he revived so comfortable for the British "ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire", which closed the Russian warships through the straits. Nicholas I was confident that the London Convention of 1840 is great success His diplomacy, in fact, won Palmerston, who had long been said that he would like to "dissolve" the UNKAR-SKELECT Treaty in the "Agreement of a more general nature".

With the termination of the UNKYAR-SECELLEX Treaty, the period of bilateral Russian-Turkish agreements on the regions ended.

Second period In history, the question of the straits was opened by the signing of the London Convention of 1841 between the "Great Powers" (including this time France) and Turkey. It was confirmed by the "ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire" on the prohibition of the passage of any foreign warships through the straits, which from now on as if the norm of international law. Sultan declared that he "has a solid intention for the future time to" observe this "immutable start-up", and the remaining participants in the Convention promised to "respect this decision of the Sultan and to relate to the foregoing" (Art. I).

The multilateral regulation of the regimal regime established by the London Convention 1841 was deprived of both Black Sea powers, that is, Turkey and Russia belonged to them. Turkey now could not, if he wanted to break his "ancient rule" in favor of Russia. The Russian military fleet was locked in the Black Sea. The prohibition of foreign warships to go to the Black Sea had dubious value for Russia, since it was envisaged only on peaceful time And so on. Turkey with the signing of the London Conventions of the 1840 and 1841 in fact (and partly and formally) passed under the custody of European powers, among which England used the greatest influence on the port.

For his part, Nikolai I took the course to the Ottoman Empire section. The question of the straits was although not the only one, but one of the most important motives pushing the royal government to the war with Turkey. The Russian people had to pay blood and deprivation to pay for the reaction policy and the talent diplomacy. Paris Congress of 1856 (...) laid heavy obligations to Russia, among which the most inflammatory and humiliating was the decision on the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea (Art. 11, 13 and 14), who paid Russia to conduct any measures To protect her Black Sea coast. By itself, the straits remained the same. The Paris Treaty Applied to the Paris Agreement reproduced with insignificant only changes in the London Convention of 1841. But now, in combination with the "neutralization" of the Black Sea, the closure of the straits for Russian warships was even greater than before, the threat of security of Russia, not allowing the Russian government to translate ships from the other seas to the Black Sea, while Western powers could Any time to force the Turkish subordinate to them to violate the Strait Convention in their favor.

In 1870, the Russian government abolished the articles of the Paris Treatise on the Neutralization of the Black Sea (see Gorchakov Circular). England was forced to retreat in this matter, and the London Convention of 1871 sanctioned the restoration of the sovereign rights of Russia. However, the strait regimen was defined in this Convention (Art. 2 and 3) almost on the same basis as in 1841: still strait was considered in peacetime closed to the passage of all foreign warships, including Russian . This system was also preserved by the Berlin Treatise of 1878 (Art. 63).

Up until the First World War, Russian diplomacy tried in vain to change this situation unprofitable for Russia. There were cases, for example, in 1891 and 1894, when Sultan issued company companies to the passage of Russian warships through the straits (without armament and armed guards), but England made it difficult to obtain such permits, and in 1904 even arranged a naval demonstration near the straits To prevent the passage of Russian military vessels from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. As a result, during the Russian-Japanese war, one of the best Russian escords was locked in the Black Sea by international treatises under the control of the Allibion \u200b\u200bof Japan - England. Of the same unsuccessful, mainly due to the opposition of England, there were further attempts to Russia to resolve peaceful way about the straits: Negotiations of the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs A. P. Rostivsky during the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909 (...) and the so-called "demarche Charykov "in 1911, undertaken in connection with the Italian-Turkish war. On the ideas of the Russian government, English diplomats invariably answered that he considers the moment to initiate the issue of the "uncomfortable" sheds, or was offered as an alternative to the principle of closing of the straits for all foreign warships full of their opening, but also for everyone without exception, which brought Russia would not improve, but a sharp deterioration in the regime of the straits.

The international guardianship of the straits was also unprofitable for Turkey, violating it sovereignty and creating a dangerous aggravation of relations with Russia. But Turkey's role in resolving the issue of the sheds was negligible and miserable. French journalist Rene Pinon wrote about this: "Trust the key from the house where the healthy soldier locked, the old disabled person, is to put a guard before the worst misadventures or before the need to call for help; those who want to help will be a lot, but no one wants to make it free. . Thus, you do not know who you do not feel sorry for: whether Russia, locked in the Black Sea, or Turkey, prohibiting the way out of it. "

During the years, the German influence on Turkey sharply preceded by the First World War. Arriving at the end of 1913 in Constantinople Military mission of Liman von Sanders (...) established his control over the Turkish army. A number of other signs also indicated that Turkey, and therefore, the straits go under the domination of Germany. Meanwhile, England, still located (together with France), important financial and economic and diplomatic levers of impact on the Turkish government, practically did not prevent her German penetration into Turkey. The cause of such "non-interference" was the desire of British diplomacy to replace the Anglo-Russian antagonism on the issue of Herman-Russian strait and this strengthen the dependence of Tsarist Russia from England. The same reason was caused by the connivance of the British Mediterranean squadron in relation to the German warships "Gheben" and "Breslau", which allowed them to penetrate in early August 1914; The same explained by all the subsequent behavior of British diplomacy, relieving the Germans and Enveru Pasha (see) Investment of Turkey in the first world War On the side of Germany (see German-Turkish agreement of 1914). When Turkey's participation in the war became a fact, the British were the first to begin to do the royal government promising hints that Turkey "cannot more be the guardian of the strands." As a result of the happened, the negotiations were signed by the Anglo-Franco-Russian Secret Agreement of 1915 (...) on the inclusion of Constantinople and Straits, after the victory of the Allies over Germany, Russian Empire. From the point of view of England and France, this agreement was intended to maintain and strengthen the interest of the ruling circles of Russia in bringing the war with Germany to a victorious end. The royal government was also trying to use this agreement for the struggle against the anti-war moods enhancing in Russia and to this end, it was announced in 1916 in the Duma its main content.

The real value of this agreement for Russia was problematic: the allies accompanied it with such reservations that would relatively easily allow them at the end of the war to avoid the fulfillment of the promises given Russia. In addition, immediately after the signing of the Agreement, England on the initiative of Churchill (...) undertook a so-called Dardanese expedition in conjunction with France in order to capture the straits and hold them in their hands. Even S. D. Sazonov (...), in the entirely defending the imperialist union of Russia with England and France, recognized in his "memories" that when the English and French ambassadors reported to him about solving their governments to take the Dardanesely expedition, he was "hard labor Hide from them an unpleasant impression, "and he said to them:" Remember that you are taking this expedition not at my request. "

Third period In the history of the question of the straits, the Great October Socialist Revolution was opened. This new stage differs sharply from the two preceding first because with the advent of the world's first socialist state, the nature of the foreign policy of the largest from the Black Sea Power - Soviet Russia has radically changed. Lenin and Stalin led by Lenin and Stalin, the foreign policy of Soviet Russia has set itself the tasks that answer not only the national interests of the Soviet country, but also the indigenous interests of the people's masses of the whole world (...). Therefore, the question of the straits acquired a new meaning. Throwing the concluded plans of tsarism, Soviet diplomacy at the same time, with much greater hardness and perseverance, defends the interests of the Black Sea countries and the principle of the safety of the Black Sea. But the policy of imperialist powers is still aimed at using straits to carry out their aggressive plans.

At first, after the end of the war, 1914-1918, England showed the greatest activity in the problem of the sheds. In early November 1918, immediately on the signing of the Mudrosorian truce (...), English navy Entered in Dardanelles and posed Constantinople under the threat of his guns. In 1920, Constantinople has already been formally occupied by the Honors of the Entente led by England. Using its authority over P., Annta conducted an armed intervention against Soviet Russia. England, with the mediation of the Greek army, also conducted an intervention against Kemalist Turkey. Under pressure from the British, the powerless Sultan government signed with the Antena Sevr peace treaty of 1920 (...), which has encouraged Turkey for dismemberment and challenge. The question of the straits was allowed by the Sevra Treaty solely in favor of England: the straits disarmed and opened for warships of all powers; The zone of the straits was transferred to the power of the International Commission headed by representatives of the Entente; This commission received the right to keep their troops in the straits, the police, to have its own flag and budget. All this should have determined the transition of straits for the actual domination of England, as the most severe sea power.

The hopes of England for the victory of the anti-Soviet intervention did not come true. Yes, and in Turkey, the British met an unexpected obstacle to them - the Turkish national liberation movement, which received support from Soviet Russia. The Moscow Treaty of 16. III of 1921 between the RSFSR and Turkey (see Soviet-Turkish agreements) had a crucial importance for the Turks in their struggle for independence. He laid the foundation for the Soviet-Turkish friendship, which allowed the Turks to reflect the onslaught of the intervention and to cancel the Sevrian Treaty.

In the Moscow Treaty of 1921 also contained a ruling on the issue of sheds. It reads: "In order to ensure the opening of the straits and free passage through them for trade relations of all nations, both of the Contracting Parties agree to transfer the final development of the International Statute of the Black Sea and the Straits of a Special Conference from the Delegates of Coastal Countries, provided that the decision makes it not damage to the full Turkey sovereignty, as well as the security of Turkey and its capital, Constantinople "(Art. V). Identical articles were included in the 1921 Carssian Treaty (Article 9) and to the Ukrainian-Turkish agreement 1922 (Art. 4).

However, at the Lausanne Conference (...) The question of the sheds was considered not among the Black Sea countries alone. The leadership of the conference was captured by the Honor of the Entente headed by England. Chairman of the Commission who discussed the question of the straits was Lord Kerzon (...); Even Japan participated in it, having nothing to do with the issue of straits. The only delegation, consistently and until the end of the interests of the Black Sea countries defended the interests of the Black Sea countries, was the Soviet delegation. Turkey, although she came to the Lausanne Conference as a winner, showed a hasty and far-coming fasciance against the British, hoping to get support for other issues of a peace treaty for this from England. The fuel of the Turks facilitated Kerzon to perform his task. I ignore the fair demands of the Soviet delegation and relying on their allies and satellites, he joined the backstage collusion with the Turkish delegation, headed by Ismet Inyun (...), and held his draft Convention on the Straits.

The Lausanne Convention, signed by 24. VII 1923, has established straits, only slightly different from accepted in Sevra. Straits disarmed and declared open to the passage of any warships, "Whatever flag", afternoon and night, without any permission and even the warnings of the Turkish authorities. Only the Commission created by the Lausanne Convention for monitoring the implementation of the rules of the passage of military ships through the straits did not have those rights that were envisaged by the Sevrian Treaty, and the Chairman had to be not a representative of the Hermit of the Entente, but the representative of Turkey; In addition, the Lausanne Convention contained some essentially insignificant, restrictions on the entry of foreign warships in the Black Sea.

Such strait regimals put the Black Sea at risk of aggression. Therefore, the Soviet Union has not ratified the Lausanne Convention. This strait regimacy was also dangerous for Turkey, but the Turkish government signed and approved the Convention to the detriment of the interests of his country.

Soon the Turks themselves became clear, what threat represents for them the Lausanne Convention on Straits. Since 1933, when the German fascists, capturing power in Germany, created the foundation of the war in Europe, and the Italian fascists, intensely armed near the Malaya Asia of Dodecanese, plunged the Turks in almost panic fear, Turkish diplomacy began to probed the soil about the possibility of remilitarization of the straits. For a while, this probe met a stubborn opposition of the British, who declared that they consider the moment to revise the Lausanne Convention "inappropriate." But at the end of 1935, in connection with the Italian-Ethiopian war and the liga of nations of some economic sanctions against Italy, England has shown interest in convergence with Turkey to use its naval databases. British diplomacy involved Turkey to the Mediterranean "Gentlemen" agreement on mutual assistance and gave to understand the Turkish government that, on the basis of Anglo-Turkish rapprochement, Turkey can change the regime of the strands.

In June 1936, the International Conference on Straits (see Montreux Conference) opened in Montreux. On her, the Turkish delegation, as well as it was in Lausanne, but even more dangerous for the interests of the Black Sea countries, retreated from the principles of the safety of the Black Sea and friendship E USSR. A backward collusion was held between Turkish and English delegations, a declistence was held to disrupt the Soviet proposals concerning the right of the Black Sea countries through the straits of their warships. Ultimately, the Turks and the British in view of the decisive eating of the USSR had to abandon most of their objections, and the new convention on the regions reflected many of the requirements nominated by the Soviet Union. It recognized the special position of the Black Sea states compared with non-Black Sea; limited (tonnage, class and length of staying in the Black Sea) to the straits of the warships of non-Black Sea powers, and the Black Sea countries were allowed to conduct any of their ships through the straits; Fully prohibited passage through the spills of warship of warring powers. But this convention did not fully ensure the fully interests of the Black Sea countries. Its main disadvantage, in terms of the safety of the Black Sea, was that Turkey could actually uncontrollably interpret and apply the Convention in its one-sole discretion.

So wide and exclusive rights of Turkey were all the more dangerous that its military-technical resources and other objective possibilities did not correspond to the tasks of defense of the straits in the context of modern war, and its growing dependence on imperialist, including fascist, powers forced to doubt the determination The Turkish government will respond with aggressors in case of an attempt on the safety of straits and the Black Sea.

The unusability of the Convention concluded in Montreux was clearly manifested during World War II. Turkey has provided full assistance to fascist aggressors (see German-Turkish Treaty 1941). Her diplomacy (see "Sarajoglu and Menemangioglu") led a frankly hostile line against the USSR. In particular, it was reflected in the use of straits with fascist powers to the harm to the Soviet Union. So, 9. VII 1941, the German commander held through the Straits to the Black Sea, the German watchmaker "Zefalkka", which was a gross violation of the Strait Convention and caused a submission by the USSR to the Turkish government. In August 1941, the Turkish authorities gave permission to pass through the straits in the Black Sea, the Italian Auxiliary Ship "Tarvisio", and therefore the Soviet government also made the presentation of Turkey. 4. XI 1942, the Soviet government reasted the attention of the Turkish government to the fact that Germany intends to spend through the prolites under the guise of commercial vessels auxiliary military vessels with a total displacement of 140 thousand tons, intended for the transfer of military forces and military materials of the axis countries to the Black Sea, And that the passage of these courts will be an explicit violation of the Convention signed in Montreux. In June 1944, the Soviet government stated the Turkish government a protest against the occasion at the end of May and in early June 1944 passes through the straits from the Black Sea to the Aegean German military and military-auxiliary vessels of various tonnage of the EMC type (8 ships) and "Krigstransport "(5 ships) who participated in naval operations in the Black Sea. In addition, the Turkish authorities have repeatedly passed through the Straits in 1942-1943, German high-speed barges. The dimensions of the threat created for the safety of the Black Sea were such that the Soviet supreme Command I had to remove the essential number of armed forces for the defense of the Black Sea region from the main directions of the Theater of Military Action.

In the light of these circumstances, even England and the United States were forced to recognize the unsatisfactory of the Convention concluded in Montreux. At the Potsdam Conference of 1945 (...) The Government of the USSR, England and the United States agreed that this convention should be revised, as not meeting the conditions of the present time, and that as the next step this question will be the topic of direct negotiations between each of the three powers and Turkish government.

In accordance with the decision of the Potsdam Conference, the USSR government has begun negotiations with Turkey. Nota from 7. VIII 1946 It proposed the Turkish government to put the following five principles as a basis for the regime of the straits: 1) Straits should always be open to the passage of trade ships of all countries; 2) Straits should always be open to the passage of the Military Courts of the Black Sea powers; 3) passage through the straits for military vessels of non-Black Causes is not allowed, with the exception of particular cases; 4) the establishment of the regime of the sheds as the only sea route leading from the Black Sea and to the Black Sea should be the competence of Turkey and other Black Sea powers; 5) Turkey and the Soviet Union, as the powers, the most interested and capable of providing freedom of commercial navigation and safety in the straits, are organized by joint means of defense of straits to prevent the use of straits by other states in hostile to the Black Sea defense purposes.

Soviet proposals that are fully informed long history The question of the sheds was not, however, Turkey was accepted. 24. IX 1946 The Soviet government sent the Turkish government a new note on this issue in which the arguments of the Turkish government subjected to a detailed analysis and proved their inconsistency. But this time the Turkish government, under the influence of hostile to the Soviet Union of Anglo-American imperialist circles, refused to promote fair resolution of the issue of sheds.

Thus, the question of the sheds, passing various historical phases and changed its form to a large extent, and in part and content, still remains and is currently unresolved. It goes without saying, it cannot be considered isolated from other problems of international politics. The ratio of one or another power to the question of the sheds, both in the past and now, depends on the general direction and nature of the policy of this power. The imperialist powers are pursued in the question of the straits of imperialist purposes. Turkey appears to be submitted to Anglo-American imperialism and in the question of the sheds as an accomplice of imperialists. On the contrary, the only Socialist Great Power in the world - the Soviet Union - seeks such a decision of this centuries-old, but so actual problemthat would correspond to the interests of the world and security of peoples.

Diplomatic dictionary. GL ed. A. Ya. Vyshinsky and S. A. Lozovsky. M., 1948.

Plan
Introduction
1 Description
1.1 Bosphorus
1.2 Dardannella

2 Question about the sheds
Bibliography

Introduction

Black Sea (or Turkish) Straits (Tour. Türk BOğazları, Greek. Τα στενά του βοσπόρου or το στενό), the zone of straits or simply straits (often from the capital letter) - a set of two marine straits, Bosphorus and Dardanelle located in the Marmara region Western Turkey. The area of \u200b\u200bthe straits often attributes the marble sea between them with surroundings.

[edit] Description

Black Sea Straits consistently connect the Black Sea with marble, and marble - with Aegean, which is part of the Mediterranean. They also separate Europe (Frace) from Asia Minor (Anatolia). Straits provide access to the Mediterranean Sea and the world's oceans of Russia, Ukraine, Transcaucasia and South-Eastern Europe. In addition to agricultural and industrial goods, a significant proportion of exports through the straits is oil from Russia and other Caspian countries.

1.1. Bosphorus

Bosphorus (Tour. İstanbul BOğazı, Greek. βόσπορος) - a shed connecting the Black Sea with marble. The length is about 30 km, the maximum width is 3,700 m in the north, the minimum width of the strait is 700 meters. The depth of the fairway from 36 to 124 m. On both sides of the Bosphorus, the historic city of Constantinople, now Istanbul is located.

The shores of the Strait connect two bridges: the Bosphorus bridge is 1074 meters long (completed in 1973) and the Sultan Mehmed Fatiha Bridge 1090 meters long (built in 1988) 5 km north of the first bridge. The third road bridge is planned, but the construction site of Turkey is still kept secret to avoid the rise in land prices. Currently, the MARMARAY railway tunnel is being built (ending term - 2012), which will unite the Istanbul transport systems located in the European and Asian parts of the city.

1.2. Dardanelles

Dardanelles (Tour. çanakkale BOğAZı, Greek. Δαρδανέλλια), ancient Greek name - Gellevpont . Strait between the European Peninsula Gallipoli and the North-West of Malaya Asia. It connects the Marmara Sea with Aegean. Coordinates of Dardanell - 40 ° 15 "Northern Littleness and 26 ° 31" Eastern longitude. The length of the strait is 61 kilometers, width - from 1.2 to 6 kilometers. The average depth of the fairway is 55 meters.

2. Question about the sheds

Due to the strategically important geopolitical position of the Black Sea Straits, their status since the ancient Trojan war has repeatedly caused international tensions and served as a matter of concern of rival countries, especially during periods of weakening and changing one or another of the basic great powers.

While the Byzantine Empire, and after its fall, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Black Sea, the question of the straits was actually the internal affair of these states, and therefore for more than ten centuries it was not standing on the international agenda. However, by the end of the XVII century, the situation has changed significantly: Russia has entered the coast of the Azov and the Black Seas - and the relevance of the control over the strata zone has increased, afterwarding the important part of the Eastern Question.

During the Sunset of the Ottoman Empire, in the London Conference in 1841 it was decided to close the straits for the passage of whose military vessels in peacetime. From the point of view of modern international law, the zone of straits is "open sea" and has been managed in accordance with the provisions of the Montreux Convention on the status of straits while maintaining over the last sovereignty of the Turkish Republic.

According to the Convention, the commercial vessels of all countries have freedom of passage through the straits both in peaceful and in wartime. However, the regime of the warships of warships is poured against the Black Sea and non-Blacks. Subject to the preliminary notification of the Turkish authorities, the Black Sea powers can conduct their warships of any class through the straits in peacetime. For warship of non-Black Sea powers, significant restrictions on the class were introduced (only minor surface ships are allowed), on tonnage and duration of stay.

In the case of Turkey's participation in the war, and also if Turkey considers that it directly threatens the war, she is given the right to resolve or prohibit passage through the straits of any military vessels. During the war in which Turkey does not participate, the sheds should be closed to the passage of military courts of any warring power.

The last military case (not counting the teachings), when the mechanisms envisaged by the Convention were involved, the South Ossetian conflict was August 2008: through the straits in the direction of Georgian ports, Batumi and Poti then a number of warships of the sixth fleet of the US Navy continued.

Bibliography:

1. τουρκική πολιτική για τα στενά on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Greece. (Greek) + (Greek)

total name of Bosphorus Straits, Dardanelles and located between them of the Marmara Sea. Ch. P. - the only path of the message between the black and Mediterranean seas. Ch. P. In the system of international sea routes, occupy a special position. While Byzantium, and after the conquest in 1453 Konstantinople, the Turks - the Ottoman Empire dominated over the entire Black Sea coast and the Black Sea in view of this was actually their inner sea, the use of Ch. P. was the internal affair of these states. By the end of the 17th century. The situation has changed significantly. Peter I proceeded to the construction of the Azov Fleet and took Azov in 1696, Russia came out on the Azov and Black Seas coast. Now the question of the entrance to the Black Sea and the exit of it has acquired an international character, which subsequently, which subsequently, the important part of the tons. Eastern Question (see Eastern Question). For a long time The efforts of Russian diplomacy, who sought to open the black m. And Ch. For the Russian Fleet, did not succeed. According to Kychuk-Kainardji world, 1774 (see Kychuk-Kainardzhi Mir 1774) for Russia, the right of commercial navigation in the Black Sea and Ch. Pl. Later, the same right received other states (with the exception of States fighting with Turkey). A much more difficult matter was for Russian diplomacy. Settlement of the question of the passage of warships. The security interests of the Black Sea countries demanded the establishment of such a regime in Ch. This regime, which, providing their military fleets, a reliable connection with the open seas, at the same time would protect these countries from the threat of aggression from the non-Black Sea powers. This principle was clearly formulated in 1802 by Chancellor A. R. Vorontsov in response to the claims of France, who walked for his military fleet, the right of passage through Ch. P. similar to Russia, the position and Turkey. Do not pass the warships of non-Black Sea countries into the Black Sea, it is in Russian-Turkish allied agreements (see Russian-Turkish Union Contracts) 1799 and 1805 provided Russian warships right to pass to the Mediterranean Sea.

Meanwhile, non-black houses, first of all, the United Kingdom and France, sought to get the right of unlimited access to the Black Sea for their not only trade, but also military vessels, while prohibiting the passage through Ch. Russian Military Fleet. But since it is not possible to openly justify such an unlawful requirement possible, they sought "equality" with Russia, i.e. either full discovery, or full closure of Ch. For warships of all countries.

Under the influence of Napoleonic diplomacy, Turkey was abolished in violation of the Allied Treaty 1805 with Russia's free skipping of Russian ships through the straits. Following the time during russian-Turkish Wars 1806-12 Great Britain imposed Turkey Agreement (1809), which under the guise of the "Ancient Rules of the Ottoman Empire" proceeded by passing through Ch. P. warships of any foreign powers (see Art. English-Turkish contracts) . The UNKAR-SECELLSII Treaty of 1833, in fact, restoring the Russian-Turkish Union, ordered Turkey to close Dardanelles at the request of Russia for the passage of the warships of other states. However, the London Convention 1840 revived allegedly always the existing "ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire."

First multilateral international Agreement About Ch. - London Convention 1841 confirmed the "ancient rule" and turned it into an international obligation. This, Turkey and Russia lost themselves to them on their own, bilateral agreements to regulate the procedure for the admission of military courts into the Black Sea and exit. The Russian military fleet was locked in the Black Sea. The prohibition of the Military ships of the Non-Black Sea states to pass into the Black Sea did not imagine considerable value for Russia, especially since it was envisaged to the Convention 1841 only for peacetime. Meanwhile, Turkey, falling into an increasing dependence on Western European powers, often made an exception for them from the "ancient rule." This was one of the important motives that pushing the royal Russia in 1853 to the war with Turkey (see Crimean War of 1853-1856 (see Crimean War 1853-56)). The Paris Mirny Treaty completed this war 1856 Rereted Russia under the guise of the obligation to support the "Neutralization" of the Black Sea effective Mer To protect your Black Sea coast. In 1870, the Russian government refused to recognize the articles of the Paris Treaty on the "neutralization" of the Black Sea; The London Convention 1871 authorized the abolition of these articles. However, the regime of Ch. P. was defined in this Convention almost on the same basis as in 1841. The same system was preserved by the Berlin Treatment Treatment 1878 (see in Art. Berlin Congress 1878).

Up to the 1st World War, Russian diplomacy tried in vain to change the regime unprofitable for Russia. Cases, for example, in 1891 and 1894, when turkish Sultan I bet on the passage of Russian warships through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles (without armament and without armed guards), but the non-Black Sea powers made it difficult to obtain such permits, and during the Russian-Japanese war 1904-05, the United Kingdom arranged a naval demonstration near Dardanelle to prevent the pass Russian military vessels from the Black Sea in the Mediterranean and the emergence of them on D. East. International supervision over Ch.p. was unprofitable for Turkey, because I violated it sovereignty, promoted the turning of Turkey into a semi-colony of imperialist powers, created a dangerous aggravation of relations with Russia for her. In the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The greatest economic and political influence in Turkey used the United Kingdom and France. But in the years, the positions of Germany, directly preceding the 1st World War, were significantly strengthened. After Turkey's entry into the 1st world war on the side of Germany, the secret Anglo-Franco-Russian Agreement 1915 was signed, supported to the inclusion of Constantinople (Istanbul) and Ch. P. in the Russian Empire. This agreement was intended to maintain the interest of Russia's ruling circles in bringing the war with Germany to a victorious end.

After the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution, the Soviet Russia announced the refusal of the secret treaties of the royal government, from the agreement on Constantinople and Ch. On the contrary, the imperialist powers put in order of capture of Ch.p. on the signing of the Mudrosorian truce 1918 (see Mysmore ) the navy powered by the Entente entered in Ch. In 1920, Istanbul was occupied by the forces of the Entente. Its domination over Istanbul and the zone of Ch. p. Imperialist powers used for the implementation of armed intervention in the south of Soviet Russia, as well as (with the mediation of the Greek Army) for intervention against Turkey. According to the Spring Peace Treaty of 1920 signed by the Sultan Government (see Sevra Mirny Treaty of 1920), the question of Ch.p. was allowed in favor of imperialist powers.

The Sevres Agreement did not take effect, because Anglo-Greek intervention in Turkey suffered defeat. The principles of solving the issue of sheds that responded to the interests of both Soviet Russia and Turkey were developed by V. I. Lenin. They were recorded in the Moscow Treaty of March 16, 1921 between the RSFSR and Turkey, which provided for the development of the International Statute of the Black Sea and Ch. P. Conference "... from delegates of coastal states, provided that the decision made it will not damage the total sovereignty of Turkey, As well as the security of Turkey and its capital of Constantinople. " Identical articles were included in the Karsian agreement 1921 both in the Ukrainian-Turkish agreement 1922. At the Lausanne Conference 1922-23 (see the Lausanne Conference 1922-23), the Soviet delegation led a persistent struggle for a fair decision on the sheds. The Lausanne Convention on the Straits, signed on July 24, 1923, found that the zone of Ch. P. Dormilitarizes and is declared open to the passage of any warships. Such a regime put the Black Sea countries under the threat of aggression, so the Soviet Union did not ratify the Lausanne Convention. In April 1936, the Turkish government, counting on the support of the UK interested in involving Turkey into the orbit of its Mediterranean policies and the use of Turkish naval databases, suggested that the Persons - participants of the Lausanne Conference 1922-23 hold negotiations to conclude a new convention on Ch. In June 1936 In Montreux, an international conference was opened on the issue of Ch. (See Montreux Conference 1936), which ended with the signing of July 20, 1936 of the new Convention on Ch. In it was taken into account, although not completely, the interests of the Black Sea countries. They were allowed to be carried out through Ch. Any of their ships subject to the established pass rules, while the admission of military ships of non-Blacks of the Power was limited to a tonnage, class and length of stay in the Black Sea; The passage of military ships of warring powers is paid; Turkey, in the case of his joining war or under the threat of war, had the right to resolve or prohibit passage through the straits of any military courts.

During the 2nd World War, 1939-45 Turkey, announced after the German attack on the USSR on his neutrality, provided the opportunity to fascist aggressors to use Ch. For its own purposes. In the light of these circumstances, the Potsdam Conference 1945 recognized that the Convention concluded in Montreux should be revised. In 1946, the USSR began negotiations with Turkey, but the Turkish government rejected Soviet proposals. In 1953, the Soviet government announced the Government of Turkey that it revised its former view relative to these proposals. T. about., Convention 1936 remains international Actregulating shipping in Ch. P.

LIT: Lenin V. I., Interview with the Observer correspondent and Manchester Gardian M. Farbman, full. Cathedral cit., 5 ed., vol. 45; Ulynitsky V. A., Dardanelles Bosphorus and the Black Sea in the XVIII century, M., 1883; Gorytinov S. M., Bosphorus and Dardanelles, St. Petersburg, 1907; Straits. [Sat], M., 1923; Drena B. A., Black Sea Straits. International legal regime, M., 1948; Miller A. F., Turkey and Proceedings, M., 1947; Altman V.V., from the history of the struggle for the straits after the First World War, in the collection: from the history of public movements and international relations, M., 1957; L. L., to the question of revising the Lausanne Convention on Straits in Anglo-Turkish relations in 1933-1935, in the collection: Problems of British history. 1973, M., 1973; Dascovici N., La Question du Bosphore et des dardanelles, Gen., 1915; Fuad Ali, La Question Des Détroits, P., 1928; Howard H., The Partition of Turkey, N. Y., 1966; PURYEAR V. J., ENGLAND, RUSSIA AND THE STRAITS QUESTION 1844-1856, BERK., 1931; IRTEM Süleyman Kâni, Bogazlar Meselesi, IST., 1936; Abrevaya J., La Conférence De Montreux et Le Régime des Détroits, P., 1938; Bremoy G. de, La Conférence de Montreux et Le Nouveau Régime des Détroits, P., 1939; Shotwell J. T., Déak F., Turkey at the Straits. A. short History., N. Y., 1940.

A. F. Miller.

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