Cultural transformations. Cultural reforms of Peter the Great

Having ascended the throne, Peter I decided to change the face of the country. He was not satisfied with the existing order and the position of Russia in the international arena. Therefore, he so wanted to bring the state to a leading position in all respects. However, when planning reforms, he was forced to take an example from something. Progressive Europe was the model. Today we will talk about what were the cultural changes under Peter 1.

Grand Embassy

Reforms of culture and life under Peter 1 had a positive impact on the future of the country. What prompted the change? In 1697, Russia undertook a diplomatic mission to the countries of Europe. It consisted of diplomats and volunteers who traveled to learn new technologies in construction. Among them, the tsar himself rode, despite the fact that he remained incognito under the pseudonym "Peter Mikhailov." Because of his extraordinary appearance (Peter I was more than two meters tall, and his arms and legs were disproportionately long), he was soon exposed. Also, doctors, a small detachment of guards and soldiers, and servants took part in the campaign. The embassy was even accompanied by personal chefs and jesters.

The real reasons for the embassy

The official task of the diplomatic mission was a kind of "reconnaissance" of the plans of the rulers of other countries, as well as rapprochement with potential allies against the Ottoman Empire. Peter I wanted to find as many friends as possible among the Europeans, so that together with him, side by side, they would fight with Turkey, which at that time encroached on the territory of Russia. However, this strategic goal was not the only one. The king wanted to look at the life and life of people in foreign countries. He wanted to adopt technologies and knowledge from them, in order to then introduce these innovations in his state. Indeed, culture and life under Peter 1 underwent many changes. More on this later.

What did Peter Mikhailov study

Comparing foreigners with his compatriots, Peter saw a big gap between them. In addition to the obvious lag in the military-technical fields, one could see a huge difference in the cultural and educational level of people. Volunteers of the "great embassy" were assigned to special places where they were trained in construction and navigation. Peter himself was both a carpenter and a sailor. He went to lectures on anatomy. There he met the best doctors. I even saw the dissected corpse of a child in one of the rooms and was surprised at what a lively and excellent appearance the dead man had. According to biographies, Peter even kissed a dead smile.

The culture of Russia under Peter 1 underwent drastic changes due to the fact that the tsar visited many court houses, secular balls, where he saw the elite communicate with each other. He would like his subordinates not to be afraid to express their thoughts, as did those close to the English king. In this, the king saw the difference between his country and foreign ones. The diplomatic mission of Peter came to gain learning, but few of them gave due attention to the customs, mores and rules that prevailed in that society. After living in rented houses, they left devastation behind them, for which they were then presented with huge bills even by the standards of that time. But the king noticed and remembered everything, and he wanted to eradicate these shortcomings.

First reforms

Upon arrival in Moscow, Peter immediately began to issue a decree to change the existing order throughout the country. Naturally, first of all, the reforms touched the military sphere. The financial and judicial systems underwent changes. The turn came soon to the field of education.

Education of specialists

Culture in the era of Peter 1 reached a completely new level. Two years after the end of the "Great Embassy", military schools began to open throughout the state. Indeed, in order to bring Russia to the forefront, it was necessary to train real specialists. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in the capital of the state. Here, students were taught mathematics, navigation, geometry, as well as knowledge of celestial bodies. A few months later, the Artillery School was formed. The School of Medicine was opened for physicians in 1707, and for engineers only in 1712.

Diploma for citizens

As soon as the first graduates-specialists began to appear in Russia, who were engaged in the construction of the fleet and military equipment, Peter I began to form schools in the provinces. The children of ordinary people were educated here. Graduates of special Navigation Schools also entered digital schools. The basics of arithmetic and grammar were also taught here. During the entire reign of the tsar, by 1725, 42 digital schools had already been built in Russia. They trained 2,000 students.

The children of soldiers studied in separate institutions - in garrison institutions. At the factories, workshops were also formed, where apprentice children were recruited. They were given all the basics of craftsmanship. Diocesan schools were built to train the clergy. As the only educational institution in Moscow, only the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, which was founded in 1687, worked. Also for priests, the Kiev Theological Academy was formed.

Overseas education

There was a tendency to send children of the nobility abroad to learn some skill there. Even adults were sent to other countries. Among them were, for example, eminent counts D. M. Golitsyn and P. A. Tolstoy. Petr Andreevich began his later studies when he was 52 years old. By this time, he already had adult grandchildren, but this did not deter the student.

These people were called volunteers. They were sent mainly in groups to countries such as Holland, France and England. The main areas of education were: medicine, navigation, art (painting and sculpture), engineering skills.

By 1725, the number of Russians trained abroad approached a thousand. However, not all of them were conscientious about their trips. Often they just spent public money. Returning to their homeland, they could not show any skills. The fate of such undergrowths was a foregone conclusion - they were sent to the rank and file or were assigned as sailors on ships.

Academy of Sciences

Going abroad, Russian diplomats and ambassadors received an order - to recruit at least two foreigners - masters of any business. Thus, in Russia the number of learned people. By 1725, there were so many of them that it was possible to open the first Academy of Sciences in the country. Here students studied various serious sciences. They could continue their education and fully explore their industries in Europe, where they went on the orders of Peter I. This institution was financed exclusively with the money of the country. The state budget was also allocated to student travel abroad. This occurrence was quite rare.

Opening of printing houses

For a better and faster learning process, new books were printed. For this, new printing houses were built in the capital. Some of them performed special functions. For example, in the St. Petersburg printing house only official decrees, orders of the authorities and Peter I were printed. The Senate printing house was also opened, at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, at the Maritime Academy and the Academy of Sciences. The first independent private institutions began to appear: the printing house of Vasily Kipriyanov.

Book innovations

Previously existing books were difficult to understand, not only because of the great illiteracy in the country, but also because of the complexity of the alphabet and script. In 1708, by his decree, the king decided to simplify the language of books. Old Slavonicism in writing gave way to colloquial speech. Books and newspapers have survived to the present, which testified to the popularization of foreign words. Often they were used completely unjustifiably in publications and in various writings.

School textbooks have also been updated. The publication of author's books on arithmetic and writing began. In addition to theoretical knowledge, one could find a lot of practical advice in them: how to measure the distance between trees, calculate the height of a well, and much more.

Publicism

Peter I carried out many reforms in the field of culture. He is the founder of journalism in Russia. It was Peter 1 who formed the first newspaper in the state, Vedomosti, in 1708. The king himself was the author of many of her notes. Many publications were edited by him. The first editions were handwritten, so the number of copies was very limited. However, with the development of technology, the circulation of Vedomosti has also increased. Basically, the pages of the newspaper printed facts about the military situation, an explanation of the tsar's reforms, in order to create sympathy and a good attitude of the people towards innovations. With the help of a journalistic publication, Peter I created messages that were beneficial to him and the authorities, calming the discontent of the nobles and peasants. The newspaper also dealt with educational activities: she shared the results of various expeditions or scientific research, gave useful household advice. Also had information about old and new holidays.

Printed calendars gained popularity under Peter. In addition to listing dates and months, they also contained other interesting information. Customers could find out by reading the calendar when the sun would rise and set, notes and guesses about weather conditions, and the approach of festivities.

Fiction

The transformations of Peter 1 in the field of culture also affected fiction. New literary trends and currents have emerged. Now the authors in their works of art raised new problems. It became interesting to raise problems that would not come into contact with the old Moscow consciousness and realities. An example of this was the stories about ordinary soldiers, sailors who did their duty, and also moved up the career ladder with diligence and hard work.

Also, foreign books were translated to educate minors and instill in them the rules of behavior in society or in the family. One of these was "The Honest Mirror of Youth".

Cultural opposition

As literacy increased, so did opposition. After all, many decrees and reforms of Peter 1 in culture completely changed the established life of the nobles. Anonymous notebooks “walked” all over the country. Naturally, these works had no authors, because they contained criticism of Peter's domestic and foreign policy. Anonymous usually left them in crowded places so that as many people as possible could familiarize themselves with their contents and learn the "true" facts about the "obscene behavior" of the ruler. Historians believe that these journalistic leaflets were mainly written by people from the Old Believer sphere.

Construction of the Northern Capital

Peter I founded and built a new city. By his decree of 1703, he announced the construction of a fortress and the city of the same name - St. Petersburg. Thousands of craftsmen were involved in the construction, half of whom died during the hard years of hard work. Already by 1712, the tsar's associates moved with their courts and families to a new city, which became a military and cultural capital. Russian Empire for several centuries.

The whole city project was originally designed and planned. The streets had to run strictly parallel to each other and intersect at an angle of 90 °. The arteries of St. Petersburg began to be called Nevsky Prospekt. Monumental buildings began to appear in the city, which were famous for their architecture. Many of the buildings were made in the Baroque style, decorated with gold and carved ornaments. All forces were thrown to ensure that the new city with its beauty surpassed hundreds of times the old capital of Russia. After all, all historians know the tsar's sincere dislike for Moscow.

The advent of painting

The list of transformations in culture under Peter 1 would not be complete without such a significant one as the appearance of painting. If as early as the 17th century Russia did not know the art of painting, then with the advent of Peter the Great, truly truly Russian painting arises. Portrait painters and engraving masters began to appear at the hearing. Among the favorite stories were fights and battles, naval battles and, of course, the beautiful city of St. Petersburg. Artistic culture flourished under Peter 1. Famous artists - A. Matveev, I. Nikitin, Zubov, A. Rostovtsev were engaged in painting art books, drawing up geographical maps for school textbooks. Many painters came from Europe and, already opening their workshops, taught Russian artistic techniques. Their contribution to Russian art cannot be underestimated.

Theatrical life

The reforms of Peter 1 in the field of culture also affected theatrical life. After the "Great Embassy" in Moscow there is a theater. There were no actors in Russia at that time, so the characters in all performances and productions were played by Europeans. Dramatic art was also not developed, so translators translated foreign plays, which then ended up on the stage of theaters. However, the theater was not popular among the people. Even the king himself soon lost his interest in theatrical art. He always wanted to be active heroes, and not a passive spectator, as happened in the auditorium. However, non-professional, amateur performances prepared by students of the academies were successful in Moscow.

Assembly

Another innovation for the society was the introduction of assemblies - harbingers of future secular balls. At these events, the nobles found a lot of entertainment for themselves. Only noble people gathered here. Ordinary people should be closed to such evenings. Winter was considered the season for holding assemblies. Basically, they were arranged by princes or counts, but it is not uncommon for Peter I himself to become its owner.

At such an event, it was necessary to present a rich tasty table, a large room for dancing. Special corners for chess games were equipped. The smoking of tobacco and pipes was encouraged.

The appearance of the assemblies radically changed the lives of Russian women. For the first time, the door to society was opened for them. Loneliness and seclusion came to an end, now they were given the opportunity to show themselves. Dancing becomes a favorite pastime. Women necessarily attended such events in rich decoration. If at the first assemblies the ladies' costumes were ridiculous and clumsy, then over time they honed their taste and appeared already in interesting outfits that attracted everyone's attention. And each tried to outdo the other lady. There was a competitive spirit.

New fashion

The reforms of culture and life of Peter 1 also affected the appearance of nobles and boyars. The king had an acute dislike for long floor-length dresses and wide sleeves. Therefore, at one of the comic feasts, he became furious and rushed with scissors to the surrounding people and began to cut off their sleeves. A few months later, sheets were already hung on the main pillars, saying that it was now forbidden to wear Russian dresses. Nobles are required to wear Hungarian caftans. To prevent this decree from being thwarted by an angry public, guards were assigned to the pillars.

History also knows another incident with scissors. Upon arrival in Moscow in 1698, the tsar, at a meeting with his boyars, personally cut off each of their beards. A haircut did not befall only representatives of the white clergy. Barbering was received negatively in Russia, as it was long years a kind of symbol of prosperity and decency. Therefore, subsequently it becomes an image of a bygone antiquity and a protest against innovations.

Not only the noble class obeyed this reform of Peter 1 in culture. This decision affected all residents of the state. Those who did not want to part with their hair could pay a tax for wearing a beard. However, its price was so high that not even all noble princes could afford to give a round sum annually. Those "lucky ones" who dared to leave their beards for a fee wore a specially molded beard sign on their chests. On one side, a mustache was depicted on the plaque, and on the other, there was an inscription: “The money has been taken.”

chronology

The next reform of Peter 1 in the field of culture, which influenced the entire history of Russia, is a new chronology. The king announced in his decree that the reckoning of years should be done differently. The New Year was supposed to start on January 1st. And the years were counted from the birth of Christ. Thus, a new holiday has been established in the country, which in the modern world is considered one of the most beloved among the inhabitants of Russia.

Noting New Year, Peter also introduced the tradition of launching fireworks and arranging festivities. City dwellers had to decorate their houses with coniferous branches, and, if possible, salute in honor of the New Year.

Thus, thanks to the reforms of culture and life, Peter I not only won respect for the country among European states, but also raised the cultural level of Russia. His innovations, initially met negatively, have survived to the present day. Without the reforms of Peter 1 in the field of culture, the history of the state and modern life in it would have been completely different.

Content IntroductionMain partChapter I. "Europeanization" of culture and life in the era of Peter the GreatChapter II. Petrine transformations in art2.1 Architecture, sculpture2.2 Painting2.3 Jewelry artConclusionReferences Introduction New Russian history usually begins with the so-called era of transformations in our social life. The main figure in these transformations was Peter the Great. Therefore, the time of his reign seems to our consciousness to be the line that separates old Rus' from the transformed Russia. The urgent need for transformation was caused by a complex of various factors. The economic, and, consequently, the military backlog of Russia from European countries was growing, which posed a serious threat national sovereignty. The service class, the backbone of the autocratic power, did not meet the requirements of the social development of the country either in terms of its socio-political or cultural development, and, for the most part, remained a patriarchal social community of the medieval era, which had a vague idea even of its class interests. The “rebellious” nature of the 17th century, social instability gave rise to the need to strengthen the positions of the ruling class, its mobilization and renewal, as well as to improve the state administration apparatus and the army. , designed, on the one hand, to return Russia to the bosom of European civilization, and on the other hand, to strengthen the power of a new rationalist ideology, replacing the religious justification of its omnipotence. Ancient Russian life has completely exhausted itself. She developed all the beginnings that were hidden in her, all the types in which these beginnings were directly embodied. She did everything she could, and, having completed her calling, she ceased. In the 17th century our state has reached the point of complete bankruptcy, moral, economic and administrative, and could get on the right track only through a sharp reform. Peter led Russia out of this crisis onto a new path. Peter's transformations seem to be a natural historical necessity. Introduction to European, more civilized way of life became the main task of Peter in the field of culture. Peter was not the creator of the cultural question, but he was the first person who decided to implement a cultural reform. The results of his activities were great: he gave his people a full opportunity for material and spiritual communication with the entire civilized world. His behavior, his whole manner of acting showed that he not only modifies the old order, but harbors passionate enmity towards them and fights them fiercely. He did not improve antiquity, but drove it and forcibly replaced it with new orders. The well-known historian and publicist M.M. Shcherbatov believed that the path traversed by the country under Peter I would have to be overcome for two centuries without him. Karamzin in early XIX century believed that this would take six centuries. The 18th century was significant for Russia with significant changes and achievements in the field of art. Its genre structure, content, character, means of artistic expression have changed. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. The 18th century was a time conducive to the development of Russian culture, defining its two main lines: develop the traditions of folk art. Chapter I. "Europeanization" of culture and life in the era of Peter the Great In the first quarter of the 18th century, transformations were carried out in Russia that were directly related to the “Europeanization” of Russian culture. The main content of the reforms in this area was the formation and development of secular national culture, secular education, serious changes in everyday life and customs carried out in terms of European eization.

It should be noted that throughout the XYII century, there was an active penetration of Western European culture into Rus'. However, in the era of Peter the Great, the direction of Western European influence changes, and new ideas and values ​​are forcibly introduced, implanted in all spheres of life of the Russian nobility - the main object of the transformative policy of Peter I. This kind of situation was largely explained by state goals - Peter needed achievements and experience Europe to carry out, first of all, industrial, administrative, military, financial reforms, to solve the problems of foreign policy. Peter associated the success of these reforms with the formation of a new worldview, the restructuring of the culture and life of the Russian nobility in accordance with European values.

The nature of the reforms was greatly influenced by Peter's sympathy for the Western way of life and way of life, which originated in his early youth, during his frequent visits to the German Quarter in Moscow, where he made his first friends and where, according to a contemporary of Prince B.I. Kurakin, he "began to be the first Cupid." This irrational spiritual inclination, apparently, explains the great importance that Peter attached to reforms in the field of life and culture.

After his first trip abroad, Peter set out to bring European institutions, customs, forms of communication and entertainment to Russia, little thinking that they did not have an organic background here. Moreover, the ways in which Peter introduced European civilization indicate that the reformer required his subjects to overcome themselves, defiantly depart from the customs of their fathers and grandfathers and accept European institutions as the rites of a new faith.

Rapprochement with the West was manifested in the government's concern for the Russian person to resemble a European in appearance. The day after his arrival from abroad (August 26, 1698), Peter acted as a barber, ordering to bring scissors and arbitrarily cutting off the beards of the boyars shocked by this trick. Peter did this operation several times. For Peter, the beard has become a symbol of hated antiquity, carrying, for example, in the face of archers, a threat to him and his plans. The beard has long been considered an inviolable adornment, a sign of honor, generosity, a source of pride, so this decree aroused resistance. The decree of 1705 obliged the entire male population of the country, with the exception of priests, monks and peasants, to shave their beards and mustaches. Thus, initially, Russian society was divided into two unequal parts: for one (the nobility and the top of the urban population), a Europeanized culture, implanted from above, was intended, the other retained the traditional way of life.

The struggle was with a wide-sleeved dress. Shortly after the return of the "great embassy" a mock consecration of the Lefortovo Palace took place. Many guests arrived at the feast in traditional Russian clothes: shirts with embroidered collars, bright-colored silk zipuns, over which they wore caftans with long sleeves, sleeved at the wrist. Over the caftan was a long velvet dress fastened from top to bottom with many buttons. A fur coat and a fur hat with a high crown and a velvet top completed the outfit of the nobility (such an outfit was completely inconvenient for work). On that day, the king again shocked many noble people by taking scissors with his own hand and starting to shorten the sleeves.

In 1700, a special decree was adopted on the mandatory wearing of the Hungarian dress (caftans), and in next year it was forbidden to wear a Russian dress, its manufacture and sale was punishable by law, it was prescribed to wear German shoes - boots and shoes. It was a conscious opposition of the new, modern, convenient to the old, archaic. Obviously, long goals only by violence could support new fashions and mores. Decrees were published more than once, threatening violators with various punishments, up to hard labor.

Europeanization was perceived by the Russian nobles subjectively, since the main criterion for a Europeanized way of life was considered to be the difference from peasant life. For a Russian nobleman, being a European meant changing clothes, hairstyle, manners, i.e. cut off from peasant life. And this could be done by teaching European culture.

Such training was not easy for Russian nobles, since they were born and raised in pre-Petrine Rus' and were brought up in accordance with traditional values. Therefore, the Russian nobleman in the era of Peter the Great found himself in his homeland in the position of a foreigner who, in adulthood, should be taught by artificial methods what people usually receive in early childhood by direct experience. Peter understood that it was impossible to teach his subjects a new “language” with the help of threats and decrees alone, therefore, manuals and manuals on teaching “correct” behavior were published under his direct supervision.

The so-called “Honest Mirror of Youth, or an Indication for Worldly Behavior” became a genuine benefit for a nobleman. This essay by an unknown author forms a new stereotype of the behavior of a secular person who avoids bad company, extravagance, drunkenness, rudeness, adhering to European manners. The main moral of this work: youth is preparation for service, and happiness is the result of diligent service.

The study of this text is interesting from the point of view of identifying contradictions between traditional and new values ​​and considering the process of adaptation on Russian soil of European culture. Thus, the book suggested that a well-bred young man should be distinguished by three virtues: friendliness, humility and courtesy. To be successful in society, he must speak foreign languages, be able to dance, ride a horse, fence, be eloquent and well-read, etc. In conclusion, 20 virtues were listed that adorn noble maidens. Interestingly, along with the above recommendations, the following advice was also given: “cut your nails, so they don’t appear, supposedly they are sheathed with velvet ... Don’t grab the first one into the dish and don’t eat like a pig ... lick your fingers, do not gnaw on bones. Unclean teeth with a knife ... Often sneezing, blowing your nose and coughing is not nice ... ”. This kind of combination of disparate recommendations and advice is very characteristic of the culture of the Petrine era and is indicative in identifying its contradictions.

When analyzing “An Honest Mirror of Youth ...”, one of the main goals of Europeanization is visible: “Young youths should always speak among themselves in foreign languages, so that they can get used to it, and especially when they happen to say something secretly, so that the servants and maids could not find out and so that they to recognize from other ignorant fools.” From this quote it can be seen that for Russian nobles, foreign should become the norm and “knowledge of foreign languages ​​increased the social status of a person.” The nobility became a privileged class, and Peter, as it were, sanctioned the fenced-off of the nobles from peasant life, confirming with his instructions the correctness of their choice of the main criterion for a Europeanized way of life.

The most important socio-economic and political shifts in the social life of Russia in the Petrine era were vividly reflected in literature and journalism. In 1717 in St. Petersburg, “Reasoning ...” was published on the causes of the war with Sweden, prepared on behalf of Peter by Vice-Chancellor P.P. Shafirov and representing the first in Russian history a detailed diplomatic treatise on the country's foreign policy priorities. Economic journalism was represented by the works of the outstanding nugget scientist B.T. Pososhkov (1652 - 1726), and, above all, his most famous work "The Book of Poverty and Wealth".

One of the brilliant orators, writers, church and public figures of the era of Peter the Great was Feofan Prokopovich (1631 - 1736), the main supporter of church reform. He developed the “Spiritual Regulations” (1721) and the important political treatise “The Truth of the Will of Monarchs” (1722). Another prominent church figure was Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky (1658 - 1722) - locum tenens of the patriarchal throne in 1700 - 1721. His literary activity is marked by large religious treatises “The Sign of the Coming of the Antichrist” and “The Stone of Faith”, directed against reformism and Protestantism.

By the time of Peter, there are attempts to create public theaters (“comedy temples”) in Moscow and St. Petersburg, where plays on historical themes and comedies were choked (for example, J.-B. Molière's Amphitryon and The Forced Doctor). The first Russian dramatic works also appear: “Vladimir” (a tragicomedy by F. Prokopovich), “Glory to Russia” (a play by F. Zhukovsky), etc.

Changes in life and customs higher circles manifested itself in the emergence of new forms of entertainment. At the end of 1718, the tops of St. Petersburg society were notified of the introduction of assemblies. Peter visited the French drawing rooms, where outstanding figures of science, politics, and art gathered and held conversations, and he came up with a plan for organizing assemblies in Russia. Introducing a new form of communication and entertainment, Peter pursued two main goals - to accustom Russian nobles to the secular lifestyle common in Europe, and to introduce Russian women to public life. When organizing assemblies, the converter used not only practical, but also theoretical achievements of Western Europe.

In his decree “On the procedure for meetings in private homes, and on the persons who may participate in them,” a list of rules is given, the schedule of this entertainment, which all those present must follow. All the efforts of the converter were permeated with the idea of ​​utility. Peter also arranged assemblies in the Summer Garden, which also took place according to special regulations. For this entertainment, guests arrived by boat and entered the garden through elegant wooden galleries, which served at the same time as piers and reception halls, where tables with sweets and other snacks were laid.

Decrees of December 19 and 20, 1699 introduced a new chronology: not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ; the New Year began not on September 1, but on January 1, as in many European countries.

The celebration of the new year was supposed to take place from 1 to 7 January. The gates of the courtyards were to be decorated with pine, spruce and juniper trees, and the gates of the poor owners were to be decorated with branches. Every evening, it was prescribed to burn bonfires along the large streets, and at a meeting to congratulate each other. Fireworks were arranged in the capital these days.

Peter I can be considered the founder of the system of public holidays. He consciously modeled the victorious festivities on the model of the triumphs of imperial Rome. Already in 1696, in the celebrations on the occasion of the victories of the Russian troops near Azov, the main elements and components of future festivities were outlined, in which the Roman basis was easily visible. By order of Peter the master "Ivan Saltanov and comrades" built a triumphal gate: huge carved statues of Hercules and Mars supported their vault, they were decorated with emblems and allegories unfamiliar to the Russian audience.

Peter demanded that the woman enter public life, forgetting that she was not quite ready for this and could not immediately, at one moment, part with the Domostroevsky way of life. The Transformer showed concern for the woman, telling her how to dress, speak, sit, and generally behave. At first, at the assemblies, as noted by S.N. Shubinsky, the Russian noblewomen and young ladies were funny and clumsy, “tucked into strong corsets, with huge tans, in high-heeled shoes, with a luxuriantly combed mostly powdered hairstyle, with long “slaps”, or trains, they could not only easily and gracefully spin in dances, but they didn’t even know how to become and sit down.

Chapter 2. Petrine transformations in art2.1 Architecture, sculpture The dynamics of the stylistic development of Russian architecture of the 18th century grew in a peculiar way. In a country that was belatedly entering the all-European path of development, the development of Western European styles inevitably proceeds at an accelerated pace, and already at the initial stage of development, in the era of Peter the Great, there are the beginnings of all style lines through which Russian architecture had to pass for a century. The essence of the transitional time was expressed by the state of multi-style, when Russian art, figuratively speaking, "tried on" itself to different European styles, not yet making a final choice, combining the features of baroque, classicism and rococo. Of particular importance was the construction of a new Russian capital - stone St. Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part, and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the king. Both foreign and Russian architects took part in the development of the plan. They created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life, pastime. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc., have changed. The main architectural dominant in St. Petersburg was the Peter and Paul Cathedral, crowned with a gilded spire, the height of which reached 45 m. Peter built St. Petersburg as a European city, although his personal tastes were decisive for shaping the style of the new capital , special geographic location and climatic conditions. At the very beginning of the construction of the city, Peter was guided by Amsterdam. In general, the appearance of the city under Peter had an unusually peculiar appearance, since the style of architecture included elements of baroque, European classicism of the XYII century, and French “regency” at the turn of the XYII-XYIII centuries. In the middle of the century the intensified stylistic tendency towards sculptural expression of forms affected the silhouette of St. Petersburg, which was enriched with many new, highly raised bell towers and churches. Moreover, instead of spiers, emphatically national motifs of five domes, tiers, tower-like appearance appeared, which is why the silhouette of the city received new volumetric-plastic accents and a picturesque character unusual for it before. The "regular" Russian capital of St. Petersburg becomes a symbolic embodiment of the image of the most absolutist empire with its idea of ​​universal order. Architects of various national schools worked in the new capital. Russian, Italian, Dutch, German and French architects erected palaces, churches and state buildings in the Russian capital, the architecture of which had common artistic features, defining the architectural style, usually called the Russian Baroque of the first third of the 18th century or the Petrine Baroque. - Numerous carpenters, masons, plasterers, sculptors and other building craftsmen. Secondly, the role of customers, and, above all, Peter I himself, who extremely carefully and demandingly considered all the design proposals of architects, rejecting those that, from his point of view, did not correspond to the appearance of the capital, or introducing significant, and sometimes decisive changes. An invaluable role in this was played by great Russian and foreign architects. One of famous representatives Western architectural school, working in Russia, was Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700-1771), son of the Italian sculptor K.F. Rastrelli, who served at the court of the French king Louis XIV. His most famous creations are the ensemble of the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg (1748-1764), created in the traditions of Russian monastic ensembles of previous centuries, and the palaces of the Elizabethan nobles M.I. Vorontsova and S.G. Stroganov in St. Petersburg, but to the highest degree his talent manifested itself in the creation of such masterpieces as the Winter Palace in the capital, the Grand Palace in Tsarskoe Selo and Peterhof (Petrodvorets). , typical projects of houses, European appearance of architecture. In many ways, the appearance of the city was determined by the work of a native of Italian Switzerland, who arrived in 1703, Domenico Trezzini (1670 - 1734). He built such wonderful architectural masterpieces as the Peter and Paul Cathedral, the building of the Twelve Collegia. Appears new type manor architecture. At the direction of Peter I, Domenico Trezzini, for the first time in Russian architecture, developed in 1714 exemplary projects of residential buildings intended for developers of different incomes: one-story small ones for the poorest population, more for the nobles. One of the first buildings of this kind is the palace of A. D. Menshikov in St. Petersburg (architects J.-M. Fontana and G. Shedel). The first building in St. Petersburg was the House of Peter I. A small wooden house of Peter I was built on May 24 - 27 1703, literally 3 days immediately after the first victories of the Russian troops on the Neva during the Northern War. On May 28, 1703, Peter I with generals and noble civil ranks on 63 ships marched to the newly built palace. The palace was consecrated, and became the place of Peter's life in the first years of the construction of St. Petersburg. In 1708, the first "Winter House" appeared. But Peter loved his first palace and took care of it. A description of the palace has been preserved. The area is 60 sq. meters, the height to the roof ridge is 5 m 72 cm. The carved decoration on the roof indicates that the house belonged to the scorer. Recall that in 1694 a special honorary company of scorers was established in the Preobrazhensky Regiment, headed by Peter I himself. This reflected the very essence of Peter's time, when they lived ahead of schedule, sometimes the desired was passed off as the real. Perhaps, the Potemkin cardboard villages originate from a wooden palace painted like brick. At the source of the small river Bezymyanny Erik opposite the first palace of Peter I and his House, the emperor decided to create one of the wonders of the new city - a regular Garden, "better than the French king in Versailles" . Peter's imagination was struck by this luxurious country residence and subsequently, both in St. Petersburg in the Summer Garden and in Peterhof, he tried to surpass the miracle of French art. The garden in St. Petersburg was founded in the fall of 1704 and was named Summer. Peter embarked on a new business for himself with his characteristic passion for transformation. The original plan of the garden was drawn by Peter I himself, and Russian architects, having developed and improved it, created ingenious labyrinths. work to teach horticultural science." Peter made sure that his garden was laid according to all the rules of art. He ordered a lot of special literature "an exemplary book on fountains" and a book about the Versailles park, 2 volumes "Gardener with flowers (figures)" were issued from Holland, "5 books of garden theory" and "book of Roman gardens" were bought. For the garden, cedars and firs were brought from Solikamsk, and elms and lindens from Kyiv. The best gardeners of Europe and Russia participated in the creation of a new brainchild of Peter I. Ya. Roosen, K. Schrider, I. Surlin, Krylov, Slyadnev planted trees along geometrically planned alleys and trimmed their crowns in the form of regular balls, cubes, cones. Peter's emissaries traveled around Italy looking for "rare sculptures" for the Garden. In Venice, a garden arbor of "rare beauty" was purchased. Peter did not forget to take care of his Garden even in difficult and difficult times, which, it would seem, did not contribute to the thoughts of a new Petersburg park. In 1721, three covered transparent galleries stretched along the Neva through which visitors could get into the garden. Two on the sides are white of wood, and in the center is a gallery on pillars of Russian marble. In the center of the garden was installed "Old Venus" - Venus Tauride, now stored in the Hermitage. The "White Devil" caused such a fierce hatred of adherents to the "old times" that an armed guard was installed around her around the clock. Fountains and statues were installed at the intersection of the fountains. Alleys had their own names. There was Skipper Alley, where Peter I liked to play checkers with his entourage and drink beer. In Peter's time, the Summer Garden had a poultry house, an elegant gazebo, a house with a fountain projectile driven by a large wheel, and next to it was a menagerie. There was a large greenhouse with exotic flowers. In the center of the park there was a reservoir lined with tiles, and in the center of the reservoir there was a grotto from which a fountain was beating. To feed the fountains and their better functioning, the banks of the Nameless Yerik River were calculated and deepened, a water tower was installed. Nameless Erik began to be called the Fountain River, and later simply the Fontanka. To drain the western part of the park, they dug the Swan Canal, widened and deepened the small, swampy Myu River, nicknamed the Moika, and connected it with the Fontanka Canal. In 1710, Peter I issued a decree obliging the construction of the southern bank Gulf of Finland. Palace and park ensembles are being built in Peterhof. By 1725, a two-story Nagorny Palace was erected. Subsequently, the palace underwent restructuring and was expanded in the middle of the 18th century. Architect Rastrelli. In the same period, a small palace was built near the bay, consisting of several rooms for Peter I and the main hall - Monplaisir Palace. The pavilion for solitude “Hermitage” and a small two-story palace “Marly” were built. Until the 18th century, the development of sculpture in Russia was hindered by church prohibitions. The most common was flat carving on stone and wood. In the XVIII century in Russia there was an unprecedented development of sculpture, the emergence of a new, Western European type of sculpture, which Russia had not yet known. Peter invited sculptors to Russia, he was lucky to attract one really great master - the Italian Carlo Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1675 - 1744) - a native of Florence , invited by Peter to Russia in 1716. He created a whole gallery of sculptural portraits of the most prominent figures of the era - a bust and an equestrian statue of Peter (installed near the Engineering Castle in St. Petersburg), a bust of A.D. Menshikov, a statue of Anna Ioannovna with a black boy. 2.2. Painting IN early XVIII century, entering the position of the art of the new time with a significant delay compared to other artistically advanced European countries, Russian painting in its own way reflects the general patterns of this stage of development. Secular art comes to the fore. Initially, secular painting was established in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Russian painters painted only icons, but solemn battles glorifying military victories, and portraits of the tsar and his entourage were needed. Russian engravers knew how to make illustrations for church books, but they needed views of St. Petersburg under construction, images of victories on land and at sea, engravings for textbooks on architecture, naval and artillery.

Russian culture had to finally free itself from the power of the church, to finally catch up with the European countries that had gone ahead.

Peter's reform, global changes in life Russian society gave the strongest impetus to the development of art. At the turn of two centuries, a sharp transformation of the artistic tradition takes place. Russia joins the Western school of painting.

Peter's transformations in culture aimed not only to attract foreign artists, but also to educate the domestic public, to bring into Russian art the best traditions of European art. artistic creativity. The period of apprenticeship was short-lived for Russian masters, and already in the second half of the century, the artists who returned from Italy and Holland proved to the world their own talent, acquired skill, creating unsurpassed masterpieces.

The new art was characterized by an increased interest in man, in his inner world, on the one hand, and in the structure of his body, on the other. Russian artists master the technical achievements of Western masters: new materials (canvas, oil paints, marble) come into use, painters master the techniques of realistic rendering of the world around them. The works begin to use a direct perspective, which allows you to show the depth and volume of space. Artists in highlights and shadows trace the direction of light, take into account the location of its source, learn to convey the texture of the material: metal, fur, fabric and glass. A never-before-seen variety of images and subjects penetrates into painting. Perhaps the most interesting area in the development of fine arts was portraiture, more than any other testifying to the depth and sharpness of the fracture that occurred. The first artists whose work marked the birth of a new art were I.N. Nikitin and A.M. Matveev.

The most interesting phenomenon in the art of the Petrine era was the portrait. At the origins of portraiture of the new time is I.N. Nikitin (c. 1680 - 1742). I.N. Nikitin vividly embodies the power of human possibilities discovered by the Petrine era. The greatest reformer of Russian painting, he shares triumphs with him, and in the end - tragic hardships.

The portraits he created in early period, are already quite European in character images, the closest to the works of the French school of the early 18th century. Using the all-European experience, the Russian artist realizes his own ideas about the world, beauty and the individual characteristics of the model. So there is a version of the portrait - generally understandable and unique.

From the portraits that he painted, strong, sharply outlined faces of the king and his entourage look. To the brush of this great artist belong such works as: a portrait of Tsesarevna Anna Petrovna and Princess Praskovya Ioannovna (presumably 1714).

His most powerful work is the portrait of the State Chancellor G.I. Golovkin (1720s). From somewhere in the darkness, his long face is pushed forward, narrowed by the hanging curls of his wig. Slightly flickering in the semi-darkness on a reddish caftan precious order signs. But it is not the orders, not the spectacular gesture of the commander - the then usual means of glorifying - that make Golovkin's face significant. The artist depicted the Chancellor point-blank, directly and sharply looking into the eyes of the viewer, and he looks at us, as at opponents in a verbal duel, with the keen eyes of a diplomat.

In addition to the increased literacy in drawing and painting technique, he demonstrates the spirituality of expression and the interaction of the image with the viewer. Equally serious is inherent in the “Portrait of the Outdoor Hetman” (1720s). Authorial independence is also manifested in the portrait of S.G. Stroganov (1726) and in the painting “Peter I on his deathbed” (1725). With the death of Peter, the life of the artist himself ended tragically - he was tried on false charges and exiled to Tobolsk.

The work of another Russian painter, Andrei Matveev (1701-1739), also belongs to the Petrine era in spirit. By decree of Peter, he was sent to Holland to study, which provided the necessary level of knowledge. Even during the period of training, he created paintings - "Allegory of Painting" (1725) and "Venus and Cupid". Most famous work Matveeva - "Self-portrait with his wife" (1729). Makeev's work depicts a new culture of relations for Russia. Husband and wife do not just act as equals: the artist carefully and proudly presents his wife to the viewer. Interest in art and diligence favorably distinguished this artist.

A special place in the fine arts of the first half of the 18th century. occupied engraving. It was the most accessible form of art to the general public, quickly responding to the events of the time. Types of naval battles, cities, solemn holidays, portraits of great people - such was the range of subjects that the masters of engraving worked on. The face of Russian engraving of the 1st quarter of the 18th century. determined by the masters who combined in their works Western technique and the national character of Russian engraving Ivan and Alexei Zubov, Alexei Rostovtsev. The favorite theme of A.F. Zubov's works was views of St. Petersburg, which necessarily included water landscapes with ships.

Picturesque miniature portraits on enamel appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, the first masters were Grigory Musikisky and Andrey Ovsov. At first, miniatures were mostly used for portraits of kings and members of their families. Subsequently, the demand for miniature portraits was so great that in the last quarter of a century a special class of miniature painting on enamel was established at the Academy of Arts.

2.3. Jewelry Art The transformations and familiarization of Russia with European traditions, culture, and everyday life at the end of the 17th - 18th centuries were also reflected in the products of Russian jewelry art. The very word "jeweler", so familiar now, came at the beginning of the 18th century to replace the old Russian name "gold and silversmith". Moreover, this is not just a replacement of one term by another, but an indicator of the presence of new trends associated with European trends in Russian life, culture and art. Over the centuries, the development of jewelry has been closely dependent on stylistic changes in fashion, clothing, etc. Decorations of the beginning of the 18th century did not differ from similar products of the end of the 17th century until changes in the costume took place and were firmly rooted in everyday life. To decorate clothes and headdresses, cufflinks of various shapes and with different decorations were still used (from modest silver with glasses to gold, richly supplemented with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and enamels). Buttons could also be an exquisite decoration of the costume. different sizes and shapes: flat, disk-shaped, spherical, dome-shaped, etc. They were made of copper, silver, gold, sometimes turning into the most elegant pieces of jewelry art. The buttons were smooth cast and openwork filigree, with patterned embossing, niello, enamel, granulation, engraving, and precious stones. In terms of workmanship, copper buttons sometimes surpassed silver ones. In the second quarter of the 18th century, guild associations of craftsmen of copper rings and cufflinks, copper and iron earrings, silver earrings, and copper button making existed in Moscow. the new costume, of course, required new adornments - brooches, diadems, buckles for shoes and dresses, cufflinks, etc., which were widespread at that time in Europe, first appeared among Russian jewelry. Twenty-five years after the decree, the new costume firmly entered the life of the Russian nobles, although the clothes of the merchants, burghers and peasants existed almost unchanged until the end of the century. For the 18th century, with the exception of recent years a characteristically feminine dress with a figure-hugging, low-cut bodice and a wide skirt; for men, French-style caftans, camisoles, short trousers, stockings, shoes with buckles, and a wig are introduced. Russian society became acquainted in the 18th century with such a new phenomenon as fashion. Fashionable clothes were distributed with the help of ready-made samples, which were written out by the wealthiest nobles from Paris and London; information about fashionable novelties was published in the magazines Hard-working Bee, All Things, Store of General Useful Knowledge, etc. the nature of its decoration, fabric, color, jewelry. In connection with the fundamental changes in women's and men's clothing, the nature of jewelry is also changing. Instead of monist, "lace", etc. brooches of various shapes, cufflinks, pins for ties and hairstyles, aigrettes (hat ornaments), necklaces, bracelets, tiaras, belts, buckles for dresses and shoes appear. A new and very popular decoration was the clave, which was worn on a ribbon high on the neck, sometimes simultaneously with long, freely hanging rows of pearl threads. The organization of domestic cutting factories and the involvement of a large number of experienced Western European jewelers to perform expensive orders of the St. Petersburg nobility. In 1721, Peter I founded the "Diamond Mill" in Peterhof for processing precious and ornamental stones, diamonds were also cut there. In the 18th century, there were many experienced foreign jewelers in St. Petersburg - Jean-Pierre Ador, Johann Golib Scharf, Jeremiah Pozier. They worked in Russia for many years, serving the royal court and the nobility. The nobility contributed to the spread of fashion to all strata of society, the difference consisted only in the material from which the jewelry was made, and in the skill of the craftsmen. Pozier left his notes on his stay in Russia in 1729-1764. There he noted that “the ladies of the court wear an amazing array of diamonds. They are even in privacy they never leave without being hung with precious attire.” Rare and costly adornments were watches that were brought from abroad, or a foreign mechanism was inserted into a domestic case. The latter include a chest watch in the shape of a cross with a mechanism by the London master Garf (Guarf). Their silver case is decorated on both sides with a vegetative pattern in the technique of multi-colored enamel on filigree. The original decoration was the hanging aromatics intended for fragrant substances. Fragrances were given a variety of forms: fruits, bottles, hearts, various household items. Fragrances from the beginning of the 18th century were decorated with colorful cloisonné enamels, filigree with precious stones, and engraving. Earrings and rings were the most common and favorite jewelry in Russia at all times. At the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries, singles, doubles, earrings in the form of boats and doves were still worn; also appears new form earrings with square and trapezoidal pendants with precious stones in blind sockets, with large drilled pearls and pendant stones. The lobes of the earrings become thinner, detachable with hinges designed to pass through the ear. At the same time, only the front side of the pendant and earlobes were decorated. In inexpensive silver earrings, detachable earlobes often ended in a stylized leaf or an open beak of a bird.

From the beginning of the 18th century, cufflinks with heads of various shapes (cross-shaped, in the form of a rosette of precious stones, with glass, pearls, etc.) began to be widely used to decorate clothes.

Clothes brooches and pins were widely used, which, on the one hand, were decorations, and on the other hand, performed purely utilitarian functions: they collected folds of a dress, attached a collar, etc. Their outer side was richly decorated with gems and faceted diamonds. In products with a large number of precious stones, it is difficult to trace the characteristic features of the change of styles (baroque, rococo). Only on jewelry with significant surfaces of precious metals can one see the ornamental features of the styles. Brooches in the form of bouquets of flowers were common, brooches with miniature portraits are becoming fashionable, and the stylistic features of classicism are more clearly manifested in the setting.

Conclusion The transformations of Peter I provided our country with a new qualitative state: firstly, the gap between the economic and cultural life of Russia and the economic and cultural life of the advanced countries of Europe was significantly reduced; secondly, Russia has become a powerful state; thirdly, Russia became one of the great powers, and henceforth not a single issue of interstate relations in Europe was resolved without its participation. Changes in everyday life and culture that occurred in the first quarter of the 18th century. were of great progressive importance. But they even more emphasized the allocation of the nobility to a privileged noble class, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges and were accompanied by the widespread gallomania and contempt for the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobility. It can be said that Europeanization in the Petrine era was not only external in nature, but, paradoxically, it intensified the manifestation of the negative features of the culture of pre-Petrine Russia. The changes that took place affected only the top of society; as for the Russian peasant, for a very long time after the Petrine era he did not read newspapers, did not go to the theater, did not know what assemblies were, and even more so never wore wigs. changed in one direction - towards the West - at the very time when the social position of "vile people" i.e. people of low origin (laborers, hirelings, day laborers) continued to change in the opposite direction - towards the East. Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and violent transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes prevented the full development of a culture based on national traditions. was that the nobility, perceiving the values ​​of European culture, sharply separated from national tradition and its guardian, the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values ​​and institutions grew as the country modernized. This caused the deepest socio-cultural split in society, which largely predetermined the depth of contradictions and the strength of social upheavals in the early twentieth century. At the forefront of these reforms were the interests of the state, which was built according to the strict plan of the monarch's will. The purely outward attributes of the Petrine era, manifested in the decreed introduction of European customs and mores, in isolation from the age-old traditions of Russian culture, should have emphasized the fundamental differences between the Russian Empire created in a quarter of a century - a great state of the European type. Despite all the inconsistency of Peter's personality and his transformations, in In Russian history, his figure has become a symbol of decisive reformism, the fruitfulness of using the achievements of the West and selfless, sparing neither himself nor others, service to the Russian state. Among the descendants, Peter I, practically, was the only one among the kings who rightfully retained the title of the Great granted to him during his lifetime. Bibliography 1. Balyazin V.N. Secret stories of the Romanov dynasty. - M.: SP "Ikpa", 1992.2. Big illustrated encyclopedia of antiquities. - Prague: Artia, 1980.3. Valishevsky K. Peter the Great. Upbringing. Personality. - M.: SP "Ikpa", 1990.4. Dmitrieva N.A. Brief history of arts. - M., 1996.5. Zabelin I.E. Home life of Russian queens in the 16th and 17th centuries - Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1992.6. Ilyina T.V. Russian art of the XVIII century - M., 1999.7. Klyuchevsky V.O. Articles. Collected works. vol. 8. - M.: Thought. 1990.8. Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits: Figures of historical thought. - M.: Pravda, 1990.9. Rybakov B.A. Essays on Russian culture. - M.: Higher School of Moscow State University, 1990.10. Platonov S.F. A complete course of lectures on Russian history. - M.: Pravda, 1991.11. Petrakova A.B. Russians Jewelry XVIII century. // "Russian Antiques". - 2003- No. 3-4.

Holidays

During the time of Peter I, many festivities were held, which were celebrated magnificently, on a grand scale, with fireworks, illumination, firing of cannons. There were many reasons for the holidays: these were victories in the Northern War, the celebration of the New Year, the launching of a new ship, the name day of the sovereign.

Decree of Peter I on the New Year

Peter I issued a decree according to which the new year began on January 1, and not on September 1, as it was before, and the counting of years went from the Nativity of Christ, as in the West, and not from the Creation of the world, as it was in Russia. The decree was issued in December 1699 and, thus, from January 1, a new year, 1700, began in the country, and 7208 did not continue from the Co-creation of the world.

The first New Year was celebrated like this. A special decree was issued, according to which the tsar ordered on January 1, 1700 in Moscow on Red Square to place 200 cannons, from which they fired for six days in a row. They staged a magnificent fireworks display. Each owner of the house was ordered to decorate his gate with pine, spruce or juniper branches. And those hosts who had firearms were supposed to salute in honor of the New Year. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru

Petrovsky assemblies

Tsar Peter I also introduced assemblies. The decree said that the word was French. It meant receptions in some rich house, where not only men, but also women were present. There they danced, had small talk and friendly conversations, exchanged opinions, drank a drink previously unknown in Russia - coffee, smoked pipes with tobacco according to European custom, played checkers and chess.

Each St. Petersburg nobleman at least once a year (or even more often) had to arrange an assembly in his house, put up refreshments, provide a hall for dancing, rooms for relaxation, games and conversations. Most of the assemblies were held in winter.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

• Life and clothing in the time of Peter 1

• Change in life under Peter 1 briefly

• How did the peasants live under Peter 1

• Peasant life and life under Peter 1

• Life during Peter 1

Questions for this article:

§ 11. DAILY LIFE AND LIFE UNDER PETER I

Why did Peter I seek to change the traditions and everyday life of people?

Title page of "Youth of an honest mirror ...".

1. Noble way of life

Under Peter I, young nobles, as before, had to carry out lifelong service from the age of 16-17. In the first half of the XVIII century.

they often served as privates in infantry and dragoon regiments or as sailors on ships - along with yesterday's peasants and townspeople.

Service in the 17th century was not easy. But now, in addition to the usual combat and marching hardships, the nobleman had to put on a "German" uniform, learn the techniques of the "regimental system" according to the new charter, engage in company and regimental economy, and teach soldiers.

They themselves had to learn artillery or engineering and, in accordance with royal decrees, try to educate their children.

It was very difficult for a nobleman of the Petrine era to study - there was no teaching system, no professional teachers, no textbooks.

The young undergrowth had to deal with "wisdom" in obscure scientific language, endure flogging, cold in unheated rooms and hunger, since a penny salary was issued irregularly. Guards soldiers who were on duty in the classrooms of the Naval Academy beat pupils for violating order, regardless of their origin. The offspring of the nobility, who were sent abroad by order of Peter, (who could only read and write in Russian) had to study mathematics or “navigation” in a foreign language.

What educational institutions existed in Russia before Peter I?

What were created in his reign?

"Resignation" - due to illness or injury - under Peter I and his successors did not mean a free life on the estate.

A nobleman retired from military service and was immediately appointed to a "civilian" position - a governor in a provincial town, an official in a new institution, or a poll tax collector.

There was no peace at home either.

It was necessary to wear a "German" caftan and shave his beard - the royal decree forbade even retired nobles, under pain of a fine and beating with batogs, to walk "with beards and in an old dress." And it was also necessary to celebrate new holidays, appear at a masquerade, learn manners.

Peter also ordered to gather in assemblies, where men were obliged to come with their wives and adult daughters. Captured Swedish officers and residents of the German settlement taught the Russians the polonaise, the minuet and Peter's favorite dance, the grossvater.

Sheremetev Palace on the Fontanka in St. Petersburg.

Church literature was replaced by domestic and translated books on mathematics, mechanics, and fortification; guidelines for writing letters and acquiring secular skills (“Youth is an honest mirror ...”).

The reading circle of people of that era included the works of ancient authors Quintus Curtius, Julius Caesar, Josephus Flavius ​​and entertaining stories about brave and gallant heroes (“History of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky” or “About Alexander the Russian nobleman”).

The ladies changed Russian sarafans for puffy dresses with bare shoulders, mastered fashionable hairstyles. There were new habits like smoking tobacco, new pastimes like playing cards and chess.

The Summer Garden, decorated with ancient sculptures of gods and heroes, became a place for the festivities of the St. Petersburg public.

For the king, Europeanization meant, first of all, the mastery of applied knowledge and technology. And the noble undergrowth preferred less hard way for rapprochement with "trained peoples in morals" - acquaintance with fashion, secular entertainment, etc.

So the reforms contributed to the alienation of the tops of society from the bottom. In addition, new cultural demands were expensive: in order to live “in a European way” (to have a good house, fashionable clothes, a carriage, teachers for children), it was necessary to have at least 100 serf souls.

Peasants.

XVIII century. Artist F. Lerier

2. In the peasant and urban "world"

Village life, in contrast to the nobility, went on, as before, according to age-old customs and the cycle of agricultural work repeated from year to year. True, Peter I tried by his decrees to accustom the peasants to harvest rye with scythes and weave wide canvases. But in practice, nothing has changed: the methods of work were determined by local conditions, and a wide canvas could not be made on a conventional loom.

From the age of 8-9, a peasant boy was accustomed to peasant labor, and girls - to spin, embroider, weave, milk a cow, and cook.

IN traditional society the son took the father's place and brought up his children in the same way. The “peace” community regulated the use of land, sorted out quarrels among fellow villagers, dealt with the layout of duties, that is, determined who would pay how much and who would go to repair the road and bridge across the river. Mutual responsibility forced the peasants themselves to persecute those who shied away from common affairs.

All the most important matters were decided at a meeting of married men - heads of households, as a rule, unanimously - the views of people who grew up in a close peasant "world" were close.

The whole life of the “world” was built on the basis of custom: how to pray, how to get married, how to celebrate a wake, how to sow, how to celebrate - all this was determined by tradition and took place in full view and under the control of fellow villagers. The violator of the accepted order was expected by universal condemnation and even exile.

The inhabitants of the cities were in many ways like peasants. They lived in estates - closed little worlds surrounded by a fence. The townspeople kept horses, cows, pigs, poultry; cultivated their gardens; they walked on Christmas and Maslenitsa, danced round the Trinity and had fun with fisticuffs.

In the peasant and township environment, news of unprecedented innovations - the "German" dress, the abolition of the patriarchate, new holidays with the participation of women - were perceived with condemnation, as a violation of "old times" and Orthodox piety.

Moreover, their introduction was accompanied by an increase in taxes, recruitment, sending to the construction of St. Petersburg, fortresses or canals.

3. Innovations in Everyday life

It is now difficult for us to imagine the shock of a traditionally educated person of the Petrine era, when, once in the capital, he saw unusually straight streets built according to European models at home and in the Summer Garden could collide with Pyotr Alekseevich himself - in the "dog form" (shaved), in "German" caftan, with a pipe in his teeth, who spoke in Dutch with the guests.

But over time, new fashions and habits entered everyday life.

The European costume entered the everyday life of the nobles and wealthy citizens: for men, short trousers, a camisole and a caftan with a tie, shoes, a hat, a wig; the ladies have corsets and dresses with framed skirts - fizhmakh, scarves, fans, lace, gloves.

Mirrors and engravings appeared in the furnishings of the houses, new furniture - beds, tables, stools, armchairs, cabinets for papers; silver, pewter and glassware.

Muscovites bought imported cane "Canary" sugar and coffee at 60 kopecks per pound; tea was still expensive (a pound cost 6 rubles) and incommensurable in price with caviar (5 kopecks per pound). Assemblies were held in the Palace of the Facets, on the street you could go to the "coffee house", and you could read about the news from London, Paris, Vienna and even Lisbon (albeit with a month's delay) in the newspaper that came from St. Petersburg.

SUMMING UP

Peter's reforms contributed to the formation of a secular way of life and secular culture in Russia, without which the type of a European-educated intelligent person and citizen could not subsequently appear - the main cultural achievement of the 18th century.

Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph

What has changed in the service of the nobility in the era of Peter I compared to the previous time? 2. What changes have occurred in the appearance of the nobles? 3. Describe the peasant life of the early 18th century. Note how he was affected by the changes that took place in the country. 4. What changed in the life of the townspeople at the beginning of the 18th century, and what remained the same?

5. What goods that appeared in Russia under Peter I were unknown to the inhabitants of the country before?

We study the document

FROM THE ARTICLE OF THE HISTORIAN M. P. POGODIN

We are waking up. What day is it today? September 18, 1863. Peter the Great ordered to count the years from the Nativity of Christ, Peter the Great ordered to count the months from January.

It's time to get dressed - our dress is sewn according to the style originally given by Peter I, the uniform is according to his form. The cloth was woven in the factory he started, the wool was sheared from the sheep he bred. A book catches your eye - Peter the Great introduced this typeface and cut out the letters himself. You will begin to read it - this language under Peter I became written, literary, displacing the former, ecclesiastical one. Newspapers are brought to you - Peter Great start their publication... At dinner, from salted herring to potatoes, which he ordered to sow by the Senate decree, to grape wine, diluted by him, all the dishes will tell you about Peter the Great.

After lunch, you go to visit - this is the assembly of Peter the Great. You meet ladies there, admitted to the men's company at the request of Peter the Great. Let's go to the university - the first secular school was founded by Peter the Great. You receive a rank - according to the Table of Ranks of Peter the Great. The rank gives me the nobility: this is how Peter the Great established it. I need to file a complaint: Peter the Great determined its form. They will accept her in front of the mirror of Peter the Great. They will judge according to its general regulations.

You decide to travel - following the example of Peter the Great; you will be well received - Peter the Great placed Russia among the European states and began to inspire respect for her.

What innovations of the Petrine era are not named in the document? 2. Make a list of Petrine innovations that remain relevant for the inhabitants of modern Russia.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting

2. Using the Internet, prepare a presentation on the topic "Fashion of the Petrine era."

Describe in the form of a letter to your family the impressions of a poor provincial nobleman who came to the assembly for the first time.

Prove (using the text of the paragraph) that Peter's modernization also changed people's daily lives.

OPINION OF THE HISTORIAN

Changes in daily life under Peter

E. I. Kirichenko (from the book "Russian Style"): The cultural turning point in Russia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries was not a turn, but a coup. The transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age became for her at the same time a transition to accelerated development (the gap had to be made up).

Most importantly, the radicality of perhaps the greatest stadial coup in the entire history of Russia was aggravated by another coup that accompanied it. Namely: going beyond the framework of the Byzantine-type culture associated with Orthodoxy and the forcible planting of European culture, genetically related and developing in the context of other versions of Christianity.

Culture under Peter 1

The wise man avoids all extremes.

Culture under Peter 1 in Russia is a very important topic, since it is generally believed that Peter 1 became a great reformer precisely because of the changes in culture in Russia.

In fact, it is necessary to separate concepts: Peter the Great rather than reformed and created, but destroyed the old.

And the reforms of Peter 1 in culture once again emphasize this. Today I propose to talk in detail about what Petrine culture was, what changes took place in the country and what consequences these changes had.

How massive were the changes?

Let's open any history textbook and it will be written there that under Peter 1 Russia eliminated backwardness by adopting the European way of life, stopped wearing beards, began to wear European clothes, drink coffee, smoke tobacco, learn foreign languages, read books, invite scientists, and so on. .

All this is a lie, and these cultural changes did not carry any mass character and systematic character.

About the culture of the Petrine era, you need to understand 2 things:

• Peter 1 never allowed or allowed anything. He commanded and forced. Therefore, when they say that he will allow you to read, study or drink coffee, you need to understand that Peter 1 forced you to read, study and drink coffee. The difference between the concepts is gigantic. He made it the same as a soldier with a stick at school, who beat children and “driven” knowledge into them (it was on this principle that Peter's schools worked).
• As the historian Klyuchevsky wrote, despite all the transformations of the Petrine era, the population of Russia, as it was a draft, remained.

  We are told that Peter completely changed the culture of the country, and one of the most prominent historians of our Motherland writes that from the point of view of the people and society, little has changed.

Klyuchevsky summed up what was happening with his phrase, but in my opinion Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin spoke much more eloquently about the events of that era.

The people, with stubborn constancy, kept their beard and Russian caftan. The people were sincerely satisfied with their victory and were already looking indifferently at the German way of life of their shaved boyars.

The reforms of Peter 1 in the field of culture affected at best 2% of the population - the nobility. The remaining 98% of innovations practically did not touch. As a result, Peter dealt a blow to Russian society - he forever divided the nobles and everyone else. If earlier Russian society was one, but with different estates, now it was 2 different societies: with different traditions, customs, culture, and so on.

New calendar

Under Peter the European calendar was introduced in Russia.

It was introduced on January 1, 1700 (January 1, 7208 according to the church calendar). Prior to that, there was a calendar where the chronology was from the Creation of the world, and not from the birth of Christ, and the new year began on September 1. After switching to new calendar in Russia, on the orders of Peter, they began to celebrate the New Year holiday on a massive scale. The king ordered to decorate houses with Christmas trees, shoot from guns, light candles and arrange various fun. As a result, the state and the church were increasingly moving away from each other.

Now the state had one calendar, the church another.

The first New Year was celebrated like this. 200 cannons were installed on the Red Square of Moscow and it was ordered to fire from them for 6 days in a row. Fireworks were used for the first time at the festival. Each inhabitant of houses was ordered to decorate houses and gates with pine and spruce branches. All owners of firearms were ordered to fire into the air. Pay attention - everyone was ordered.

Introduction of a new alphabet and fonts

At the time of Peter's coming to power in Russia, the alphabet created by Cyril and Methodius was in force.

It was considered the alphabet of the church, and its own fonts were used in all writings. The lettering itself was carried out in the Greek manner and was very difficult to read.

In 1708, a new civil alphabet was introduced in Russia, or, more simply, new typographic fonts were approved. For culture under Peter 1, this was a serious step.

Previously, all books were published exclusively in church fonts, which were very massive and extremely difficult to read.

This transformation of the Petrine era seems insignificant, but it was one of the few reforms thanks to which culture in Russia under Peter 1 really began to move in a positive direction.

Under Peter the Great, not only the boyars and boyars, but also the letters Russians threw off their wide fur coats, dressed up in summer clothes.

Mikhail Lomonosov

At the same time, Arabic numerals were introduced.

Previously, all numbers were denoted by letters.

On the other hand, we again see that the reforms of Peter 1 in culture are constantly creating a division: the state is separate, the church is separate.

Speaking about the creation of the Russian alphabet of the Petrine era, many historians forget to clarify that the changes affected not only the appearance of letters and numbers, but also their content:

• Peter 1 introduced the letter " E". They say that the letter was already used and therefore Peter simply "legitimized" it.

  But this letter began to be used precisely in the Petrine era, when hundreds of foreign words began to be used in Russian, where the letter E is important.

• Peter removed the letter "Izhitsa" from the alphabet, in 1710 this letter was returned and it existed until the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917.
• The alphabet removed doublet letters (these are 2 letters used to denote 1 sound).

  These were such letters as "DZ", "SHT" and "YA". The latter was replaced by today's classic letter I, the outline of which was personally developed by Peter.

shaving beards

Shaving beards is one of the innovations that culture brought under Peter 1. By a decree of 1698, everyone was ordered to shave their beards. Again, let's open any history textbook and it will be written there that everyone shaved their beards, stories will be told about how negligent townspeople pulled out beards by a hair, how they burned beards right on their faces, and so on.

This, of course, took place, but these were exceptional cases. In fact, the decree of 1698, on the one hand, prohibited beards, and on the other hand provided for the purchase of the right not to shave the beard:

• Merchants paid 100 rubles a year
• The boyars were paid 60 rubles a year
• Other townspeople paid 30 rubles a year.
• Peasants paid 1 kopeck for entry and exit from the city.

After paying the “beard tax”, the person received a special copper sign that was worn under the beard, and there were no more questions for this person.

I draw attention to the peasants - while they lived in the villages, they could wear beards without any problems at all. Problems arose only when crossing a soldier's checkpoint at the entrance (exit) to the city. But again, by paying 1 kopeck, they got the right to go further with a beard.

era architecture

The architecture of the era of Peter the Great is best understood in St. Petersburg. The emperor himself called this city in the Western manner "Paradise", that is, "paradise".

In many ways, the development, including architectural, of this city was reflected in other cities. So, by decree of 1714, Peter banned stone construction in Russia everywhere except St. Petersburg. All stone from all over the country was to be transported to this city, where large-scale construction projects were underway. For the first time, the city was built according to plan, and its architect was the Italian Trezzini. The style he used today is commonly called Russian Baroque.

Trezzini designed 2 types of houses for the city:

• For people "eminent" two-story stone buildings were offered.
• One-story buildings were offered for "mean" people.

Only administrative buildings and palaces of the people of Peter's entourage differed in architectural delights.

The king himself was indifferent to luxury. To understand this, just look at the photograph of the Summer Palace Peter 1 in the Summer Garden of St. Petersburg (a simple two-story building) and the Menshikov Palace on Vasilyevsky Island (a real palace).

As for architecture outside of St. Petersburg, the Moscow Church of the Archangel Gabriel (Menshikov Tower) can be distinguished.

It was designed by the architect Zarudny.

Culture and life of Russia under Peter I

Innovations in culture and life

When Peter I, on his return from Europe in 1698, began to cut the beards of the boyars and shorten their long coats, people at first perceived this as the folly of the young monarch. But they were wrong. Peter really began a broad program of cultural transformation. Beards and caftans became flowers, but so did berries.

Already in 1700, mannequins with samples of new clothes were exhibited at the gates of the Kremlin. Rigidly and decisively, the king began to change the appearance of people.

Not only clothes and shoes of European designs (Polish, Hungarian, French, German) but also wigs began to be introduced into the life of nobles and townspeople.

At the end of December 1699, the tsar issued a decree on changing the chronology in Russia. Previously, according to the old Russian custom that came from Byzantium, the years were calculated from the mythical creation of the world.

The New Year began on September 1st. Peter I ordered to count the years, as in Christian Orthodox Europe (Julian calendar) - from the Nativity of Christ, and open the new year on January 1. On January 1, 1700, Russia began to live according to the new calendar. But for the church, Peter allowed to keep the old chronology. A Christmas tree, Santa Claus, January New Year holidays came to Russia.

Soon after the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg, the royal family, the court, the guards, and the entire population of the city began to participate in these holidays.

Solemn church services were held, and Christmas trees, merry festivities, fireworks were arranged on the streets; feasts began in the houses of the townspeople, in which the king often took part.

This was followed by a change in the counting of hours. In the past, the days were divided from morning to evening.

Peter also introduced a new, European division - the division of the day into equal 24 hours. All clocks in Russia, including those on the Kremlin's Spassky Gates, began to be redesigned. The chimes of the Spasskaya Tower first struck 9 a.m. on December 9, 1706.

Peter sought to ensure that the communication of the people around him was free and relaxed, so that the inveterate old Moscow rituals and complex ceremonies that emphasized the importance and nobleness of the princely and boyar families became a thing of the past.

The first example of new ways of communication was given by Peter himself. He easily communicated both with his associates and with ordinary citizens and even soldiers. He went into their houses, sat down at the table, often became the godfather of the children not only of the nobility, but also of the common people.

Friendly feasts became frequent in the chambers of the king, in the houses of his associates.

Since 1718, the tsar introduced the so-called assemblies - meetings into the practice of communication.

They periodically took place in the winter in the evenings in the homes of rich and noble nobles and townspeople. All of the then Petersburg society gathered for them. Guests were not welcomed or seen off here. Everyone, including the king, could easily stop by for a cup of tea, play a game of checkers or chess, which became more and more fashionable. The youth danced and played games.

Statesmen had solid conversations, solved pressing matters, merchants, entrepreneurs discussed professional problems. Women certainly participated in the assemblies. They left such assemblies "in English" without saying goodbye.

The manners of Russian nobles and townspeople also became different, the so-called “polites”, the rules of good taste, appeared.

Peter in every possible way encouraged the ability to dance, speak fluently in foreign languages, fencing, master the art of speech and writing. All this changed the face of the upper strata of society. Released in 1717

the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth” (it was written at the direction of Peter), became a set of rules of good taste - the rules of external culture and the behavior of a nobleman in society. It denounced what quite recently was customary for the youngest king and his friends when they first went abroad. There, in particular, it was said about the behavior at the table: “sit up straight and don’t grab the first one into the dish, don’t eat like a pig and don’t blow in the ear (from the word ear) so that it splashes everywhere, don’t sniff always eat (when you eat) ... Don’t lick your fingers (fingers) and do not gnaw on bones, but cut with a knife.

Under Peter, Russian life shone with a series of new holidays and amusements.

In addition to traditional festivities associated with the names and birthdays of the king, queen, and their children, new ones appeared - the day of the coronation of Peter I, the day of the royal marriage, as well as annual holidays dedicated to the Battle of Poltava (June 27), victories at Gangut and Grengam ( July 27), the capture of Narva (August 9), the conclusion of the Nishtad Peace (August 30). A special holiday was organized in honor of the establishment of the first and highest Russian Order of St.

Part of the general cultural turn in society was the increase in the literacy of the population, the widespread deployment of book printing, printing and book publishing, the emergence of the first Russian public libraries.

With the active participation of Peter in Russia, a new civil alphabet was also published - instead of the outdated Church Slavonic. This greatly simplified book publishing. The new alphabet lasted more than two centuries

Old Russian alphabetic designations of numbers were replaced by Arabic numerals.

Now the unit was designated "1", and not the letter "A", as before.

There are new printing presses.

They published Russian and translation) n. and textbooks, books on history, natural science and technology, translations of literary and historical writings ancient authors, including Julius Caesar, the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop, the Roman poet Ovid. The first public and free libraries appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

In 1702, a remarkable event took place in the cultural life of the country: getting up one morning on one of the December days, Muscovites discovered that some outlandish printed sheets were being sold near the Moscow printing house.

Thus, the first mass newspaper in Russia, Vedomosti, was published. It was intended not only for royal family and higher dignitaries, like the "Clocks" under Alexei Mikhailovich. They took her out into the street.

The circulation of Vedomosti reached 2,500 copies.

But along with these innovations and successes of Russian culture, the first signs of an excessive and sometimes thoughtless passion for everything foreign appeared, to which the tsar himself set an example. Suffice it to say that the Russian language at that time was replenished with more than 4 thousand new and foreign words. Many of them were completely optional. The tsar's letters are full of German and Dutch words and terms. The real clogging of the Russian language began.

The imitation of Western fashion led to the fact that people were sometimes forced to change clothes that were comfortable and well adapted to the Russian climate for completely European, but uncomfortable and impractical for Russia outfits.

Indeed, what is the use of short trousers, silk stockings, felt hats in twenty-degree Petersburg frosts!

Changes in the cultural image of Russia also affected the appearance of Russian cities.

Peter forced the city authorities to build modern buildings, pave the streets with paving stones, as in European cities. In his decrees, he prescribed in existing cities to introduce elements of “correctness” - to take out residential buildings beyond the “red line”, “to build them not in the middle of their courtyards”, thereby creating straight streets, and achieving a symmetrical layout of building facades. Under him, for the first time in Russia, street lights lit up. Of course, it was in St. Petersburg.

And earlier in Europe, only seven cities - Hamburg, The Hague, Berlin, Copenhagen, Vienna, London and Hannover (the capital of Saxony) had lighting.

Thousands of workers, townspeople, state peasants were mobilized for the construction of St. Petersburg. Day and night to the city on carts in winter - building stone, roofing material, boards were carried on sledges.

Italian and French architects, engineers and craftsmen are invited to design and build streets, palaces and public buildings. Remarkable architectural ensembles began to be created - the Admiralty, the Peter and Paul Fortress with a new cathedral, the college building, the Menshikov Palace, the building of the Kunstkamera, etc.

"I am in the rank of scholars"

This is how Peter, who studied all his life, spoke about himself.

He demanded the same from the whole country.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. in Russia, in essence, a network of secular schools and other educational institutions appeared. Numerical schools have opened in many cities of the country. Children of nobles, officials, lower clergy studied there.

The network of diocesan schools was expanded, where the children of clerics were trained, separate schools are being created for the children of soldiers and sailors.

But the development of the economy, trade, urban planning required more and more cadres of literate and intelligent people. The more complicated system of state - central and local - government demanded the same. We needed well-trained governors, vice-governors, governors, officials, diplomats who spoke foreign languages.

In response to these demands of the time, mining schools and a school of translators were created in Russia, where students mastered European and Oriental sciences.

Education is expanding at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where schools are being formed - Slavic-Latin, Slavic-Greek, and Slavic-Russian.

Under Peter I, technical educational institutions appeared for the first time in Russia. Navigational schools, following Moscow, are created in Novgorod, Narva and other cities, and on their basis the Maritime Academy is opened in St. Petersburg. The main subject in it is shipbuilding. Mention should once again be made of the opening of engineering schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg and the emergence of the first medical schools.

Mostly the children of the nobility studied here. Peter himself was engaged in the selection of students, strictly followed the training, examined the students, praised the diligent, reproached and even punished the negligent.

By a special decree, he forbade young nobles to marry if they did not have an education. In essence, the tsar dragged Russia into enlightenment by force.

Development of science

While still in Europe during the great embassy, ​​Peter I paid much attention to getting acquainted with European science.

He met with outstanding scientists and inventors. The reformer tsar perfectly understood the role of science in the development of civilization. But how did he transfer scientific knowledge to Russia, how to give a powerful impetus to scientific thought in a backward country? The first thing he did was to invite European scientific luminaries to serve. Peter did not skimp on expenses. Provided them with good salaries, provided comfortable housing, gave various benefits.

This is how the Swiss mathematician and mechanic Daniil Bernoulli (1700-1782), the French astronomer and cartographer Joseph Delisle (1688-1768) and some others appeared in Russia. Secondly, the tsar helped talented Russian nuggets advance in science.

Many of them were trained in European countries with his support. Thirdly, he contributed in every possible way to the development of scientific and technical knowledge, as well as those areas of science that were of great practical interest for the development of Russian industry and the development of natural resources. Geological expeditions were sent all over the country, which discovered deposits of coal, iron and copper ore, silver, sulfur.

For the first time in Peter's time, oil fields began to be developed.

The discovery of new lands, the annexation of Siberia led to a real boom in new expeditions to the east. Russian people appeared in Kamchatka and the Kuriles. The purpose of these expeditions was not only to explore and develop new lands rich in furs and minerals, but also to scientifically study the spaces of Russia and neighboring countries, and to draw up geographical maps.

A special expedition was sent to the Chukchi Peninsula, before which the tsar set the goal of reconnoitering "whether America agreed with Asia." Three weeks before his death, Peter drew up instructions for the Danish captain Vitus Bering, who was in the Russian service.

He was on his first expedition to Kamchatka to find a way across the Arctic Ocean to China and India. Already after the death of Peter Bering reached the shores of Alaska, opened the strait between Asia and America, named after him.

Another expedition made its way to India through the Central Asian khanates of Khiva and Bukhara.

Cossack atamans were instructed to survey and describe the lands along the Amu Darya, in the area of ​​Lake Issyk-Kul. Expeditions to North Caucasus. As a result, by the beginning of the 1920s maps of individual parts of Russia appeared.

The general rise of the economy and education in the country led to shifts in the field of technical innovation.

In mechanics, the inventions of Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov appeared, who created a series of original turning and screw-cutting machines. New, more economical and efficient ways began to forge and process gun barrels. Domestic optics was born. Russian craftsmen began to make microscopes, spyglasses, which were previously bought abroad.

At the initiative of Peter, an astronomical observatory and a botanical garden were opened, the collection of ancient manuscripts began, and new historical works appeared.

Literature and art

The era of Peter 1 could not but leave an imprint on literature and art.

The "Petrine" theme imperiously invades traditional folk literary genres.

A new phenomenon in literature was journalism - works created by Peter's associates and glorifying the deeds of the reformer tsar.

First quarter of the 18th century

Russia is marked by new phenomena in the field of art.

The theater was again revived in Moscow. Amateur theaters were organized by students of various secondary and higher educational institutions.

There have been significant changes in painting, and the most important of them is the development of secular realistic painting along with traditional icon painting.

First of all, this applies to portraiture.

The first realist artists appeared. Assessing their talent, Peter sent some of them to study abroad. The most prominent portrait painter of his time was Ivan Nikitich Nikitin, who created a gallery of portraits of famous people of that era. The painting "Peter I on his deathbed" also belongs to his brush. Another famous Russian portrait painter was Andrei Matveevich Matveev.

Both of them were trained in Holland.

The music has also changed. Along with traditional choral works, military combat music sounded with folk songs. Regiments during parades, triumphs marched under Russian and foreign marches. The townsfolk looked with delight at the military-musical spectacles.

Cloth

In the capital, and especially at official receptions and in institutions, it was required to appear in " european dress". For the Russians, it was unusually short. Russian people are accustomed to long-sleeved clothes with wide sleeves. Those who did not obey were cut off the floors of their clothes and exposed to general ridicule.

Holidays

During the time of Peter I, many festivities were held, which were celebrated magnificently, on a grand scale, with fireworks, illumination, firing of cannons.

There were many reasons for the holidays: these were victories in the Northern War, the celebration of the New Year, the launching of a new ship, the name day of the sovereign.

Decree of Peter I on the New Year

Peter I issued a decree according to which the new year began on January 1, and not on September 1, as it was before, and the counting of years went from the Nativity of Christ, as in the West, and not from the Creation of the world, as it was in Russia.

The decree was issued in December 1699 and, thus, from January 1, a new year, 1700, began in the country, and 7208 did not continue from the Co-creation of the world.

The first New Year was celebrated like this. A special decree was issued, according to which the tsar ordered on January 1, 1700 in Moscow on Red Square to place 200 cannons, from which they fired for six days in a row. They staged a magnificent fireworks display. Each owner of the house was ordered to decorate his gate with pine, spruce or juniper branches.

And those hosts who had firearms were supposed to salute in honor of the New Year. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru

Petrovsky assemblies

Tsar Peter I also introduced assemblies.

The decree said that the word was French. It meant receptions in some rich house, where not only men, but also women were present. There they danced, had small talk and friendly conversations, exchanged opinions, drank a drink previously unknown in Russia - coffee, smoked pipes with tobacco according to European custom, played checkers and chess.

Each St. Petersburg nobleman at least once a year (or even more often) had to arrange an assembly in his house, put up refreshments, provide a hall for dancing, rooms for relaxation, games and conversations.

Most of the assemblies were held in winter.

Different attitudes towards this undertaking of Peter I. Some welcomed, others did not approve, but obeyed.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

On this page, material on the topics:

• Petra's life 1

• Scientific knowledge in the period of Peter 1

• Changes in life under Peter 1 pictures

• Society under Peter 1 report

• Changes in life under Peter I

Questions for this article:

• For what purpose were the assemblies established in the capital?

• Who could and was obliged to attend the assemblies?

Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru

Changes in culture and life in the Petrine era

Education and school

Creation of a secular education system, which was based on the principle of training the nobility.

Studying was equated with public service.

Petrovsky school was created as a technical school, exact sciences prevailed among the disciplines

Appearance:

• digital schools for the education of children of nobles and officials
• "garrison" and "admiralty" schools for training children of soldiers and sailors, working people
• Technical Special Schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg
• Sending noble undergrowth to study abroad

1702

- publication of the first periodical newspaper Vedomosti

1703 - introduction Arabic numerals

1708 - transition to civil type - introduction of new letters "e", "I", "e", simplified spelling...

1714 – opening of the first in Russia public library in St. Petersburg

1714 - decree about not marrying illiterate noblemen

Base Kunstkamera - Collections of rarities based on the personal collection of Peter I.

WITH 1719- available for viewing

Creation "model-camera", which later became the basis for the Central Naval Museum

Appear tutorials:

• "Primer" F. Polikarpov
• "Arithmetic" L. Magnitsky
• "The First Teaching to the Youths" by F. Prokopovich

scientific knowledge

Creation the first map of the Caspian Sea and 30 maps of counties.

Discovery of many deposits:

• Coal – in the Donetsk and Kuznetsk coal basins
• Oil - in the Volga and Komi regions

1709 - the beginning of the Vyshnevolotsk canal system

1714

– opening of the first botanical garden in St. Petersburg

1724 - Decree establishing the Academy of Sciences

IN 1712. famous inventor A.K. Narts creates a lathe using a self-propelled metal tool holder. He invented a machine for drilling barrels from cannons, a number of original screw-cutting, gear-cutting, lathe-copying machines, technology and mechanization of coin production.

Theater

1702

– opening in Moscow of a public public theatre.

The troupe is German actors. The repertoire consisted of German, French, Spanish plays. School theaters at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and the School of Surgery were popular. The sister of Peter I, Natalya Alekseevna, organized her own theater.

Publicism

Feofan Prokopovich - vice-president of the Synod, publicist, poet, playwright - wrote:

• 1721

  - "Spiritual regulation", where he substantiated the need to eliminate the patriarchate and the advantage of collegiate government, substantiated the subordination of spiritual authority to secular;

• 1722 - "The truth of the will of the monarchs", where he proved that the best form of state for Russia is an absolute monarchy

I.T. Pososhkov (“The Book of Poverty and Wealth (1724).

He advocated the development of domestic industry through state encouragement of entrepreneurial activity and the rational use of subsoil, believed that the exclusive right to trade should belong to the merchants, defended measures to limit the arbitrariness of the nobles, the regulation of peasant duties

Architecture

Beginning of transition to regular construction of new cities(St. Petersburg, Azov, Taganrog) with streets intersecting at right angles and alignment of the facades of houses along the street line.

A new phenomenon in architecture was the construction triumphal arches

The secular beginning in architecture began to prevail over the church

Dominant style - "Petrine Baroque", which is characterized by: symmetry of the facades, high gable roofs, a simple compositional solution, monumentality, an abundance of decorations, wavy or broken cornices, the color of the facade in two colors, most often in a combination of red and white.

In St. Petersburg:

• Summer Palace of Peter I (Domenico Trezzini)
• Petrovsky Gates of the Peter and Paul Fortress
• Building of the Twelve Collegia
• Church of the Annunciation of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, etc.

Wooden architecture developed (Church of the Transfiguration on the island of Kizhi)

Sculpture

Monumental and decorative sculpture, reliefs, fountain and landscape gardening sculpture developed.

B.K.

Rastrelli - created busts of Peter I, A. D. Menshikov, the equestrian monument to Peter I, the sculptural group "Neptune"

Painting

Painting by nature became predominantly secular. Artists departed from icon painting traditions and sought to convey the volume of objects and the depth of the surrounding space, to depict figures in accordance with the laws of anatomy:

• I.N.

  Nikitin "Portrait of Peter I", "Peter I on his deathbed",

• A.M. Matveev “Self-portrait with his wife”, portraits of I.A.

  and A.P. Golitsyn

Rapid development engraving art(A.F. Zubov "Panorama of St. Petersburg", "View of St. Petersburg"

Life of people

1700 introduction of the Julian calendar . Years began to be counted from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the creation of the world (5508 years), New Year - January 1, 1700 (instead of September 1)

1700 - a decree obliging nobles, clerks and service officials, merchants wear European clothes(Hungarian and German dress)

1705 - a decree obliging the population of the country shave mustache and beard

1717

– introduction of rules of conduct in society - "Youth honest mirror"

1718 introduction of assemblies (from French - meeting) - a secular form of entertainment, when representatives of different classes, men and women, gathered, danced, played chess, had conversations

Holding public holidays with fireworks, carnival processions, masquerades

Sign of payment of duty for a beard

Hermitage Museum.

Russian culture of the time of Peter the Great.

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Cultural reforms of Peter I

All Peter's transformations were interconnected. After all, quite often, one reform was necessary to support another. Since the Russian sovereign Peter the Great carried out comprehensive changes, their preparation and implementation required qualified personnel. This was one of the reasons for the opening of various educational institutions in the country. And to achieve this goal, new textbooks and knowledge were needed.

The main milestones of the cultural reforms of Emperor Peter I

In 1708, the tsar signed a decree on the introduction of an updated civil font for printing political, educational, scientific and secular literature. In addition, new printing houses appear in St. Petersburg and Moscow. The rapid development of the book business led to the beginning of an active book trade and the opening of libraries. In the same period, the first Russian periodical, the Vedomosti newspaper, began to appear.

Prior to that, in 1703, the first book in Russian appeared in the Russian Empire, which contains Arabic numerals, which until that moment were usually denoted by wavy lines (letters with titles).

In 1710, the tsar approves a new alphabet, in the development of which he himself took part. It is worth noting that this played a large role in the writing of important historical works of that time.

The Kunstkamera created by Peter the Great became the first in the so-called collections, and the collection of chronicles and other written sources became the starting point for the formation of museums in the country.

In 1724, the ruler began preparatory work for the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. At the same time, the architecture of large cities is changing: palaces, government buildings and mansions are being built. A special place in this era is given to the construction of the new Petrine capital of St. Petersburg, in the construction of which both the tsar himself participated (the development of the project and the plan of the city), and foreign architects.

Features of the cultural reforms of Peter I

Formation of a new urban environment

In addition, a completely different form of life and urban environment was formed in the state. Pastimes, assemblies, masquerades, dances and theater visits, which were popular during this period in developed European countries, were introduced into fashion. The tsar became the founder of a new style of Russian art, which was later called "Peter's Baroque". This style harmoniously combined the best examples of Western European art with Russian traditions.

It was thanks to Peter the Great that the works of the Swedish architect Dominico Trezzini became widespread in Russia. The sovereign himself relied on monumental architecture. Huge sculptures were decorations of ships, triumphal arches, temples, obelisks, noble palaces, gardens and country residences! Festive fireworks, illuminations, naval and military parades, as well as theatrical performances and masquerades required bright and large-scale decoration.

Returning from Europe, the tsar introduces into fashion popular in Europe portraiture and a genre that is still called "battle painting" by art critics. In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the foundation was laid for the Russian theater. During this period, the ruler attracts poets and writers to write dramatic domestic works.

Changing the life of Rus' under Peter I

Changes are introduced in everyday life, affecting all spheres of public life. For example, the king forbids wearing clothes with long sleeves, replacing its standards with the European style. At the same time, old clothes are being replaced by wigs, shoes, stockings, wide-brimmed hats, as well as frills, ties and camisoles.

One of the most innovative reforms of the Petrine period, against which all sections of society were opposed, was the ban on wearing a beard. It is worth noting that the sovereign even introduced a "beard tax" with a mandatory copper sign on the actual payment.

Assemblies established

Peter the Great established the so-called assemblies, which without fail women were supposed to come. This fact entailed following the rules of good manners, as well as the development of rules for “noble behavior in society” and the need to speak foreign languages ​​(as a rule, French was enough).

Even at the beginning of the mass transformations in culture, namely in 1702, Peter issued a decree prohibiting writing derogatory half-names in petitions and various documents (for example, Vanka, Senka, etc.), indicating a respectful attitude. This was also indicated by the words of the king that from now on "do not fall on your knees before the sovereign, do not take off your hat in front of the house with the king in the cold, etc."

Modern historians argue that Peter the Great’s visit to the Great Embassy of the developed European states was of great importance for the implementation of cultural reforms in the Russian Empire, where he could not only consider all the mechanisms of the reforms, but also take some of them into service.

Scheme: reforms of Peter I in the field of culture

The 19th-century historian Mikhail Pogodin wrote: “We are waking up. What day is it today? - September 18, 1840. Peter ordered to count the years from the Nativity of Christ, Peter the Great ordered to count the months from January. It's time to get dressed - our dress is sewn according to the style originally given by Peter, the uniform is according to his form. The cloth was woven in the factory he started, the wool was sheared from the sheep he bred. A book catches your eye - Peter the Great introduced this font and cut out the letters himself. You will begin to read it - under Peter this language became written, literary, displacing the former, ecclesiastical one. Newspapers are brought to you—Peter the Great began publishing them. You need to buy different things - all of them, from a scarf to a shoe sole, will remind you of Peter the Great. Some were written out by him, others put into use by him, improved, brought on his ship, to his harbor, along his canal, along his road. At dinner, from salted herring to potatoes, which he ordered to sow by the Senate decree, to grape wine, diluted by him, all the dishes will tell you about Peter the Great. After lunch, you go to visit - this is the assembly of Peter the Great. You meet ladies there, admitted to the men's company at the request of Peter the Great. Let's go to the university - the first secular school was founded by Peter the Great.<…>We cannot open our eyes, we cannot move, we cannot turn to either side without Peter meeting us: at home, on the street, in church, in school, in court, in the regiment, on a walk. , all of it, every day, every minute, at every step!

Nothing of the kind can be said about any later ruler of Russia. Even now, in the 21st century, we cannot refute Pogodin. We are still finding the beginnings, origins, causes that lead us to Peter - the true demi-urge, the founder of Russian cultural existence.

Many cultural phenomena were precisely initiated by Peter, they were introduced into Russian life at his will, at his initiative. Moreover, surveying everything that he created, established, changed in just a quarter of a century, noting this extraordinary accuracy, the density of cultural innovations introduced into Russian life, we cannot but admit that, having come into the world, Peter seemed to implemented a certain program. The first person to notice this was Pyotr Chaadaev, who wrote in his Apology of a Madman: “Our enormous development is only the realization of this magnificent program.<…>The lofty mind of this extraordinary man unmistakably guessed what our starting point should be on the path of civilization and the world's mental movement.

Already contemporaries were amazed, looking at Peter: externally and internally, he seemed to come from some other world, unusual for traditional Russia. To some, he seemed to be the Antichrist in general, to others - a non-Russian, a substitute, a foreigner. Meanwhile, his cultural initiatives were directly connected with the then life of Russia and Peter's personal experience.

Firstly, the political fate of young Peter was very dramatic, if not tragic. It brought him so many fears, disappointments, sorrows that he saw his own salvation in the cultural orientation to the West, in the rejection of the traditional Moscow order. And he saw the future of the power entrusted to him, the speedy overcoming of the lag visible to everyone. He said that it is easier to build something new than to repair the old, and he acted sharply, straightening the path of his country into history.

As the same Chaadaev expressively wrote, “... he understood well that ... we have no need to suffocate in our history and there is no need to trudge, like Western peoples, through the chaos of national prejudices, along the narrow paths of local ideas, along the pitted ruts of native tradition, that we must free by the impulse of our internal forces, by the energetic effort of the national consciousness, to master the destiny destined for us. And so he freed us from all these remnants of the past ... he opened our minds to all the great and beautiful ideas that exist among people ... ".

The cultural initiatives of Peter were the result of his resolute rejection of the culture of Muscovy, contemporary Russia with its characteristic deep respect for paternal antiquity, traditions, Orthodox faith, ancient customs. Hence Peter's habitual belittling of the Moscow, old Russian principle, ridiculing it as savagery, superstition. Hence his opposition of antiquity and newness, regular St. Petersburg with its straight streets and chaotic Moscow with its dead ends, which brought him danger, a threat, Russia - and the West. This opposition runs throughout his life.

Secondly, all his undertakings were imbued with the philosophy of rationalism popular in Europe, they were a consequence, a reflection of the then widespread cult of experimental knowledge. The beginnings of rationalism permeated Peter's transformations in many areas of Russian culture. It is enough to look at the traces of Peter's reforms - for example, the reform of the alphabet - and remember, for example, that memorable page, crossed out by Peter's sharp pen: from the numerous spellings of the letters of the Russian alphabet of the 17th century, he crossed out all those that were difficult, required effort to reproduce -Izvedenie, and left only those that were simple, convenient in everyday life. Sometimes it seems that this edit was made modern man- a man of the rational XX century. Introducing these principles of rationalism, accuracy, systemicity, he opposed them to what he did not like in Muscovite Rus', to what he called “Moscow maybe”, “Moscow immediately”.

Thirdly, many of Peter's cultural initiatives were colored by his personal tastes, his interests, his predilections - and he was a very passionate person. It is known that Holland was his eternal love, true passion. He dreamed of living there. He was seized by the dream to create on the banks of the Neva his beloved city, Amsterdam. That's what he called Petersburg - "the second Amsterdam". He wanted to build on dug canals a copy of this charming city with its half-timbered houses, spiers, and drawbridges. And this, of course, was reflected in the architecture of St. Petersburg and the life of its inhabitants. Yes, and in small things, he wanted to be like a rich Dutch burgher, to live in cozy low rooms with tiled walls and stoves, to read Dutch newspapers sitting in front of the fireplace, to smoke a Dutch pipe.

Sometimes it seems that there was no measure in this passion of Peter for everything Dutch. There is an anecdote that Peter himself made boots and wore them, but in fact we know that he ordered all this in Holland, and fabrics in France. Sometimes it seems that he ate only foreign food and did not drink, did not eat anything Russian. In 1712, during the Northern War with Sweden, he asked through Russian diplomats who met with the Swedes in Hamburg, so that the Swedes would allow at least one ship with provisions from Holland to pass to the new city of Petersburg - it’s so hard he suffered without Dutch herring, without oysters, eels, asparagus, and, most importantly, without Dutch cheese, which he adored.

All this - the philosophy of rationalism, and the attitude to antiquity, and love for Holland, for the same cheese - turned Peter towards the West, towards European culture, European tradition, which Peter already considered in many ways his own. This perception was not blind, thoughtless: as a rationalist, pragmatist and even a cynic, he did not idealize Western civilization, he did not really like the West with its democracy. He deliberately, purposefully and even busily selected in this huge shop cultural property West what, as it seemed to him, is suitable for Russia. In a further historical perspective, Russia adopted many of Peter's cultural initiatives. And in this sense it is impossible not to say that, it seems, he guessed right.

Peter did a lot to transfer to Russia the cultural and intellectual values ​​that she absolutely needed, starting with the purchase of some important items, works of art, and ending with sending young people abroad to receive both naval and art education. And this later became a widespread custom: every graduate of the Academy of Arts was obliged to go to Italy and train there.

We must not forget that Peter invited many foreign masters and scientists to Russia. There were whole, as they wrote in the literature, "landing forces" - French, Dutch, German. The great mathematician Leonard Euler wrote that if it were not for the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, to which he was invited, he would have remained a scribbler in the West. Because Russia was terra incognita, an unknown land that no one knew about - no geographical maps, no collections. And a lot of scientists went here the way they went to America. And it's all thanks to Peter.

Without a doubt, St. Petersburg played a special role in introducing Russia to culture. It was generally built as a western city. The status of the administrative, military, maritime capital made inevitable the concentration in St. Petersburg of various educated specialists with connections in the West, with broad cultural needs, with extensive knowledge. In addition, almost immediately the city became the largest center of education. Already in the 18th century, the quarters close to the Neva, on Vasilyevsky Island, were called "French Settlement" and resembled the university campuses of the West.

Here you can see a variety of students. In addition to the cadets of the land and naval corps, here one could see students of the Academy of Arts, students of the gymnasium, the Academy of Sciences. Students of the Mining School from the 22nd line met here (everyone spoke only German there), teachers' seminary; there were students of Blagoveshchensk and other schools from Bolshoy Prospekt. There are also many private educational institutions. It is no coincidence that here, in the habitat of the Russian intelligentsia, the St. Petersburg intelligentsia, St. Petersburg University was opened, and then the famous Maya gymnasium, Bestuzhev women's courses.

This is how culture medium for the development of Russian culture and science. And thanks to Peter, this humus of culture grew, without which the development of the nation is impossible. You can bring books, instruments, but it is important that there are people who can use them, who are imbued with the ideas of culture. The emanation of this Petersburg subculture spread in waves from the banks of the Neva throughout the Russian Empire, forming the whole Russian national culture, which was already unthinkable without Peter, his beloved capital, without the imperial period in the history of Russia.

With Peter and his cultural initiatives, a new era of Russian national and imperial culture began. But, clinging to the sources of other cultures, he violently destroyed his own culture, inherited from his ancestors, which by this time was already almost a thousand years old.

It is safe to say that Peter hated Moscow. He even abandoned the royal palace in the Kremlin (as a result, it collapsed, and the Russian empresses who later came to stay in Lefortovo or Golovinsky Palace), because he hated this Kremlin, these boyars, these archers, whose name he generally forbade to mention . And, of course, the reign of his sister Sophia, when she actually seized power in 1682 and ruled Russia for seven years. These seven years were filled for Peter with fear for his physical and political existence, so it was natural to reject these long beards, these long dresses, everything that was connected with Moscow. In addition, this happened due to the circumstances of his political life: he was thrown out of the closed world of the traditional Kremlin, he settled in Preobrazhensky - and did not go through the school that was held in this closed space of the Kremlin, in this forbidden city, all his predecessor-vein-nickname. Petersburg for him was an alternative to Moscow, an alternative to everything old Russian.

For Peter, antiquity was synonymous with everything harmful, bad, funny, uncomfortable, irregular. From his reforms in the public consciousness imprinted (and this, I must say, largely due to his propaganda) the idea that pre-Petrine culture is bad, primitive, of little interest.

In fact, until recently, before the collections of icons by the artists Grabar and Korin, before Soloukhin’s story Black Boards, before the film Andrei Rublev by Tarkovsky, before the studies of academician Dmitry Likhachev, the belief prevailed everywhere that ancient Russian culture was secondary and dead end.

Moreover, such an attitude towards pre-Petrine antiquity from the Russian Empire migrated to the Soviet empire. And there were still people alive who remember the "discovery" of Andrei Rublev or Dionisy - after all, these murals, these icons were smeared, "corrected" by synodal bogomass. The Sino-distant period of the Russian Orthodox Church caused serious damage to the culture that was inherited from the ancestors.

And most importantly, many cultural traditions and initiatives that were the essence of Russian culture were interrupted. It seems that Peter - and this is clearly seen from his decrees - seemed to break Russian culture through the knee, acted with it like a conqueror. It is enough to read his decrees: it is like the commandant of an occupied city.

In a sense, even the Reformation in the West was not as radical in terms of culture as Peter's cultural policy in Russia. And, somehow involuntarily comparing Russia and Japan from the times when grandiose reforms took place, which, in essence, made Japan modern, you understand that by modernizing the country, its economy, army, creating a fleet and actively communicating with foreigners, adopting the achievements -zhenie their culture, Peter still probably had the opportunity to preserve the traditional, ancient forms of clothing, customs, songs.

But even this is not the most important thing. The fact is that in the Petrine era and thanks to Peter, that important tectonic break occurred in the culture, in the mentality of the Russian people, which has been haunting us for centuries. Earlier, before Peter the Great, folk culture was widespread in Russian society, including its upper classes. Songwriters, storytellers, jesters were entered into the house of both the boyar and the commoner, the king and the serf. Common holidays and customs of the ancestors were equally revered at all levels, in all strata of Russian society. Now, since Peter, with the introduction of Western clothes, holidays, customs, the intellectual and power elite, part of Russian society, moved further and further away from the people, became alien to him, causing rejection, mockery with their wigs, incomprehensible reprimand, first in German, and then in French.

At the same time, a very important turning point was taking place: the cultural upheaval of Peter, combined with the tightening of serfdom, separated the elite from the people. Yes, they met under the vaults of the church, but, interestingly, they stood apart. The consequences of this cultural split were generally dramatic. Because the people, deprived of their leaders-intellectuals, often staged terrible riots - the same ones, as Pushkin wrote, "senseless and merciless." And the elite - at least that part of it that reflected, which understood the problems of the people - had an inferiority complex, a kind of guilt in front of its people, who suffer, who live in filth - and we, they say, are such educated, we live much better than him. That terrible thing happened, which is called a break in the continuity of culture.

This was largely due to the church reform of Peter, who simply abolished the patriarchate and introduced the collective management of the Church - the Holy Synod. This synodal period, which lasted almost 200 years and ended in 1917 with the election of a new patriarch, is generally considered a dark period in the history of the Russian Church: it became in many ways such a “spiritual office” under the autocratic regime. True, there are also problems in discussing this topic: the Byzantine system of Orthodoxy was arranged in such a way that the basileus appointed patriarchs and bishops, and this was transferred to Russia.

But the most important thing is different. Peter in many ways made the Russian state secular. And there was an unprecedented religious tolerance, which was not there before. On the main street of St. Petersburg, on Nevsky Prospekt, there are many churches of other faiths - there is nothing like it in any capital of the world. And this religious tolerance was connected not only with the Western predilections of Peter. He, in principle, was close to the introduction of Protestantism in Russia - in his desire to make the Church not only a conductor of his political views, but also a center for the dissemination of culture. He looked with bitterness at the Russian priests - uneducated, unable to read sermons, and a sermon is one of the most important components of the Church's activity.

He sought to educate priests: for this, he invited Church leaders from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and gave them first places. But this institutionalization of the Russian Church (its “victory”) ultimately played a bad joke on the Church itself: it ceased to be a medium, a bearer of spiritual values ​​that are characteristic of Christianity.

But even this does not seem to be the saddest consequence of Peter's reforms, including cultural ones. Changing culture, introducing new things into it, Peter consistently rejected many social institutions, sources that nourished Western culture. He spent great government reforms, he changed the social image of Russian society - but, choosing in the West what he wanted to bring to Russia, he, as it were, neatly cut off from the Western models of the state and social structure everything that was connected with the two most important elements, on on which European culture is based—parliamentarism and local self-government.

Even in one of the decrees, when he was asked to introduce the Swedish system of local government, in which the pastor and the wealthiest peasants played the main role, this draft was written: “There are no smart Russian men among them.” And this is about the people who, a hundred years before, essentially saved Russia, about the land that was headed by Minin and Pozharsky and gave rise to a new dynasty.

Peter liked Western newspapers, he adopted them, brought them along with the printing presses - but left the freedom of the press on the Western counter. Realizing that he could not cope with the English and Hamburg newspapers, he found various ways to put pressure on them - well, for example, limiting the Hamburg merchants in St. Petersburg. Or seeking to have some articles banned from publication - especially those that, as it seemed to him, discredited his rule (far from humane, as we know).

To many Western laws, which Peter himself crossed out, he, as it were, hung a club or whip, which were not in these charters and laws, in order to warn those who violated them with threats and cruel punishments.

Peter called all this "to let down with the Russian custom." And he knows the Russian custom: the immutability of autocracy, etatism, dirigisme, that is, the management of the economy, the state. And in various forms - serfdom.

Even the Russian nobility, which was largely created by Peter, at first was also a form of serfdom, slavery. The young Russian nobleman did not have any rights: he had to study, he was forbidden to marry, there were a lot of all sorts of restrictions.

And, of course, we regret to admit that Peter, with his reforms, contributed to the conservation of many phenomena of the Middle Ages, which began to erode before the beginning of his reign. Still, the Russian 17th century was in many ways freer than the Petrine era. I will give you an example: Peter's legislation forbade the words "free", "free". And this, as you understand, means a lot.

We are talking about a sharp increase in serfdom, about the formation of a rigid political system in which unlimited autocratic power and bureaucracy dominated. In general, the Petrine period is characterized by the fact that a powerful state, autocratic, developed outside the field of law. And so it was subject to both palace coups and everything that was connected with favoritism. In the field of law, the monarch could be protected by laws - but here this was not the case.

In general, it can be said that the Petrine era, taking into account all the social, state transformations, sharply narrowed the possibilities for the non-autocratic, non-serf, non-imperial, non-police development of Russia. Thanks to Peter's "progress through violence" (this term is often used in the literature), out of many options for moving into the future, Russia has only one path left, which, in essence, it is still following. Peter, as it were, trampled down the entire glade of alternatives - bifurcation points along which Russia could develop. And this, of course, affected Russian culture, which in many ways was both servile and suppressed by the authorities.

In general, Russia was very upset by the changes introduced by Peter. Some of his cultural initiatives remained only good wishes and dried up in the bud; theirs, ours.