The term "functional systems", theory and model functional systems were introduced in 1935 by the Soviet physiologist Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin. A prerequisite for the creation of TFS is the physiological facts obtained experimentally (such as, for example, the connection of nerve trunks), thanks to which the subordination was revealed. individual systems(functions) holistic behavior. Further research allowed Anokhin to discover the integration of physiological processes into a single whole.

What definition does Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin give to the concept of "Function"? Function is the achievement of a useful result in the ratio of the organism and the environment. Thus, the functional system, according to the scientist, was a dynamic self-regulating organization, all constituent elements which interact to obtain a useful adaptive result by the body. This "adaptive result" is an indicator of adaptation necessary for the normal functioning of the organism. The functional systems of the body are made up of several elements of the whole organism that are different in structure and purpose, and their activity and final result do not reflect the exclusive influence of any anatomical type of the participating structure. The components included in the system lose their freedom, and only those of them remain that contribute to obtaining the desired useful result, which is the determining factor for the formation of a functional system.

A useful result is the provision of some qualitatively specific ratio of the organism with the environment, which contributes to the satisfaction of its needs.

The results can be divided into several groups:

1) Metabolic. Results that create the necessary end products for life.

2) Homeopathic. Results that are indicators of the state of body fluids (blood, lymph) and ensure normal metabolism.

3) Behavioral. Results that satisfy the basic needs of a living organism.

4) Social. Results that satisfy the social and spiritual needs of a person.

To achieve results different groups functional systems are formed different levels, however, their structure is basically the same and is a combination of five elements:

1) Useful adaptive result

2) Control devices (receptors)

3) Feedback

4) Central architectonics - selective association of nervous elements of various levels into control apparatuses.

5) Reaction apparatus - somatic, vegetative, endocrine, behavioral.

The functional systems of the metabolic result include only internal mechanisms of self-regulation, determine the optimal level of blood mass, blood pressure and environmental reaction for the metabolic process.

Homeopathic Functional Systems provide external mechanisms self-regulation, the interaction of the organism with the external environment, the level nutrients, body temperature and pressure.

Behavioral functional systems and social functional systems provide internal and external mechanisms of self-regulation, which play an equally equal role.

At the same time, several functional systems of different levels work in the human body, but there are certain principles of their interaction:

1) The principle of systemogenesis;

2) The principle of multiply connected interaction;

3) Hierarchy;

4) Consistent dynamism of interaction;

5) The principle of systemic quantization of life activity.

I propose to consider these principles in more detail.

The first principle, the principle of system genesis, is nothing more than the maturation, development and selective reduction of a functional system.

The principle of multiply connected interaction determines the generalized activity of various functional systems, the unity of the internal environment of the organism, changes as a result of metabolism and the activity of the organism in the external environment. At the same time, deviations of one indicator of the internal environment cause a redistribution of the result parameters joint activities several functional systems.

Hierarchy. The name speaks for itself - the functional system is divided into levels, the poor of which are subject to the highest, in accordance with the biological and social significance. The activity of the organism is determined by the dominant functional system and the corresponding result is achieved first. Upon reaching the dominant result, the next most important result is achieved.

The principle of subsequent dynamic interaction. It is understood as a clear sequence of changes in the activities of several functional systems. The result of the activity of the previous one is an indicator for the start of the activity of the subsequent system.

The principle of systemic quantization of life activity. It consists in the allocation in the process of life of some "quanta" with their final result.

Thus, a “useful result” is achieved through a motor (behavioral) act.

A behavioral act is an elementary cycle of the relationship of the whole organism with the environment, in which systemic processes are distinguished, that is, the organization of cells of cellular processes into a single whole - a functional system.

To consider this concept, it must be said that Anokhin identified two groups of functional systems: the first group is functional systems that ensure the constancy of certain constants of the internal environment due to the self-regulation system, the links of which do not go beyond the body itself (functional systems of the metabolic result). The second group is functional systems that use an external link of self-regulation. They provide an adaptive effect due to going outside the body through communication with outside world through behavior change. It is the functional systems of the second type that underlie various behavioral acts, various types behavior.

There is a certain scheme of combining parts of functional systems into a single whole that determines a behavioral act:

Afferent synthesis - decision making - acceptor of the results of action - effective synthesis - formation of action - evaluation of the achieved result.

Let's analyze the proposed circuit.

1) Afferent synthesis is the process of impulse transmission from the working organ to the nerve center. The following factors influence its formation:

a) Motivational excitation (need). Appears when a need arises and is aimed at creating favorable conditions for satisfying these needs and the existence of the organism.

b) Situational afferentation. Including the excitation from a stationary environment and the excitation associated with this environment.

c) Starting afferentation. It consists in the fact that, revealing the latent excitation created by situational afferentation, it dates it to certain points in time, the most expedient from the point of view of the behavior itself.

d) Memory apparatus. It lies in the fact that at the stage of afferent synthesis, precisely those fragments of past experience that are useful and necessary for future behavior are extracted and used from memory.

2) The decision-making stage, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special and very important stage of a behavioral act - the formation of an apparatus for accepting the results of an action. This is an apparatus that programs the results of future events. It actualizes the innate and individual memory of an animal and a person in relation to the properties of external objects that can satisfy the need that has arisen, as well as methods of action aimed at achieving or avoiding the target object. Quite often, this apparatus is programmed with the whole path of searching in the external environment for the corresponding stimuli.

3) The next stage, the acceptor of the results of the action, is, one might say, a mechanism that contains a model of the programmable parameters of future stage and final results, as well as comparing the results that were predicted with those that were obtained.

4) Efferent synthesis - outgoing, excreting, transmitting impulses from the nerve centers to the working organs.

Conclusions to chapter 1:

1) The nervous system is the main functional system of a living organism, since it is able to regulate the activity of other systems of our body, being between them, a kind of connecting link. The nervous system consists of the Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (nerves, ganglions), which also interact with each other in the implementation of nerve reactions and processes.
2) Being the main function of a living organism, the nervous system is the basis for mental processes. The psyche is formed by the influence of the activity of the nervous system. This is expressed in the formation of a subjective image of the picture of the surrounding world, different from the real and emotionally colored, the regulation of human behavior carried out both by the internal influences of desires, memory, experience, and directly by the external environment.
3) The founder of the theory of functional systems is the Russian scientist Petr Kuzmich Anokhin. He gave a definition, a classification of functional systems, the principles of their work and the goal - to achieve a useful result.

5.Theory of functional systems P.K. Anokhin.

In the theory of functional systems, as a determinant of behavior, an event that is not past in relation to behavior is considered - a stimulus, and the future is the result .

Functional system there is a dynamically developing wide distributed system of heterogeneous physiological formations, all parts of which contribute to obtaining a certain useful result. It is the leading value of the result and the model of the future created by the brain that allows us to speak not about the reaction to stimuli from external environment, but about full-fledged goal-setting.

rice. 2. The general architecture of the functional system (OA - situational afferentation, PA - triggering afferentation) The diagram shows the sequence of actions in the implementation of one functional system. First happens afferent synthesis, which accumulates signals from the external environment, memory and motivation of the subject. Based on afferent synthesis decision is made, on the basis of which program of action and action result acceptor – forecast of the effectiveness of the action taken. After that directly action is taken and the physical parameters of the result are removed. One of the most important parts of this architecture is reverse afferentation - feedback, which allows you to judge the success of one or more actions. This directly allows the subject to learn, since by comparing the physical parameters of the result obtained and the predicted result, one can evaluate the effectiveness of purposeful behavior. Moreover, it should be noted that the choice of this or that action is influenced by a lot of factors, the totality of which is processed in the process of afferent synthesis.

The interaction of man and animals with the environment is carried out through purposeful activity or behavior.

Functional Systems- dynamic, self-organizing, self-regulating constructions, all the constituent components of which are friendly combined to achieve adaptive results that are useful for the system itself and the organism as a whole.

There are two types of functional systems.

1. Functional systems of the first type ensure the constancy of certain constants of the internal environment due to the system of self-regulation, the links of which do not go beyond the limits of the organism itself. An example would be a functional maintenance system constancy of blood pressure, body temperature, etc.. Such a system, using a variety of mechanisms, automatically compensates for the resulting shifts in internal environment.

2. Functional systems of the second type use an external link of self-regulation . They provide an adaptive effect due to going outside the body through communication with the outside world, through changes in behavior. It is the functional systems of the second type that underlie various behavioral acts, various types of behavior.

The central functional system, which determines purposeful behavioral acts of varying degrees of complexity, consists of the following consecutive stages: -> afferent synthesis, -> decision making, -> acceptor of action results, -> efferent synthesis, -> action formation, and, finally, -> evaluation of the achieved result

AFFERENT(from lat. afferens - bringing), carrying to or into an organ (eg, afferent artery); transmitting impulses from the working organs (glands, muscles) to the nerve center (afferent, or centripetal, nerve fibers). EFFERENT(from lat. efferens - taking out), taking out, removing, transmitting impulses from the nerve centers to the working organs, for example. efferent, or centrifugal, nerve fibers. ACCEPTOR(from lat. acceptor - accepting).

(1. A behavioral act of any degree of complexity begins with the stage of afferent synthesis. An excitation caused by an external stimulus does not act in isolation. It will certainly interact with other afferent excitations that have a different functional meaning. The brain continuously processes all signals coming through numerous sensory It is only as a result of the synthesis of these afferent excitations that conditions are created for the realization of certain goal-directed behavior.

Motivational arousal appears in the central nervous system as a result of one or another vital, social or ideal need. The specificity of motivational excitation is determined by the characteristics, the type of need that caused it. The importance of motivational excitation for afferent synthesis follows already from the fact that the conditioned signal loses its ability to evoke previously developed food-procuring behavior (for example, a dog running to the feeder to get food)

Thus, on the basis of the interaction of motivational, situational excitation and memory mechanisms, the so-called integration or readiness for a certain behavior is formed. But in order for it to be transformed into purposeful behavior, it is necessary to act on the part of triggering stimuli. Starting afferentation- the last component of afferent synthesis. Completion of the stage of afferent synthesis is accompanied by a transition to the stage decision making, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special and very important stage of a behavioral act - formation of the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of action. This is an apparatus that programs the results of future events. It actualizes the innate and individual memory of an animal and a person in relation to the properties of external objects that can satisfy the need that has arisen, as well as methods of action aimed at achieving or avoiding the target object. Often this apparatus is programmed with the entire path of searching in the external environment for appropriate stimuli.. The next stage is the actual execution of the program of behavior. Efferent excitation reaches the executive mechanisms, and the action is carried out. Thanks to the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of an action, in which the goal and methods of behavior are programmed, the body has the ability to compare them with incoming afferent information about the results and parameters of the action being performed, i.e. with reverse afferentation. It is the results of the comparison that determine the subsequent construction of behavior, either it is corrected, or it stops as if the final result is achieved. Therefore, if the signaling of the completed action fully corresponds to the prepared information contained in the action acceptor, then the search behavior ends. The corresponding need is satisfied. And the animal calms down. In the case when the results of the action do not coincide with the acceptor of the action and their mismatch occurs, orienting-research activity appears. As a result of this, the afferent synthesis is rebuilt, a new decision is made, a new acceptor of the results of the action is created, and new program actions. This happens until the results of the behavior match the properties of the new action acceptor. And then the behavioral act ends with the last sanctioning stage - the satisfaction of the need. Thus, in the concept of a functional system, the most important key stage that determines the development of behavior is the identification of the goal of behavior. It is represented by the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of the action, which contains two types of images regulating behavior - the goals themselves and the ways to achieve them. Target identification is associated with the decision-making operation as the final stage of afferent synthesis. Purposeful Behavior- the search for a target object that satisfies the need - is motivated not only by negative emotional experiences. Ideas about those positive emotions that, as a result of individual past experience, are associated in the memory of an animal and a person with receiving a future positive reinforcement or reward that satisfies a given specific need also have a motivating force. Positive emotions are fixed in memory and subsequently arise each time as a kind of idea of ​​the future result when a corresponding need arises. Thus, in the structure of a behavioral act, the formation of an acceptor of the results of an action is mediated by the content of emotional experiences. Leading emotions highlight the goal of behavior and thereby initiate behavior, determining its vector. Situational emotions that arise as a result of assessments of individual stages or behavior as a whole prompt the subject to either act in the same direction or change behavior, its tactics, and ways to achieve the goal. According to the theory of the functional system, although behavior is based on the reflex principle, it cannot be defined as a sequence or chain of reflexes. Behavior differs from the totality of reflexes by the presence a special structure that includes programming as a mandatory element, which performs the function of anticipatory reflection of reality. Constant comparison of the results of behavior with these programming mechanisms, updating the content of the programming itself and determine the purposefulness of behavior. Thus, in the considered structure of a behavioral act, the main characteristics of behavior are clearly presented: its purposefulness and the active role of the subject in the process of constructing behavior.

Theory of the functional system PK (Anokhin). Functional system of behavior.

The theory of the functional system of Petr Kuzmich Anokhin was developed during the second half of the 20th century. It arose as a natural stage in the development of the reflex theory.

The theory of functional systems describes the organization of life processes in an integral organism interacting with the environment.

This theory was developed while studying the mechanisms of compensation for impaired body functions. As was shown by P.K. Anokhin, compensation mobilizes a significant number of different physiological components - central and peripheral formations, functionally combined with each other to obtain a useful, adaptive effect necessary for a living organism at a given particular moment in time. Such a broad functional association of variously localized structures and processes to obtain the final adaptive result was called a “functional system”. A functional system (FS) is a unit of integrative activity of the whole organism, including elements of various anatomical affiliations, actively interacting with each other and with the external environment in the direction of achieving a useful, adaptive result.

An adaptive result is a certain ratio of the organism and the external environment, which stops the action aimed at achieving it, and makes it possible to implement the next behavioral act. To achieve a result means to change the ratio between the organism and the environment in a direction that is beneficial for the organism.

The main postulate of the reflex theory was the postulate of the leading value of the stimulus, causing a reflex action through the excitation of the corresponding reflex arc. The highest flowering of the reflex theory is the teaching of I.P. Pavlova about higher nervous activity. However, within the framework of the reflex theory, it is difficult to judge the mechanisms of purposeful activity of the organism, the behavior of animals. I.P. Pavlov managed to introduce the principle of consistency into the ideas about the regulation of functions nervous system. His student P.K. Anokhin, and then the student of P.K. Anokhin, Academician Konstantin Viktorovich Sudakov developed modern theory functional system.

The presentation of the main provisions of the theory is given according to KV Sudakov.

1. The defining moment of the activity of various functional systems that provide homeostasis and various forms behavior of animals and humans is not the action itself (and even more so not the stimulus to this action - the irritant), but the result of this action that is useful for the system and the whole organism as a whole.

2. The initiating role in the formation of purposeful behavior belongs to the initial needs, which organize special functional systems, including motivation mechanisms, and on their basis mobilize genetically determined or individually acquired behavior programs.

3. Each functional system is built on the principle of self-regulation, according to which any disconnection of the result of the activity of the functional system from the level that ensures normal metabolism, itself (deviation) is an incentive to mobilize the corresponding systemic mechanisms aimed at achieving a result that satisfies the corresponding needs.

4. Functional systems selectively combine various organs and tissues to ensure the effective functioning of the body.

5. In functional systems, a constant assessment of the result of activity is carried out using reverse afferentation.

6. The architectonics of a functional system is much more complex than a reflex arc. The reflex arc is only part of the functional system.

7. In the central structure of functional systems, along with the linear principle of the propagation of excitation, a special integration of advanced excitations is formed, programming the properties of the final result of the activity.

According to P.K. Anokhin, only such a complex of components selectively involved in it can be called a system, in which interaction and relationships take on the character of mutual assistance of components aimed at obtaining a focused useful result. The result is an integral and decisive component of the system, a tool that creates an orderly cooperation between all components.

From the point of view of academician Anokhin, functional systems (digestion, excretion, blood circulation) are dynamic self-regulating organizations of all constituent elements, the activity of which is subordinated to obtaining adaptive results that are vital for the body.

Conventionally, KV Sudakov distinguishes three groups of adaptive results.

Leading indicators of the internal environment that determine the normal metabolism of tissues (preservation of constants of the internal environment, homeostasis);

The results of behavioral activities that satisfy basic biological needs (interaction of an individual with the environment, search for food);

The results of the herd activities of animals that meet the needs of the community (preservation of the species);

For a person, the fourth group of results is also characteristic:

The results of a person's social activity that satisfy his social needs, due to his position in a certain socio-economic formation.

Since in the whole organism there are many useful adaptive results that provide various aspects of its metabolism, the organism exists due to the combined activity of many functional systems. There is a concept of a hierarchy of functional systems, because of the existence of a hierarchy of results.

Functional system P.K. Anokhin is a schematic model of the main blocks of the brain that provide goal-directed behavior, i.e. behavior aimed at achieving a specific goal. It reflects a more complex neural mechanism that provides behavior, compared with reflex arcs.

Functional system P.K. Anokhin

In order to make it easier to remember this scheme, I modified it somewhat in comparison with the scheme given in textbooks on physiology.

So, we remember the functional system of P.K. Anokhin:

  • three entrances
  • three blocks
  • three floors in each block
  • three outputs
  • three innovations (ARD, reverse afferentation, outcome parameters).

internal afferentation

Need, i.e. the lack of something in the body gives rise to internal afferentation.

Internal afferentation is a sensory (afferent) flow of impulses from interoreceptors located in internal organs, muscles, blood vessels. Interoreceptors (or interoceptors) respond to changes in the internal environment of the body.

In the motivation block headed by the amygdala of the brain, only one of the most biologically significant needs is selected from the set of current needs. On its basis, a stream of motivational excitation is formed.

Let's add P.K. Anokhin Yu. Konorsky's ideas about drive reflexes. Then it turns out that the flow of motivational excitation is transferred to the system of drive reflexes. Drive - this is a preparatory behavior to increase the likelihood of an executive reflex.
As a result of the drive, the organism finds itself in such a place, or creates such a situation, where the probability of finding a starting stimulus and implementing an executive behavior that gives the desired result and satisfies the need is increased.

Action Result Acceptor (ARA) = scheduler, activator, comparator (comparator) and finalizer.

  • Plans the expected result, more precisely, its perceived parameters.
  • Activates program of action to achieve this result.
  • compares received parameters with the expected ones.
  • Completes the activity of the functional system when the obtained parameters of the result coincide with the expected ones.

In addition to the school of IP Pavlov, which successfully develops the conditioned reflex theory in our time, there are a number of other areas in physiology. So, for example, the physiological school of the student of I.P. Pavlov, Academician P. K. Anokhina(1898–1974), who substantiated and developed the principle of the systemic organization of the body's activity - functional systems theory.

Among the many problems developed by P. K. Anokhin and his students, an important place was occupied by the question of the systemic work of the central nervous system in the conditions of the formation of the body's response to external stimuli. Experimental data obtained in conditioned reflex experiments, with parallel recording of the total electrical activity of a number of brain structures and the activity of individual neurons, made it possible to formulate the concept functional system. Back in 1937, P.K. Anokhin gave this concept the following definition: "a group of nerve formations with the corresponding working organs on the periphery, which perform a specific and clearly certain function". In further studies, the concept of a functional system underwent certain, but not fundamental changes. One of the first in Russian and world physiology, Anokhin drew attention to the phenomenon back afferentation, which later became known as negative feedback principle (The same principle is the cornerstone of cybernetics). An important milestone The development of the views of P.K. Anokhin was his introduction of the concept of systemogenesis, i.e. about the patterns of development of functional systems.

In the concept of a functional system, a conditioned reflex is considered as the result of a complex multicomponent process. The leading system-forming factor is considered to be the achievement of a certain "final" result, corresponding to the needs of the body in this moment. The initial nodal mechanism of a functional system is afferent synthesis. It is a complex of physiological processes, consisting of several functional blocks - dominant motivation, situational afferentation (the total amount of external and internal stimulation received by the brain in the experimental setting), the so-called starting afferentation and memory. As a result of the integration of these processes, "decision making" occurs. That is what determines final result process: on the basis of afferent synthesis, one of the many options for the response of the organism is selected. As a result, the number of degrees of freedom in the action of functional systems of other levels decreases and an action program is formed. In parallel with it, the so-called "action result acceptor", those. nervous model of future (expected) results, some ideal image. The efferent excitation arising at the next stage leads to a certain action and result. Information about the result parameters via feedback(reverse afferentation)) is perceived acceptor of the results of action for comparison with the previously formed ("ideal") model. If the parameters of the result do not correspond to the pre-existing model, then a new excitation arises, which should make an appropriate correction. The acceptor of the results of action directs the activity of the organism up to the moment of achieving the desired goal.

A behavioral act can have a different degree of complexity, and being formed and carried out in specific conditions, it cannot but depend on them. In the process of learning, animals learn new forms of behavior.

From the point of view of P.K. Anokhin, the structure of a behavioral act is a sequential change of the following stages:

  • afferent synthesis;
  • decision-making;
  • acceptor of action results;
  • efferent synthesis;
  • the formation of the action itself;
  • evaluation of the achieved result.

The stage of afferent synthesis is an analysis of the totality of information signals entering the central nervous system and giving the animal a reason to make a decision about possible behavior. During this stage, the body's need for something is taken into account, as well as the availability of possible ways to satisfy it, available in the animal's memory; the impact of various environmental factors (situational afferentation) and signals that trigger behavior (triggering afferentation). Any behavioral act is aimed at satisfying any need of the body.

The dominant need activates the corresponding memory departments that store information about possible ways satisfy this need, and also activates propulsion systems organism, contributing to its speedy satisfaction. In addition to the presence of a corresponding need, the possibility of performing a behavioral act also depends on the conditions in which the animal has to act. Environmental factors, or situational afferentation, affect the manifestation and nature of a behavioral act, and sometimes they themselves can cause behavior habitual for a given situation. The significance of situational afferentation lies in the fact that, by creating a latent excitation, it timings behavior to a certain place, the most appropriate for satisfying the corresponding need. As a rule, behavior in an environment uncharacteristic for an animal that is not related to the satisfaction of this need proceeds less pronounced, incomplete or ineffective. As a result of the interaction of information about the need, the situation and memory data, the body's readiness for a certain action is formed, which is triggered by appropriate signals or stimuli, i.e. starting afferentation.

Triggering afferentation binds behavior to a specific time, a specific setting, and a specific situation. The afferent synthesis stage ends with the transition to the decision-making stage, which determines the type and direction of behavior. At the same time, the so-called acceptor of the result of an action is formed, which is an image of future events, a result, an action program and an idea of ​​the means to achieve the desired result.

At the stage of efferent synthesis, a specific program of a behavioral act is formed, which turns into action - from which side to run, which paw to push and with what force. The result of the action received by the animal is compared in terms of its parameters with the acceptor of the result of the action. If a match occurs that satisfies the animal, the behavior in that direction ends; if not, the behavior is resumed with the changes necessary to achieve the goal.

Emotions play a big role in purposeful behavior. If the parameters of the performed action do not match action acceptor (set goal), then there is a negative emotional condition, which creates additional motivation to continue the action, its repetition according to the adjusted program until the result obtained coincides with the goal (acceptor of the action). If this coincidence occurred on the first attempt, then there is positive emotion, which terminates it.

Thus, the most important component that determines behavior is the achievement of a biologically useful result, the satisfaction of the leading biological needs: hunger, thirst, aggression, sexual need, parental, etc. Only in the presence of a biologically important goal does the behavior become expedient for the animal, necessary for it and repeated with high probability in the future. According to the theory of functional systems, although behavior is built on the reflex principle, it is defined as a sequence or chain of conditioned reflexes. The action of animals is determined not only by external stimuli, but also by internal needs, and arises on the basis of an anticipatory reflection of reality - programming, and the leading factor in the organization of behavior, its goal is to obtain a biologically useful result.

The theory of the functional system by P. K. Anokhin emphasizes the issue of the interaction of physiological and psychological processes and phenomena. She shows that both are playing important role in the joint regulation of behavior that cannot be fully scientific explanation neither on the basis of only knowledge of the physiology of higher nervous activity, nor on the basis of exclusively psychological ideas. For numerous students and followers of P. K. Anokhin, the theory of functional systems served and serves as a theoretical basis for formulating certain physiological problems and for explaining the results obtained in experiments, however, its predictive capabilities are, as a rule, low, apparently due to extremely general character original wording. Nevertheless, the concept of a functional system has been and remains one of the approaches accepted in Russian science to the consideration of the mechanisms of holistic behavior.