The most perfect model of the structure of behavior is set out in the concept functional systems Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin (1898-1974).

Studying the physiological structure of a behavioral act, P.K. Anokhin came to the conclusion that it is necessary to distinguish between private integration mechanisms when these private mechanisms enter into a complex coordinated interaction with each other. They are united, integrated into a system of a higher order, into an integral architecture of an adaptive, behavioral act. This principle of integrating private mechanisms was called by him the principle of " functional system».

Defining a functional system as a dynamic, self-regulating organization that selectively combines structures and processes based on nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation in order to achieve adaptive results that are beneficial to the system and the body as a whole, P.K. Anokhin extended the content of this concept to the structure of any purposeful behavior. From these positions, the structure of a separate motor act can also be considered.

The functional system has a branched morphophysiological apparatus, which, due to its inherent laws, provides both the effect of homeostasis and self-regulation. There are two types of functional systems. one. Functional systems of the first type ensure the constancy of certain constants of the internal environment due to the system of self-regulation, the links of which do not go beyond the limits of the organism itself. An example is a functional system for maintaining a constant blood pressure, body temperature, etc. Such a system, using a variety of mechanisms, automatically compensates for the resulting shifts in the internal environment. 2. Functional systems of the second type use an external link of self-regulation. They provide an adaptive effect due to going outside the body through communication with outside world through behavior change. It is the functional systems of the second type that underlie various behavioral acts, various types behavior.

Central architectonics of functional systems, which determine goal-directed behavioral acts of varying degrees of complexity, consists of the following consecutive stages: -> afferent synthesis, -> decision making, -> acceptor of the results of an action, -> efferent synthesis, -> formation of an action, and, finally, -> assessment of the achieved result /

AFFERENT (from lat. afferens - bringing), carrying to or into an organ (eg, afferent artery); transmitting impulses from the working organs (glands, muscles) to the nerve center (afferent, or centripetal, nerve fibers). EFFERENT (from lat. efferens - taking out), taking out, removing, transmitting impulses from the nerve centers to the working organs, for example. efferent, or centrifugal, nerve fibers. ACCEPTOR (from lat. acceptor - accepting).

A behavioral act of any degree of complexity begins from the stage of afferent synthesis. Excitation caused by an external stimulus does not act in isolation. It certainly interacts with other afferent excitations that have a different functional meaning. The brain continuously processes all the signals coming through numerous sensory channels. And only as a result of the synthesis of these afferent excitations, conditions are created for the implementation of a certain purposeful behavior. The content of afferent synthesis is determined by the influence of several factors: motivational excitation, memory, situational and triggering afferentation.

Motivational excitation appears in the central nervous system as a result of one or another vital, social or ideal need. The specificity of motivational excitation is determined by the characteristics, the type of need that caused it. It is a necessary component of any behavior. The importance of motivational excitation for afferent synthesis follows already from the fact that the conditioned signal loses its ability to evoke previously developed food-procuring behavior (for example, a dog running to the feeder to get food) if the animal is already well fed and, therefore, it lacks motivational food excitation.

The role of motivational arousal in the formation of afferent synthesis is determined by the fact that any incoming information correlates with the dominant in this moment motivational excitation, which acts as a filter that selects the most necessary for a given motivational setting. The dominant motivation as the primary system-forming factor determines all subsequent stages of brain activity in the formation of behavioral programs. The specificity of motivations determines the nature and "chemical status" of intracentral integration and the set of brain apparatus involved. As a useful result of a certain behavioral act, a need is satisfied, i.e. decrease in the level of motivation.

The neurophysiological basis of motivational arousal is selective activation of various nervous structures, created primarily by the limbic and reticular systems of the brain. At the level of the cortex, motivational arousal is represented by a specific pattern of arousal.

Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, key stimuli (a species of hawk - a predator for birds, causing flight behavior, etc.) serve as an impetus for the deployment of a certain behavior or a separate behavioral act. These stimuli have a triggering function. The picture of excitation created by biologically significant stimuli in sensory systems, and there is a starting afferentation. However, the ability of trigger stimuli to initiate behavior is not absolute. It depends on the environment and conditions in which they operate.

The influence of situational afferentation on the conditioned reflex came out most clearly in the study of the dynamic stereotype phenomenon. In these experiments, the animal was trained to perform a series of various conditioned reflexes in a certain order. After a long training, it turned out that any random conditioned stimulus can reproduce all the specific effects characteristic of each stimulus in the motor stereotype system. For this, it is only necessary that it follows in a learned time sequence. Thus, the order of their execution acquires decisive importance when evoking conditioned reflexes in the system of a dynamic stereotype. Therefore, situational afferentation includes not only excitation from a stationary environment, but also the sequence of afferent excitations that is associated with this environment. Situational afferentation creates latent excitation, which can be revealed as soon as the starting stimulus acts. The physiological meaning of triggering afferentation is that, revealing the latent excitation created by situational afferentation, it coincides with certain moments of time that are most expedient from the point of view of the behavior itself.

The decisive influence of situational afferentation on the conditioned reflex response was shown in the experiments of I.I. Laptev, an employee of P.K. Anokhin. In his experiments, the call in the morning was reinforced by food, and the same call in the evening was accompanied by a blow. electric current. As a result, two different conditioned reflexes were developed: in the morning - a salivary reaction, in the evening - a defensive reflex. The animal has learned to differentiate two sets of stimuli that differ only in the temporal component.

Afferent synthesis includes as well as the use of the memory apparatus. It is obvious that the functional role of triggering and situational stimuli is to a certain extent already determined by the past experience of the animal. This is both species memory and individual memory acquired as a result of training. At the stage of afferent synthesis, precisely those fragments of past experience that are useful and necessary for future behavior are extracted and used from memory.

Thus, on the basis of the interaction of motivational, situational excitation and memory mechanisms, the so-called integration or readiness for a certain behavior. But in order for it to be transformed into purposeful behavior, it is necessary to act on the part of triggering stimuli. Triggering afferentation is the last component of afferent synthesis.

The processes of afferent synthesis, covering motivational excitation, triggering and situational afferentation, the memory apparatus, are implemented using a special modulation mechanism that provides the necessary tone of the cerebral cortex and other brain structures for this. This mechanism regulates and distributes activating and inactivating influences emanating from the limbic and reticular systems of the brain. The behavioral expression of the increase in the level of activation in the central nervous system, created by this mechanism, is the appearance of orienting-exploratory reactions and search activity of the animal.

Completion of the stage of afferent synthesis accompanied by a transition to the decision-making stage, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special and very important stage of a behavioral act - the formation of an apparatus for accepting the results of an action. This is an apparatus that programs the results of future events. It actualizes the innate and individual memory of an animal and a person in relation to the properties of external objects that can satisfy the need that has arisen, as well as methods of action aimed at achieving or avoiding the target object. Quite often, this apparatus is programmed with the whole path of searching in the external environment for the corresponding stimuli.

It is assumed that the acceptor of the results of an action is represented by a network of intercalary neurons covered by a ring interaction. Excitation, once in this network, continues to circulate in it for a long time. Thanks to this mechanism, long-term retention of the goal as the main regulator of behavior is achieved.

Before goal-directed behavior begins to be carried out, another stage of the behavioral act develops - stage of action program or efferent synthesis . At this stage, the integration of somatic and vegetative excitations into a holistic behavioral act is carried out. This stage is characterized by the fact that the action has already been formed, but outwardly it is not yet realized.

The next stage is the implementation of the behavior program . Efferent excitation reaches the executive mechanisms, and the action is carried out.

Thanks to the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of an action, in which the goal and methods of behavior are programmed, the body has the ability to compare them with incoming afferent information about the results and parameters of the action being performed, i.e. with reverse afferentation. It is the results of the comparison that determine the subsequent construction of behavior, either it is corrected, or it stops as if the final result is achieved.

Therefore, if the signaling of the completed action fully corresponds to the prepared information contained in the action acceptor, then the search behavior ends. The corresponding need is satisfied. And the animal calms down. In the case when the results of the action do not coincide with the acceptor of the action and their mismatch occurs, orienting-research activity appears. As a result of this, the afferent synthesis is rebuilt, a new decision is made, a new acceptor of the results of the action is created, and a new action program is built. This happens until the results of the behavior match the properties of the new action acceptor. And then the behavioral act ends with the last sanctioning stage - the satisfaction of the need.

In this way, in the concept of a functional system, the most important key step that determines the development of behavior is the identification of the goal of behavior . It is represented by the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of action, which contains two types of images that regulate behavior - the goals themselves and the ways to achieve them. Target identification is associated with the decision-making operation as the final stage of afferent synthesis.

The textbook highlights the modern concept and theoretical and methodological foundations of medical ecology - the most important rapidly developing section of human ecology. The medical and ecological characteristics of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere are given. The classification of the main ecological risk factors of the environment is given. The main medical and environmental problems of human interaction with the multifactorial environment of his habitat, the patterns of the body's response to external environmental influences are considered.

The textbook is intended for medical students.

Book:

... an organism without external environment supporting its existence is impossible.

I. M. Sechenov

The condition for the development of living organisms is their interaction with the environment. Open systems are considered as systems that can exchange energy, matter and information with surrounding bodies. An open system is always dynamic: changes are constantly taking place in it, and, naturally, it is itself subject to change. Due to the complexity of these systems, self-organization processes are possible in them, which serve as the beginning of the emergence of qualitatively new and more complex structures in its development.

The ontogeny of the human body is an ongoing process of constant movement aimed at maintaining quantitative and qualitative characteristics in the human body. Moreover, for further self-renewal and maintaining the dynamic balance of the body, additional substances, energy and information are needed, which it can receive only when interacting with the external environment. Exploring the body open system, it is necessary to consider it holistically, to establish the interaction of its constituent parts or elements in the aggregate.

In medicine, historically influenced natural sciences, and most importantly - anatomical studies, despite the proclaimed (starting with the fundamental works of S. G. Zybelin, M. Ya. Mudrov, E. O. Mukhin, I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov and others) the principle of integrity organism, organ thinking has developed.

Any modern textbook on the most important fundamental disciplines, such as anatomy, physiology, histology, and others, is built on the organ principle. Organ pathology - this, the lungs, liver, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, brain, etc. were divided into organ specialties. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment are directly related to the function of specific organs, and the professional view of a doctor, as a rule, is mainly directed towards diseased organs (Sudakov K.V., 1999).

P. K. Anokhin formulated new approach to understanding the functions of the whole organism. Instead of the classical physiology of organs, which traditionally follows anatomical principles, the theory of functional systems proclaims the systemic organization of human functions from the molecular to the social level.

Functional systems(according to: Anokhin P.K.) - self-organizing and self-regulating dynamic central-peripheral organizations, united by nervous and humoral regulations, all constituent components which contribute to the provision of various adaptive results useful for the functional systems themselves and for the organism as a whole, satisfying its needs.

The theory of functional systems, thus, radically changes the existing ideas about the structure of the human body and its functions. Instead of the idea of ​​a person as a set of organs connected by nervous and humoral regulation, this theory considers the human body as a set of many interacting functional systems of various levels of organization, each of which, selectively combining various organs and tissues, as well as objects of the surrounding reality, ensures the achievement of useful adaptive results for the body, which ultimately determine the stability of metabolic processes.

From the same positions, human adaptation is defined as the ability of its functional systems to ensure the achievement of significant results.

An analysis of the mechanisms of self-regulation of vital body constants (blood pressure, tension of carbon dioxide and oxygen in arterial blood, temperature of the internal environment, osmotic pressure of blood plasma, stabilization of the center of gravity in the area of ​​support, etc.) shows that the self-regulation apparatus is functional).

“All functional systems, regardless of the level of their organization and the number of their constituent components, have fundamentally the same functional architecture, in which the result is the dominant factor stabilizing the organization of systems” (Anokhin P.K., 1971).


Rice. one. Scheme of self-regulatory mechanisms of a functional system (according to: Anokhin P.K.):

1 - starting stimulus (irritation); 2 - situational afferentations; 3 - memory; 4 - dominant motivation; 5 - afferent synthesis; 6 - decision-making; 7 - action result acceptor; 8 - program of action; 9 - efferent excitations; 10 - action; 11 - the result of an action; 12 - result parameters; 13 - backward afferentation

The key mechanisms underlying the structure of a behavioral act of any degree of complexity include: afferent synthesis; decision-making stage; formation of an acceptor of the result of an action; the formation of the action itself (efferent synthesis); multicomponent action; achieving a result; reverse afferentation about the parameters of the achieved result and its comparison with the previously formed model of the result in the acceptor of the result of the action (Fig. 1).

Some functional systems, by their self-regulatory activity, determine the stability of various indicators of the internal environment - homeostasis, others - the adaptation of living organisms to the environment.

In the course of phylo- and ontogenesis, functional systems were constantly improved. Moreover, the old systems were not eliminated by new and improved systems and control mechanisms; evolutionarily early adaptation mechanisms were preserved and entered into certain interactions with both more ancient and newer mechanisms.

Theory of functional systems(Anokhin P.K., Sudakov K.V.) distinguishes four types of systems: morphofunctional, homeostatic, neurodynamic, psychophysiological.

Morphofunctional systems associated with activities certain functions. These include the musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, nervous systems, cells, organelles, molecules. In a word, everything that performs a function.

Homeostatic functional systems include subcortical formations, the autonomic nervous and other systems of the body. The main role of this system is to maintain the constancy of the internal environment of the body. Homeostatic systems closely interact with morphofunctional ones, which fit into them as separate elements.

Neurodynamic Systems as a leading structural element they have the cerebral cortex, namely the first signal system. Within the framework of this system, the apparatus of emotions is formed as a mechanism for optimizing the functions of the organism and behavior in the conditions of interaction between the organism and the environment. The development of the cortex dramatically expanded the adaptive capabilities of the organism, subordinating vegetative functions to itself. Neurodynamic systems include elements of homeostatic and morphofunctional systems.

Psychophysiological functional systems, as well as neurodynamic, the leading structural element is the cerebral cortex, however, those of its departments that are associated with the second signal system. The second signaling system improved the mechanisms of adaptive behavior through the formation of social forms of adaptation. Psychophysiological functional systems realize their activity through the autonomic nervous system and through emotions, the morphological basis of which are subcortical formations (limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus, and others). They include elements of the structural architectonics of neurodynamic, homeostatic and morphofunctional systems.

Compensation can be carried out by one system, in relation to which this factor is most specific. If the capabilities of a specific system are limited, other systems are connected.

Some functional systems are genetically determined, others are formed in individual life in the process of interaction of the organism with various factors of the internal and external environment, i.e., on the basis of learning. Naturally, the most complex and perfect functional systems are in people, as the most perfect living beings. It is possible to understand their interactions taking into account ideas about the structural levels of organization of biosystems.

Levels of organization of functional systems (Sudakov K. V., 1999): metabolic, homeostatic, behavioral, mental, social.

On the metabolic level of functional systems determine the achievement of the final stages of chemical reactions in the tissues of the body. When certain products appear, chemical reactions, according to the principle of self-regulation, stop or, conversely, are activated. A typical example of a functional system at the metabolic level is the process of retroinhibition.

On the homeostatic level, numerous functional systems that combine nervous and humoral mechanisms, according to the principle of self-regulation, provide the optimal level of the most important indicators of the internal environment of the body, such as blood mass, blood pressure, temperature, pH, osmotic pressure, the level of gases, nutrients, etc.

On the behavioral at the biological level, functional systems determine the achievement by a person of biologically important results - special environmental factors that satisfy his leading metabolic needs for water, nutrients, protection from various damaging effects and removal of harmful waste products from the body; sexual activity, etc.

Functional systems mental human activities are built on the information basis of an ideal reflection by a person of his various emotional states and properties of objects in the world around him with the help of linguistic symbols and thought processes. The results of the functional systems of mental activity are represented by a reflection in the mind of a person of his subjective experiences, the most important concepts, abstract ideas about external objects and their relations, instructions, knowledge, etc.

On the social level, diverse functional systems determine the achievement by individuals or their groups of socially significant results in educational and production activities, in the creation of a social product, in environmental protection, in measures to protect the Fatherland, in spiritual activity, in communication with objects of culture, art, etc. (Anokhin P.K., Sudakov K.V.).

The interaction of functional systems in the body is carried out on the basis of the principles of hierarchical dominance, multiparametric and sequential interaction, system genesis and system quantization of life processes.

Hierarchical dominance of functional systems. Always one of the parameters of the general need of the organism acts as a leading, dominant one, being the most significant for survival, procreation of the family or for human adaptation in the external and, above all, social environment, forming the dominant functional system. At the same time, all other functional systems are either inhibited or contribute to the activity of the dominant system by their productive activity. In relation to each dominant functional system, subdominant systems, in accordance with their biological significance and significance for social activities of a person, starting from the molecular up to the organismic and socio-social level, are built in a certain hierarchical order. Hierarchical relationships of functional systems in the body are built on the basis of the results of their activities.

Multiparametric interaction. The principle of multiparametric interaction is especially clearly manifested in the activity of functional systems of the homeostatic level, in which a change in one indicator of the internal environment, representing the result of the activity of any functional system, immediately affects the results of the activity of other related functional systems. The principle of multiparametric interaction is clearly revealed, for example, in the activity of a functional system that determines the level of gas indicators in the body.

Consistent interaction of functional systems. In the human body, the activity of various functional systems is sequentially connected with each other in time, when the result of the activity of one functional system consistently forms another need and the corresponding functional system.

The principle of sequential interaction of various functional systems in the human body is clearly manifested in the continuum of the processes of blood circulation, digestion, respiration, excretion, etc.

A special kind of sequential interaction of functional systems in time is represented by systemogenesis processes.

PK Anokhin defined systemogenesis as the selective maturation of functional systems and their individual parts in the processes of pre- and postnatal ontogenesis.

The continuum of the life activity of each person at different levels of the organization, due to the consistent interaction of functional systems, is divided into separate, discrete "system quants". Each individual “system quantum” of life activity includes the emergence of a particular biological or social need, the formation of a dominant motivation at the brain level and, through the achievement of intermediate and final results, ends with the satisfaction of the need. At the same time, the assessment of various parameters of intermediate and final results of activity is constantly carried out with the help of reverse afferentation coming from various sense organs and receptors of the body to the apparatus for predicting the desired result - the acceptor of the result of the action.

By the nature of the organization, one can single out sequential, hierarchical and mixed quantization of life processes (Sudakov K.V., 1997).

Beginning with the remarkable works of the Canadian biologist L. von Bertalanffy, a systematic approach is increasingly being introduced into biology and medicine.

Understanding the functional features of building a whole organism is necessary, first of all, for a doctor involved in the diagnosis and treatment of a sick person. Modern reality urgently requires a close association of specialists of various profiles to solve large theoretical and practical problems.

The physiological mechanisms of a person already now cannot cope with the huge loads of modern production activities and living conditions. In the presence of a huge number of feedbacks from various parameters of the activity of machines, there is practically no control over the physiological functions of people working on these machines.

The situation is aggravated by socio-political transformations in many countries of the world, including Russia, as well as environmental problems in many parts of the world.

The theory of the functional system opened up new prospects for the early diagnosis of violations of human physiological functions in the conditions of real production activities, especially in the conditions of the intense work of modern production (Sudakov K.V.).

Any disease, whether somatic or mental, is a manifestation of the adaptation of the organism (personality) in changing conditions of the external and internal environment. Adaptation is carried out depending on a number of factors, ranging from the biological, social and psychological characteristics of the diseased organism, ending with the characteristics of the pathogenic factor, the environmental conditions in which this effect occurs, the duration and intensity of the effect, etc., and affects many morphofunctional levels, systems, organizations. That is, the disease manifests itself as a multi-level system (Sukiasyan S. G., 2005).

In this regard, the assessment of various indicators of the body's activity in pathological conditions should take into account the systemic integration of physiological functions.

With each disease, first of all, it is necessary to determine: which functional systems have been affected by the pathological process and whose disruption aggravates it; the activity of which functional systems has a compensatory orientation (Sudakov K. V.).

A persistent increase in blood pressure, for example, may be associated with disturbances in various parts of the functional system that determines the optimal level of blood pressure in the body: the baroreceptor apparatus, central emotional and vasomotor mechanisms, peripheral vascular or hormonal regulation, etc. At the same time, changes the activity of other related functional systems of excretion, water-salt balance, maintenance of body temperature, etc.

In the surgical removal of an organ, based on the notion that the same organs are involved in the activity of various functional systems by various aspects of their metabolism, it is first necessary to determine which functional systems and to what extent affected surgery, what compensatory mechanisms continue to provide the leading physiological functions of the body, what useful adaptive results of the body's activity are preserved and which are violated, and also what aspects of homeostasis or behavior do they affect?

From a systemic point of view, compensation for disturbed functions always goes in the direction of preserving the ability of functional systems to provide adaptive results useful for the body.

As studies by E. L. Golubeva, an employee of P. K. Anokhin, showed, when one lung is removed, the compensatory process is associated not only with the activity of the second remaining lung, but also with the functions of the heart, kidneys, blood and other executive components of the branched internal link of self-regulation of the functional system breathing. This disrupts the activity of other functional systems that determine the optimal level of blood and osmotic pressure for the body, blood reactions, excretion, etc., which, according to the principle of multiply connected interaction, compensatory reorganize their activities.

Surgery, such as replacement of the ascending aortic arch with a prosthesis, can impair the function of baroreceptors and chemoreceptors for gas homeostasis. In this case, the compensatory function largely falls on other chemoreceptor zones: carotid sinus and central, the state of which in this case must be assessed before the operation (Sudakov K.V.).

The theory of functional systems allows a new approach to the problem of rehabilitation of impaired human functions.

From the standpoint of the theory of functional systems, all rehabilitation measures act as an additional external link in self-regulation, thereby compensating for the insufficient function of certain functional systems of the body.

In this regard, the first informational stage of the formation of the pathological process deserves special attention ( premorbid state).

At this stage, disturbed informational intra- and intersystem relations of functional systems in the body are easily restored by informational methods of rehabilitation: hypnotic influence, massage, homeopathy, acupuncture, heat-cold procedures, hypoxia and others, which prevent the transition of dysfunctions to a stable pathological form. Based on the fact that the disease primarily manifests itself as a violation of information systemic relations in the body, the role of cultural, family and industrial relations as a kind of "human immunity" becomes clear. The same factors are also important for maintaining and strengthening the effects of rehabilitation (Sudakov K.V., 1996).

Each organism has its own zone of physiological comfort, in which the maximum possible limit of function compensation is maintained. With persistent changes in the environment, the body moves to a new level of homeostasis, or "homeoresis" (according to: Ado V.D.), for which other indicators of homeostasis are optimal. This is the state of adaptation. Thus, the theory of functional systems by P. K. Anokhin, considering the body as an integral biosocial object in phylo- and ontogenetic terms, confirms the theory of the adaptation syndrome (Sudakov K. V., Sukiasyan S. G.).

Adaptation(adaptation) is the process of maintaining the functional state of homeostatic systems and the body as a whole, ensuring its preservation, development, maximum life expectancy in inadequate conditions (Treasurers V.P., 1973).

Adaptation is undoubtedly one of the fundamental qualities of living matter. It is present in all known forms of life. The following types of adaptation are distinguished: biological, physiological, biochemical, psychological, social, etc.

When classifying adaptation processes, one should take into account:

1. Environmental factors (physical, chemical, bacterial, viral).

2. Properties of the organism (embryonic, childish, adult, gender, nationality.)

3. The nature of adaptive rearrangements in different organ systems (first of all, the nervous, hormonal, immune systems, as well as the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, etc.).

4. The level of organization of the biosystem (species, population, organism, system, organ, etc.).

In terms of significance for evolution, adaptive changes can be: genotypic, phenotypic.

At the core genotypic adaptations are persistent changes in hereditary material (mutations), which can be passed on from generation to generation and fixed by the action of natural selection, genetic drift.

The consequence of this type of adaptation is the acquisition of new adaptive genotypic traits.

Under phenotypic adaptation is understood as the variation of the value of a trait as a result of the action of external environmental factors. This variation is based on the "reaction rate", which is controlled genetically and determines the range of variation of the trait in specific environmental conditions.

From the physiological and pathophysiological points of view, the concepts of adaptation, norm and pathology should be given only in order to substantiate the view that the normological and pathological processes are different qualitative manifestations of the same process - adaptation or adaptation. At the same time, pathology is not always an adaptive anomaly, as well as an adaptive norm.

Based on this, almost all diseases are the result of errors in adaptive reactions to external stimuli. From this point of view, most diseases ( nervous disorders, hypertension, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum, some types of rheumatic, allergic, cardiovascular diseases and kidney diseases) are diseases of adaptation, that is, pathological processes and diseases are just features of adaptive reactions.

According to the theory of adaptive reactions, depending on the strength of the impact, three types of adaptive reactions can develop in the body:

– on weak influences – training reaction;

– on influences of average force – activation reaction;

- to strong, extreme impacts - stress response (according to: Selye G.).

The training reaction has three stages: orientation, restructuring, training. Protective inhibition predominates in the CNS. In the endocrine system, at first, the activity of gluco- and mineralocorticoid hormones moderately increases, and then the secretion of mineralocorticoids gradually increases and the secretion of glucocorticoids normalizes against the background of a moderately increased functional activity of the thyroid and gonads.

The activation reaction has two stages: primary activation and the stage of persistent activation. Moderate, physiological excitation predominates in the central nervous system. In the endocrine system, there is an increase in the secretion of mineralocorticoids with normal secretion of glucocorticoids and an increase in the functional activity of the thyroid and gonads. The increase in the activity of the endocrine glands is more pronounced than in the training reaction, but does not have the character of pathological hyperfunction. In both stages of the activation reaction, active resistance to damaging agents of various nature increases.

The training response and the activation response are those adaptive responses that occur during the normal life of the organism. These reactions are the nonspecific basis of physiological processes, just as stress is the nonspecific basis of pathological processes.

At the heart of any adaptive reaction of the body are certain biochemical transformations. Not a single type of adaptation is complete without significant biochemical rearrangements.

Biochemical adaptation performs the following main functions in the cell:

1. Maintaining the structural integrity of macromolecules (enzymes of contractile proteins, nucleic acids, etc.) during their functioning under specific conditions.

2. Sufficient cell supply:

a) energy currency - ATF;

b) reducing equivalents necessary for the course of biosynthesis processes;

c) precursors used in the synthesis of storage substances (glycogen, fats, etc.), nucleic acids and proteins.

3. Maintaining systems that regulate the speed and direction of metabolic processes in accordance with the needs of the body and their changes when environmental conditions change.

There are three types of biochemical adaptation mechanisms:

1. Adaptation of macromolecular components of a cell or body fluids:

a) the quantities (concentrations) of already existing types of macromolecules, such as enzymes, change;

b) macromolecules of new types are formed, for example, new isoenzymes, which replace macromolecules that were previously present in the cell, but have become not quite suitable for work under changed conditions.

2. Adaptation of the microenvironment in which macromolecules function. The essence of this mechanism is that an adaptive change in the structural and functional properties of macromolecules is achieved by modifying the qualitative and quantitative composition of the medium surrounding these macromolecules (for example, its osmotic concentration or the composition of dissolved substances).

3. Adaptation at the functional level, when a change in the efficiency of macromolecular systems, especially enzymes, is not associated with a change in the number of macromolecules present in the cell or their types. This type of biochemical adaptation is also called metabolic regulation. Its essence lies in the regulation of the functional activity of macromolecules previously synthesized by the cell.

When studying the influence of a complex of long-acting environmental factors on the human body, an important task is to assess the adaptation strategy. Based on knowledge of the adaptation strategy, it is possible to predict the nature of the behavior of an organism in time when it comes into contact with changing environmental factors.

Under the adaptation strategy understand the functional-temporal structure of the flows of information, energy, substances, providing the optimal level of morphological and functional organization of biosystems in inadequate environmental conditions.

The criterion underlying the selection of various adaptation strategies (types of response) is the time to perform submaximal work. This relative value is always inversely proportional to the body's resistance to the destructive influence of the environment, provided that the body performs work of submaximal intensity.

There are three variants of the "strategy" of the adaptive behavior of the human body.

1. Type of strategy ( sprint strategy): the body has the ability of powerful physiological reactions with a high degree of reliability in response to significant, but short-term fluctuations in the external environment. However, such high level physiological responses can be maintained for a relatively short time. To prolonged physiological overload from the side external factors even if they medium size, such organisms are poorly adapted.

2. The second type ( stayer strategy): the body is less resistant to short-term significant fluctuations in the environment, but has the ability to withstand physiological loads of medium strength for a long time.

3. Most optimal type strategy is intermediate type, which occupies a middle position between the specified extreme types.

The formation of an adaptation strategy is genetically determined, but in the process of individual life, appropriate upbringing and training, their options can be corrected. It should be noted that in the same person, different homeostatic systems can have different strategies for physiological adaptation.

It has been established that in people with a predominance of the first type strategy (“sprinter”), the simultaneous combination of work and recovery processes is weakly expressed and these processes require a clearer rhythm (i.e., division in time).

In people with a predominance of type 2 strategy (“stayer”), on the contrary, reserve capabilities and the degree of rapid mobilization are not high, however, work processes are more easily combined with recovery processes, which provides the possibility of a long load.

Thus, in conditions of northern latitudes, people with variants of the "sprinter" type strategy experience rapid exhaustion and impaired lipid-energy metabolism, which leads to the development of chronic pathological processes. At the same time, in people belonging to the “stayer” strategy variant, adaptive reactions to the specific conditions of high latitudes are the most adequate and allow them to stay in these conditions for a long time without the development of pathological processes.

In order to determine the effectiveness of adaptation processes, certain criteria and methods for diagnosing the functional states of the body.

R. M. Baevsky (1981) proposed to take into account five main criteria:

1 - the level of functioning of physiological systems;

2 - the degree of tension of regulatory mechanisms;

3 - functional reserve;

4 - degree of compensation;

5 - the balance of the elements of the functional system.

The circulatory system can be considered as an indicator of the functional state of the whole organism. Three properties of the circulatory system are considered, with the help of which it is possible to assess the transition from one functional state to another. It:

– level of functioning. It should be understood as the maintenance of certain values ​​of the main indicators of myocardial-hemodynamic homeostasis: stroke and minute volume, pulse rate and arterial pressure;

– degree of tension of regulatory mechanisms, which is determined by indicators of autonomic homeostasis, for example, the degree of activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and the level of excitation of the vasomotor center.

– functional reserve. To evaluate it, functional stress tests are usually taken, for example, orthostatic or with physical activity.

Classification of functional states in the development of adaptation diseases (Baevsky R. M., 1980):

1. The state of satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions. This state is characterized by sufficient functional capabilities of the body, homeostasis is maintained at a minimum tension of the regulatory systems of the body. Functional reserve is not reduced.

2. The state of tension of adaptive mechanisms. The functionality of the body is not reduced. Homeostasis is maintained due to a certain tension of regulatory systems. Functional reserve is not reduced.

3. The state of unsatisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions. The functionality of the body is reduced. Homeostasis is maintained due to a significant tension of regulatory systems or due to the inclusion of compensatory mechanisms. The functional reserve is reduced.

4. Disruption (breakdown) of adaptation mechanisms. A sharp decrease in the functionality of the body. Homeostasis is broken. The functional reserve is sharply reduced.

Disadaptation and development of pathological conditions occur in stages. From the standpoint of biocybernetics, the transition from health to illness is a gradual change in control methods. Each state corresponds to its own character of the structural and functional organization of the biosystem.

The initial stage of the boundary zone between health and pathology is a state of functional tension of adaptation mechanisms. Its most characteristic feature is a high level of functioning, which is ensured by intense or prolonged tension of regulatory systems. The state of tension of adaptive mechanisms, which is not detected during a traditional clinical examination, should be attributed to presonological, that is, preceding the development of the disease.

The later stage of the border zone is a state of unsatisfactory adaptation. It is characterized by a decrease in the level of functioning of the biosystem, a mismatch of its individual elements, the development of fatigue and overwork. The state of unsatisfactory adaptation is an active adaptive process. The organism tries to adapt to the conditions of existence that are excessive for it by changing its functional activity. individual systems and the corresponding tension of regulatory mechanisms. The state of unsatisfied adaptation can be classified as premorbid, since a significant decrease in the functional reserve makes it possible, when using functional tests, to identify an inadequate response of the body, indicating a latent or initial pathology.

From a clinical point of view, only the failure of adaptation refers to pathological conditions, because it is accompanied by noticeable changes in traditionally measured indicators: pulse rate, stroke and minute volume, blood pressure, etc.

According to their manifestations, adaptation diseases are polymorphic in nature, covering various body systems. The most common disease of adaptation in long stay people in adverse conditions(mountain sickness, etc.). Due to the prolonged tension of the mechanisms of regulation, as well as cellular mechanisms, there is an exhaustion and loss of the most important reserves of the body (Gora E.P., 1999). Therefore, for the prevention of adaptation diseases, methods are used to increase the effectiveness of adaptation.

Methods for increasing the effectiveness of adaptation may be specific or nonspecific.

To non-specific methods relate: leisure, hardening, medium physical exercise, adaptogens and therapeutic dosages of various resort factors that can increase nonspecific resistance, normalize the activity of the main body systems.

Adaptogens- these are means that carry out pharmacological regulation of adaptive processes in the body. According to their origin, adaptogens can be divided into two groups: natural and synthetic. Sources of natural adaptogens are terrestrial and aquatic plants, animals and microorganisms. The most important adaptogens of plant origin include ginseng, eleutherococcus, Chinese magnolia vine, Manchurian aralia, zamaniha, wild rose, etc. Animal preparations include: pantocrine obtained from deer antlers; rantarin - from reindeer antlers, apilak - from royal jelly. Substances isolated from various microorganisms and yeasts (prodigiogan, zymosan, etc.) have been widely used. Vitamins have a high adaptogenic activity. Many effective synthetic compounds are derived from natural products (oil, coal, etc.).

Specific Methods increases in the effectiveness of adaptation are based on an increase in the body's resistance to any particular environmental factor: cold, hypoxia, etc. These include drugs, physiotherapy, special training, etc. (Gora E.P., 1999).

The term "functional systems", the theory and model of functional systems were introduced in 1935 by the Soviet physiologist Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin. A prerequisite for the creation of TFS are physiological facts obtained experimentally (such as, for example, the connection of nerve trunks), thanks to which the subordination of individual systems (functions) to integral behavior was revealed. Further research allowed Anokhin to discover the integration of physiological processes into a single whole.

What definition does Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin give to the concept of "Function"? Function is the achievement of a useful result in the ratio of the organism and the environment. Thus, the functional system, according to the scientist, was a dynamic self-regulating organization, all constituent elements which interact to obtain a useful adaptive result by the body. This "adaptive result" is an indicator of adaptation necessary for the normal functioning of the organism. The functional systems of the body are made up of several elements of the whole organism that are different in structure and purpose, and their activity and final result do not reflect the exclusive influence of any anatomical type of the participating structure. The components included in the system lose their freedom, and only those of them remain that contribute to obtaining the desired useful result, which is the determining factor for the formation of a functional system.

A useful result is the provision of some qualitatively specific ratio of the organism with the environment, which contributes to the satisfaction of its needs.

The results can be divided into several groups:

1) Metabolic. Results that create the necessary end products for life.

2) Homeopathic. Results that are indicators of the state of body fluids (blood, lymph) and ensure normal metabolism.

3) Behavioral. Results that satisfy the basic needs of a living organism.

4) Social. Results that satisfy the social and spiritual needs of a person.

To achieve the results of different groups, functional systems of different levels are formed, but their structure is basically the same and is a combination of five elements:

1) Useful adaptive result

2) Control devices (receptors)

3) Feedback

4) Central architectonics - selective association of nervous elements of various levels into control apparatuses.

5) Reaction apparatus - somatic, vegetative, endocrine, behavioral.

The functional systems of the metabolic result include only internal mechanisms of self-regulation, determine the optimal level of blood mass, blood pressure and environmental reaction for the metabolic process.

Homeopathic Functional Systems provide external mechanisms self-regulation, the interaction of the body with the external environment, nutrient levels, body temperature and pressure.

Behavioral functional systems and social functional systems provide for internal and external mechanisms of self-regulation that play an equally equal role.

At the same time, several functional systems of different levels work in the human body, but there are certain principles of their interaction:

1) The principle of systemogenesis;

2) The principle of multiply connected interaction;

3) Hierarchy;

4) Consistent dynamism of interaction;

5) The principle of systemic quantization of life activity.

I propose to consider these principles in more detail.

The first principle, the principle of system genesis, is nothing more than the maturation, development and selective reduction of a functional system.

The principle of multiply connected interaction determines the generalized activity of various functional systems, the unity of the internal environment of the organism, changes as a result of metabolism and the activity of the organism in the external environment. At the same time, deviations of one indicator of the internal environment cause a redistribution of the parameters of the result of the joint activity of several functional systems.

Hierarchy. The name speaks for itself - functional systems are divided into levels, the poor of which are subordinate to the highest, in accordance with biological and social significance. The activity of the organism is determined by the dominant functional system and the corresponding result is achieved first. Upon reaching the dominant result, the next most important result is achieved.

The principle of subsequent dynamic interaction. It is understood as a clear sequence of changes in the activities of several functional systems. The result of the activity of the previous one is an indicator for the start of the activity of the subsequent system.

The principle of systemic quantization of life activity. It consists in the allocation in the process of life of some "quanta" with their final result.

Thus, a “useful result” is achieved through a motor (behavioral) act.

A behavioral act is an elementary cycle of the relationship of the whole organism with the environment, in which systemic processes are distinguished, that is, the organization of cells of cellular processes into a single whole - a functional system.

To consider this concept, it must be said that Anokhin identified two groups of functional systems: the first group is functional systems that ensure the constancy of certain constants of the internal environment due to the self-regulation system, the links of which do not go beyond the body itself (functional systems of the metabolic result). The second group is functional systems that use an external link of self-regulation. They provide an adaptive effect due to going outside the body through communication with the outside world, through changes in behavior. It is the functional systems of the second type that underlie various behavioral acts, various types of behavior.

There is a certain scheme of combining parts of functional systems into a single whole that determines a behavioral act:

Afferent synthesis - decision making - acceptor of the results of action - effective synthesis - formation of action - evaluation of the achieved result.

Let's analyze the proposed circuit.

1) Afferent synthesis is the process of impulse transmission from the working organ to the nerve center. The following factors influence its formation:

a) Motivational excitation (need). Appears when a need arises and is aimed at creating favorable conditions for satisfying these needs and the existence of the organism.

b) Situational afferentation. Including the excitation from a stationary environment and the excitation associated with this environment.

c) Starting afferentation. It consists in the fact that, revealing the latent excitation created by situational afferentation, it dates it to certain points in time, the most expedient from the point of view of the behavior itself.

d) Memory apparatus. It lies in the fact that at the stage of afferent synthesis, precisely those fragments of past experience that are useful and necessary for future behavior are extracted and used from memory.

2) The decision-making stage, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special and very important stage of a behavioral act - the formation of an apparatus for accepting the results of an action. This is an apparatus that programs the results of future events. It actualizes the innate and individual memory of an animal and a person in relation to the properties of external objects that can satisfy the need that has arisen, as well as methods of action aimed at achieving or avoiding the target object. Quite often, this apparatus is programmed with the whole path of searching in the external environment for the corresponding stimuli.

3) The next stage, the acceptor of the results of the action, is, one might say, a mechanism that contains a model of the programmable parameters of future stage and final results, as well as comparing the results that were predicted with those that were obtained.

4) Efferent synthesis - outgoing, excreting, transmitting impulses from the nerve centers to the working organs.

Conclusions to chapter 1:

1) The nervous system is the main functional system of a living organism, since it is able to regulate the activity of other systems of our body, being between them, a kind of connecting link. The nervous system consists of the Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (nerves, ganglions), which also interact with each other in the implementation of nerve reactions and processes.
2) Being the main function of a living organism, the nervous system is the basis for mental processes. The psyche is formed by the influence of the activity of the nervous system. This is expressed in the formation of a subjective image of the picture of the surrounding world, different from the real and emotionally colored, the regulation of human behavior carried out both by the internal influences of desires, memory, experience, and directly by the external environment.
3) The founder of the theory of functional systems is the Russian scientist Petr Kuzmich Anokhin. He gave a definition, a classification of functional systems, the principles of their work and the goal - to achieve a useful result.

A lot of research in the field of artificial intelligence is faced with the lack of any powerful theory of consciousness and brain activity at the moment. In fact, we have little knowledge of how the brain learns and achieves an adaptive outcome. However, at the moment there is a noticeable increase in the mutual influence of the field of artificial intelligence and neuroscience. Based on the results of mathematical modeling of brain activity, new goals are set for experiments in the field of neurobiology and psychophysiology, and the experimental data of biologists, in turn, largely influence the vector of AI development.

Based on the foregoing, it becomes clear that for the future successful development of bionic AI, close cooperation between mathematicians and neuroscientists is necessary, which in the end will be fruitful for both areas. For this, in particular, it is necessary to study modern advances in theoretical neurobiology.

At the moment, there are three most developed and partly experimentally tested theories of the structure of consciousness in the field of theoretical neuroscience: the theory of functional systems by P.K. Anokhin, the theory of neuronal group selection (neurodarwinism) by Gerald Edelman and the theory of global information spaces by Jean-Pierre Changet (originally formulated by Bernard Baars). The rest of the theories are either modifications of the named ones, or are not confirmed by any experimental data. This article will focus on the first of these theories - Theories of functional systems P.K. Anokhin.

Reactivity and activity paradigms

First of all, it must be said that with all the variety of theories and approaches used in psychology, psychophysiology and neurosciences, they can be divided into two groups. In the first group, reactivity is considered as the main methodological principle that determines the approach to the study of the patterns of brain organization of behavior and activity, in the second - activity (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Two paradigms of neurophysiology - reactivity and activity

In accordance with the paradigm of reactivity, a stimulus is followed by a reaction - behavioral in an individual, impulsive in a neuron. In the latter case, the impulsation of the presynaptic neuron is considered as a stimulus.

According to the activity paradigm, the action ends with the achievement of the result and its evaluation. The scheme includes a model of the future result: for a person, for example, contact with a target object.

According to the reactive approach, an agent should not be active in the absence of stimuli. On the contrary, when using the activity paradigm, we can assume the case when the agent did not receive any stimulus from the external environment, however, according to the agent's expectations, it should have arrived. In this case, the agent will act and learn to eliminate the mismatch, which would not be the case in the case of the agent's simplest unconditional response to a stimulus from the external environment.

Theory of functional systems

In the theory of functional systems, as a determinant of behavior, not the past in relation to behavior is considered an event - a stimulus, but the future - a result. Functional system there is a dynamically developing wide distributed system of heterogeneous physiological formations, all parts of which contribute to obtaining a certain useful result. It is the leading value of the result and the model of the future created by the brain that makes it possible to speak not of a reaction to stimuli from the external environment, but of a full-fledged goal-setting.


Rice. 2. General architecture of the functional system
(OA - situational afferentation, PA - starting afferentation)

The architecture of the functional system is shown in fig. 2. The diagram shows the sequence of actions in the implementation of one functional system. First, afferent synthesis occurs, which accumulates signals from the external environment, memory and motivation of the subject. On the basis of afferent synthesis, a decision is made, on the basis of which an action program and an acceptor of the result of an action are formed - a forecast of the effectiveness of the action being performed. After that, the action is directly performed and the physical parameters of the result are taken. One of the most important parts of this architecture is reverse afferentation - feedback, which allows you to judge the success of one or more actions. This directly allows the subject to learn, since by comparing the physical parameters of the result obtained and the predicted result, one can evaluate the effectiveness of purposeful behavior. Moreover, it should be noted that the choice of this or that action is influenced by a lot of factors, the totality of which is processed in the process of afferent synthesis.

Such functional systems are developed in the process evolution and lifelong learning. To summarize, the whole goal of evolution is the development of functional systems that will give the best adaptive effect. The functional systems produced by evolution develop even before birth, when there is no direct contact with the environment, and provide the primary repertoire. It is this fact that indicates the evolutionary nature of these phenomena. Such processes have been common name – primary systemogenesis .

System-evolutionary theory developed by Shvyrkov V.B. based on the theory of functional systems, even rejected the concept of a “starting stimulus” and considered a behavioral act not in isolation, but as a component of a behavioral continuum: a sequence of behavioral acts performed by an individual throughout his life (Fig. 3) . The next act in the continuum is implemented after the achievement and evaluation of the result of the previous act. Such an evaluation is a necessary part of the processes of organization of the next act, which, therefore, can be considered as transformational or processes of transition from one act to another.


Rice. 3. Behavioral-temporal continuum

From all of the above, it follows that an individual, and even an individual neuron, must have the ability to develop an image of the result of an action and the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of their behavior. When these conditions are met, the behavior can be safely called purposeful.

However, the processes of systemogenesis occur in the brain not only in development (primary systemogenesis), but also during the life of the subject. Systemogenesis is the formation of new systems in the learning process. Within the framework of the system selection concept of learning, the formation of a new system is considered as the formation of a new element of individual experience in the learning process. The formation of new functional systems during learning is based on the selection of neurons from the "reserve" (presumably low active or "silent" cells). These neurons may be referred to as prespecialized cells.

The selection of neurons depends on their individual properties, i.e. on the characteristics of their metabolic "needs". The selected cells become specialized in relation to the newly formed system - system-specialized. This specialization of neurons in relation to newly formed systems is constant. In this way, new system turns out to be an “addition” to the previously formed ones, “layering” on them. This process is called secondary systemogenesis .

The following provisions of the system-evolutionary theory:
about the presence in the brain of animals different types a large number of "silent" cells;
about increasing the number of active cells during training;
that newly formed neuronal specializations remain constant
that learning involves recruiting new neurons rather than retraining old ones,
are consistent with the data obtained in the work of a number of laboratories.

Separately, I would like to note that, according to modern concepts of psychophysiology and system evolutionary theory, the number and composition of the functional systems of an individual is determined both by the processes of evolutionary adaptation, which are reflected in the genome, and by individual lifelong learning.

The theory of functional systems is being successfully studied by means of simulation modeling and various models of adaptive behavior control are built on its basis.

Instead of a conclusion

The theory of functional systems at one time was the first to introduce the concept of purposefulness of behavior by comparing the prediction of the result with its actual parameters, as well as learning as a way to eliminate the mismatch of the body with the environment. Many provisions of this theory are already in need of significant revision and adaptation, taking into account new experimental data. However, to date, this theory is one of the most developed and biologically adequate.

I would like to note once again that from my point of view, further development of the field of AI is impossible without close cooperation with neuroscientists, without building new models based on powerful theories.

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The figure shows a diagram of a functional diagram according to Anokhin.

A functional system is a combination of elements of different anatomical localization interacting to achieve an adaptive result.
The adaptive outcome is system-forming factor of FS. To achieve a result means to change the ratio between the organism and the environment in a direction that is beneficial for the organism.
There are functional systems of the first and second types.
Functional system of the first type- a functional system that ensures the constancy of the parameters of the internal environment due to the system of self-regulation, the acts of which do not go beyond the limits of the organism itself. The main 2 constants of homeostasis are osmotic pressure and pH of the blood. The functional system of the first type automatically compensates for fluctuations in blood pressure, body temperature and other parameters.
Functional system of the second type using an external link of self-regulation; providing an adaptive effect through communication with the outside world outside the body and changing behavior.
Functional systems have different specializations. Some carry out breathing, others are responsible for movement, others for nutrition, etc. FS can belong to different hierarchical levels and be of varying degrees of complexity.
Functional systems vary in degree of plasticity, i.e. by the ability to change its constituent components. If a behavioral act consists mainly of innate structures (unconditioned reflexes, for example, breathing), then plasticity will be small and vice versa
Main components:
The main components are schematically shown in the figure
1. Afferent synthesis. The task of this stage is to collect the necessary information about various parameters of the external environment, to select the main stimuli from a variety of stimuli, and to set a goal. AF is always individual. There are 3 components to AF: motivation, situational afferentation (information about the environment), and memory.
2. Decision making
3. Acceptor of the results of the action. Model or image of the expected result.
4. Reverse afferentation. The process of correction based on the results of ongoing activities received by the brain from the outside.
Significance for psychophysiology: FS is considered as a unit of the organism's integrative activity.
Luria believed that the introduction of the theory of functional systems allows a new approach to solving many problems in the organization of the physiological foundations of behavior and the psyche.
Thanks to the FS theory:
- there has been a replacement of a simplified understanding of the stimulus as the only causative agent of behavior with more complex ideas about the factors that determine behavior, with the inclusion of models of the required future or the image of the expected result among them;
- an idea was formulated about the role of "reverse afferentation" and its significance for further fate the action being performed, the latter radically changes the picture, showing that all further behavior depends on the success of the action performed;
- the concept of a new functional apparatus was introduced, which compares the initial image of the expected result with the effect of a real action - an “acceptor” of the results of an action.