The theory of activity in Soviet psychology. activity and consciousness. "Analysis of theories of motivation and the possibility of their use in the activities of a modern teacher (on an example)
In the 1930s new tasks were set before psychological science. The first was the development of the methodology of psychology as the foundation for building a new type of science, which is not descriptive, but explanatory knowledge. The second is the creation of a system of psychology as a science that would include all the critically rethought achievements of world psychology and at the same time rely on domestic empirical research. The third, directly following from the second, was the task of uncovering and overcoming the crisis of psychological science.
The activity approach replaced reactology and became an expression of the desire to build a psychology on the basis of Marxism. Its essence was expressed in the advancement of the fundamental postulate of the unity of consciousness and activity. This means that any content of consciousness and any mental process must be considered as the result of cognitive action - perceptual, mental. Actions are based on a motive (need) and a specific goal. Activity was considered from a Marxist point of view, which affirmed labor as the main form of the relationship between a person and the environment.
The category of activity, with its basic principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, on the one hand, was opposed to behaviorism, which denied consciousness, and on the other hand, to Freudianism, which affirmed the influence of unconscious drives. Most of all, it corresponded to operationalism in the form of neoheviorism, which began to develop precisely at this time (in the 1930s).
The main theorists of this approach were S. L. Rubinshtein and L. N. Leontiev. The former was inclined towards a philosophical and methodological solution of the problems of activity in psychology, the latter considered the development of the psyche as an activity in a theoretical, historical, phylo- and ontogenetic way. D. N. Uznadze also put forward the original concept of the state of the psyche ("setting").
S. L. Rubinstein(1889-1960) is known as the founder of the Marxist theory of activity in Soviet psychology.
Rubinstein became acquainted with the works of K. Marx very early. But he could extract its proper philosophical content from Marx's theory only by defining his own concept - the concept of philosophical anthropology, the center of which was the idea not of the cognizing subject (as in Hegel), but the idea subject of the existing and actively realizing its essence in the world. Rubinstein wrote it down in manuscript. In his work, he systematically developed the principle of the subject and his creative amateur activity, which he subsequently transformed as a methodological principle of psychology and called activity approach.
In the early 1930s the scientist published his concept of consciousness and activity in the article "Problems of Psychology in the Works of K. Marx", and on next year his first monograph "Fundamentals of Psychology" (1935) was published. In these works, Rubinstein presented his interpretation of the system of ideas contained in the early manuscripts of K. Marx.
As one of the program works of Rubinstein, one can single out "Fundamentals of General Psychology". In it, the scientist approached the consideration of the psyche, consciousness and personality from the standpoint of development principle. He also made an attempt to reveal in unity all existing aspects of development: from historical and ontogenetic to life-biographical. The activity of the subject itself was also considered in the process of its formation and improvement (at different stages of the complication of the life process, activity takes on new forms and begins to be built in a new way). Concretized principle of unity of consciousness and activity(the disclosure of this unity is carried out in the aspect of the functioning and development of consciousness in activity; the manifestation of consciousness in activity is simultaneously the development of consciousness through activity, as well as its formation).
Rubinstein gave a methodological definition of the nature of the psyche as a unity of reflection and relationship, cognition and experience, epistemological and ontological. In the same work, he presented a detailed description of consciousness as the highest level of mental organization. Consciousness was considered by the scientist as a regulator of activity, carrying out three interrelated functions - the regulation of the mental processes themselves, the relationship of the subject to the world, as well as the regulation of activity as an integral manifestation of the subject. Consciousness, thus, acted as the highest ability of the acting personality.
In his book Being and Consciousness (1957), Rubinstein turned to the development principle of determinism as a key method for philosophy, psychology and social life. One of the most important methodological features of the new formula of determinism was the transformation of a falsely posed philosophical problem: either the mental is material and then explained only physiologically, or it is ideal, then its essence is comprehended only outside the material world.
The most significant activity features Rubinstein analyzed in the article "The principle of creative amateur performance". He referred to them:
- 1) subjectivity (activity is always carried out by the subject, more precisely by the subjects);
- 2) content, reality, objectivity (activity is neither symbolic nor fictitious);
- 3) inseparable connection with creativity;
- 4) connection of activity with independence. The scientist put forward the following ideas about human nature, reflecting the essence of the activity approach.
- 1. Every human action proceeds from motives and is directed towards a goal.
- 2. Activity and consciousness form a unity. The very fact of awareness of one's activity changes the nature of its course and, thus, ceases to be a simple set of responses to external stimuli.
- 3. The awareness of an action depends on the attitude that develops in the course of the activity itself. Thus, a conscious action is an action that is accompanied by consciousness.
- 4. Human behavior is not reduced to a simple set of reactions, it includes a system of conscious actions, which differs from the reaction in a different relationship to the object.
- 5. Action is a conscious act of activity that is directed towards an object. An action becomes an act as its relation to the subject rises to the plane of consciousness and turns into a conscious relation.
- 6. The unity of consciousness and behavior is revealed in their very content. Their unity is based on the unity of consciousness and being, the objective content of which is manifested through consciousness.
- 7. Through the activity of the subject, his psyche becomes cognizable to others. For the knowledge of the psyche, one must proceed from the principle of the unity of internal and external manifestations.
- 8. Activity is understood as the interaction of the subject with the outside world; it is a process through which the relation of a person to the world around is realized.
- 9. Views human activity are determined by the nature of the main product that is created in the activity and is its goal: practical (labor) and theoretical (cognitive) activity.
Rubinstein's scientific research and work are distinguished by the consistency of the presentation of the history and methodology of psychology, by combining them into an integral theoretical and historical system.
The unity of consciousness and activity, the unity of activity - external and internal, the origin of internal, mental activity from external, objective - all of them affirm the derivative nature of the psyche, consciousness, its secondary nature in relation to the material world - this conviction of the scientist was supported by representatives of Soviet psychology.
The most important achievement of Soviet psychological science was the development of one of the founders of Soviet psychology, A. N. Leontiev(1903 1979) general psychological theory of activity.
On the basis of theoretical and experimental studies, the scientist showed the explanatory power of activity for understanding the central psychological problems: the essence and development of the psyche and consciousness, the functioning of various forms of mental reflection of the personality. When developing the problem of activity, Leontiev relied on the provisions of the cultural and historical concept of the psyche L. Vygotsky.
Leontiev began his career by developing, together with a group of scientists, the problem of activity in the child's psyche and studying such aspects of its development and changes as the setting by the child of the goals and motives of his activity. Later, he turned to the study of the problem of the genesis of the psyche, which he outlined in his dissertation work "The Development of the Psyche" (1946).
The fundamental work, revealing the essence of the activity approach, was Leontiev's work "Activity. Consciousness. Personality", in which he put forward the following scientific ideas.
- 1. Activity should be understood as a process that carries out the life of the subject, the purpose of which is to satisfy the substantive needs of the subject.
- 2. Objective needs are defined as internal states of the organism.
- 3. The development of activity necessarily leads to the emergence of a mental reflection of reality in the course of evolution (activity gives rise to mental life).
- 4. Activity is a process that translates what is reflected into reflection (ie, external to internal).
- 5. At the level of human behavior, mental reflection is also expressed in the products of activity. Thus, activity, in addition to an objective reflection of reality, translates the image into an objective-objective form, which can be material or ideal (non-material). Language is a form of image reflection in individual consciousness.
- 6. There are several stages in the development of the psyche in ontogenesis:
- elementary sensory psyche;
- perceptual psyche (i.e. image formation);
- the stage of intellect (i.e. ensuring the orientation and adaptation of the organism in the environment).
- 7. At each age, a person has a leading activity.
- 8. The activity is carried out by the subject, respectively, involves the disclosure of the concept of personality as a product of all human relations to the world, and these relations are carried out through the totality of all human activities.
- 9. The totality of human experience can be divided into three types: individual, species and social, which are present in every person.
Leontiev's ideas had a strong influence on the development of most branches of domestic psychology - social, children's, pedagogical, engineering, pathopsychology, zoopsychology, ergonomics. Moreover, they initiated the development of these branches of psychology in the USSR. Like S. L. Rubinshtein, Leontiev is one of the founders of Soviet psychology.
But still, the weak link in Leontiev's theory should be recognized as his concept of "objective activity", activity that has objects of reality as an object, and ignores the relationship (communication) of people or considers them indirectly, not specifically.
Received world fame installation theory was developed D. N. Uznadze(1886-1950).
Studying foreign psychology and its various concepts, Uznadze was able to identify a feature common to most areas. He called to her "postulate of immediacy". According to this postulate, "objective reality directly and immediately affects the conscious psyche and in this direct connection determines its activity."
Uznadze saw the origins of this "dogmatic premise" in the false orientation of psychology towards natural science, which is based on the recognition of the fact of a direct connection between physical phenomena. Uznadze saw an analogy with this principle in "principle of closed causality" W. Wundt (the mental arises from the mental), which was criticized as unscientific and unproductive, both in the explanations of Gestalt psychology and in behaviorism.
Uznadze revealed the profound consequences that psychological reliance on the postulate of immediacy leads to. This is idealism and mechanism, expressed in ignoring the subject of activity and personality as a specific integrity, as a result of which behavior is presented as "interaction with reality of individual mental and motor processes, primarily determined by the direct interaction ... motor or mental processes and their stimuli or stimuli, and therefore to understand it, apart from taking into account these two points, nothing else is required.
The analysis of foreign psychology made by Uznadze turned out to be consonant with its research, reflected in the works of L. S. Vygotsky and S. L. Rubinshtein. The views of the scientist were shared by Soviet psychology as a whole. Thus, A. N. Leont'ev repeatedly used the term "postulate of immediacy" introduced by Uznadze, and just like him, he saw the task of psychology in overcoming this postulate. Criticism of the postulate of immediacy is an important part of the work on creating the methodological foundations of D. N. Uznadze's own psychological concept. From it follows the task of overcoming this postulate. The answer to this problem was the theory of installation.
The theory of set, according to Uznadze's own assessment, was an attempt to explain the activity of a living organism as a whole, its relationship with reality by introducing a special internal formation, designated by the concept of "set". The mindset arises when two conditions are present simultaneously: a need that is actually acting at the moment, and an objective situation for satisfying this need. Thus, internal and external factors are taken into account in its formation.
The attitude is a primary holistic, undifferentiated state that precedes conscious mental activity and underlies behavior. Installation - "a condition that can be qualified as extraconscious a mental process that, under given conditions, has a decisive influence on the content and course of the conscious psyche." "Individual acts of behavior, all mental activity are phenomena of secondary origin."
Various kinds of illusions sense organs (vision, hearing, weight, volume, etc.). A method of experimental study of the installation was developed, the types of installations, the process of their formation were studied, and their properties were described. From the point of view of the attitude, the characteristics of mental processes were given, an original classification of forms of human behavior and activity was made, and hierarchical levels of mental activity were revealed - an individual, a subject, a personality.
In contrast to the attitude in foreign psychology, in which this phenomenon acted as a private psychological formation, Uznadze gave the concept of attitude the status general psychological category, and the theory of this phenomenon turned into a general psychological theory of set and was extended to the study of pathopsychological phenomena, found application in pedagogy, on its basis a system of methods of psychotherapy was developed - set therapy (the use of the concept of set for treating patients).
The attitude was described as a mediating formation between the influence of the environment and mental processes, which explains human behavior, one hundred emotional and volitional processes, i.e. acts as a determinant of any activity of the body. Thus, thinking (as well as creative fantasy, work, etc.) arises in a situation of difficulty in acts of behavior caused by a certain attitude, when the complication of the situation makes it necessary to make this difficulty a special object of study. This specific act, which turns an object or phenomenon included in the chain of human activity into a special independent object of his observation, could be called an act objectification".
The identification of objectification led Uznadze to the conclusion that there are two levels of mental life - the level of attitude inherent in every living being (and only in particular for a person), and the level of objectification, which is "a special property of only a person as a thinking being, building the foundations of cultural life as a creator of cultural values".
Working article
on the topic: "Analysis of theories of motivation and the possibility of their use in the activities of a modern teacher (on an example)"
Moscow
Introduction 3-5
1. Analysis of motivation theories 5-10
2.Motives and motivation of educational activities 10-13
2.1. The role of the teacher in the formation of various types of motives 10
2.2. Types of motives, methods of their formation. eleven
2.3. How do motives reveal themselves? 12
3. The possibility of using certain types of motives in
teacher activities. 13-20
3.1. The beginning of the lesson is a motive for learning………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.2. Using information from history in the lessons………………… 15
3.3.Vital significance, importance physical knowledge…………..15
3.4. Introducing students to modern scientific achievements..15
3.5. A variety of methods of conducting a lesson - as a means
development of cognitive activity of students…………………..16
3.6. The use of information technology in the classroom………….18
3.7. Development of cognitive interests of students in extracurricular activities
time…………………………………………………………………….19
3.8. Levels and types of homework. 20
Conclusion 22
References 23
Annex 24-31
Introduction.
The low level of educational motivation of children in the classroom at specific lessons characterizes not so much the student's problem as shortcomings in the teacher's work. Therefore, I decided to pay attention to motivation, considering it the leading internal resource of the student's educational and cognitive activity, to learn to distinguish between the problems of the student and the problems of the teacher. Motivating students to study a subject is difficult, but rewarding. The reasons for people's behavior in all situations - everyday, cognitive, business - are always interesting. Without knowing the motives, it is impossible to achieve an effective result in the teaching process. Formed motivation is the basis for effective pedagogical influence (G.A. Karpova). This leads to the following conclusion: the results of the teacher's actions will be more significant if the students first form a motive for perceiving these actions. A person only strives for knowledge when he realizes its significance in culture and own life. The well-known Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky wrote: “The pedagogical law says: if you want to call a child to any activity, interest him, take care to find that he is ready for this activity, that he has all the forces necessary for her that the child will act on his own, the teacher can only lead and direct his activities.
If the teacher knows the leading motives of his children's activities and works with this knowledge, then the student is not only successful in the subject, but also forms an idea of the world as an integral system, develops critical thinking, a general culture. Motivation is designed to turn the purpose of the lesson (meaningful at first only for teachers) meaningful for students and give rise to their desire for knowledge of educational and cognitive activity. What should a teacher do to encourage students to actively study the educational material, “here and now”? "The only way that leads to knowledge is activity."
Teaching motives are the focus of the student on certain aspects academic work connected with his inner relation to her. When I invite a student to engage in some learning activity, he may participate in it with great willingness, because he considers it accessible, he may try to avoid it because it seems unpleasant to him, or he may show little interest in it, perceive it as alien to him. goals. If the student does not work in the lesson, does not listen to explanations - who is really feeling bad in this situation? The student does not suffer from this, so this is the problem of the teacher! Success in learning often depends on the correct interaction between the activities of teaching and the activities of learning, the level of cognitive activity and independence of children's interest in learning. Cognitive activity is an active state of the student (cognitive response, search, initiative), which is characterized by the desire for learning, mental stress and the manifestation of volitional efforts in the process of mastering knowledge. Cognitive independence - active search, selection (orienting actions), operating methods for solving a problem, own paths to the goal, critical approach to the material, merging willingness and ability to act independently. The activity and independence of the student will depend on how much the content, methods of completing the task encourage the search for the difficulties contained in it, arouse interest in the content or result of the work. This is achieved by means of activating his educational knowledge. Activation of learning is a system of teacher actions that creates incentives and encourages students to consciously engage in work. The activation of learning is the mobilization of the intellectual, moral and volitional forces of students to solve educational and cognitive problems. The main stimulating element for an optimally organized lesson Yu. K. Babansky called the motivational component - the motivation of schoolchildren's learning at all its stages.The assimilation of educational material in the lesson is not an end in itself, it should, first of all, work effectively for the formation of personality.
1. Analysis of theories of motivation.
1.1. Numerous theories of motivation to explain human behavior.
In modern psychology, the term "motive" ("motivating factor") refers to completely different phenomena such as instinctive impulses, biological drives, interests, desires, life goals, ideals, goals, etc. Motives are what stimulates and directs human activity for which they are made. The main problem that has been at the center of psychology for more than a hundred years is causality. The problem of motivation was studied by both foreign and domestic psychologists: Z. Freud, K. Levin, J. Nutten, D. K. McCland, A. Mekhrabiam, A. N. Leontiev, S. L. Rubinshtein, A. G. Aseev , V.I. Kovalev, A.K. Markova and others.
Some psychologists believe that motives are the product of external and internal factors; others - that a consequence of the biological instincts and biological needs inherent in a person; both views gave rise to a subjective-objective understanding of this phenomenon.
1.1.1. The theory of the outstanding Soviet psychologist Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979).
A. N. Leontiev believed that the motives of activity are determined by the needs of the individual. Any person, even having the leading motive of behavior and the main goal in life, cannot live only with one goal or motive. The motivational sphere of a person, according to A. N. Leontiev, even in its highest development never resembles a frozen pyramid.
At different periods of life, in different spheres of human existence and in different situations, a person has many other motives, besides the leading one, that form the motivational sphere or, as they say today, the motivational field.
“The structure of personality,” he wrote, “is a relatively stable configuration of the main motivational lines, hierarchized within themselves. We are talking about what is incompletely described as “the orientation of the personality”, incomplete because even if a person has a distinct leading line of life, it cannot remain the only one. Serving the chosen goal, the ideal does not at all exclude or absorb other life relationships of a person, which, in turn, form meaning-forming motives. Figuratively speaking, the motivational sphere of personality is always multi-topped.
The contradictory interaction of these "tops" of the motivational sphere, various motives of the personality and forms an intrapersonal conflict. Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M.: Politizdat, 1975. - S. 221.
A.N. Leontiev singled out two main functions of motives: motivation and meaning formation. Some motives, inducing activity, give it a personal meaning. Others, playing the role of motivating factors - sometimes acutely emotional, affective - are deprived of a sense-forming function; such motives A.N. Leontiev called motives-stimuli. The distribution of the functions of meaning formation and motivation between the motives of the same activity makes it possible to understand the main relationships that characterize the motivational sphere of the personality, -hierarchy of motives .
1.1.2. Theory of the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1968).
The most popular and widely used is the theory of the American psychologist, one of the founders of humanistic psychology A. Maslow. He distinguished not individual motives, but entire groups. These groups are ordered in a value hierarchy according to their role in personality development. At the same time, the needs of high and higher levels are interpreted as no less instinct-like (innate) than the lower needs. Until the need is satisfied, it activates the activity and influences it. Activity is not so much "pushed from within" as attracted from outside by the possibility of satisfaction. The main idea of A. Maslow's classification is the principle of relative priority of actualization of motives, which states that before the needs of higher levels are activated and begin to determine the behavior, the needs of the lower level must be satisfied.According to Maslow, the motivational structure of the personality is formed by a series of hierarchically organized needs:
1) physiological needs;
2) the need for security;
3) the need for love;
4) the need for respect;
5) the need for self-actualization.
The hierarchy of needs begins with physiological needs. Next come security needs and social connection needs, then self-respect needs, and finally self-actualization. Self-actualization can become a motive for behavior only when all other needs are satisfied. In the event of a conflict between the needs of different hierarchical levels, the lowest need wins.
Of all the motives, the main interest of A. Maslow is directed to the needs of self-actualization. The researcher writes: “Even when all these needs are satisfied, we can still often expect that if an individual does not do what he is intended to, then new dissatisfaction and anxiety will soon arise. To be in harmony with himself, a musician must create music, an artist must paint, a poet must write poetry. Man must be what he can be. This need can be called self-actualization. It means the desire of a person to fulfill himself, namely his desire to become what he can be.
1.1.3. Theory American psychologistHenry Alexander Murray.
G. Murray , tried to systematize various theoretical approaches and concepts in the study of motivation. From his point of view, the central, correlated concepts should be considered the need on the part of the individual and the pressure on the part of the situation. Murray identified various bases for classifying needs. Firstly, they distinguish primary needs (for water, food, sexual release, avoidance of cold, etc.) and secondary (psychogenic) needs of humiliation, achievement, aggression, independence, opposition, respect, protection, dominance, drawing attention to oneself, avoidance harm, avoidance of failure, patronage, order, play, rejection, reflection, sexual relations, seeking help (dependence), understanding. G. Murray also added to them the needs of acquisition, avoidance of accusation, knowledge, creation, learning, recognition, preservation.
Primary needs, unlike secondary ones, are based on organic processes and arise either cyclically (food) or in connection with the need for regulation (avoidance of cold).
Secondly, needs are divided into positive (search) and negative (avoidance), explicit and latent. Explicit needs are freely and objectively expressed in outward behavior, latent ones are manifested either in play actions (semi-objective), or in fantasy (subjective). In certain situations, individual needs can be combined to motivate behavior: conflict with each other, obey one another, etc.
Pressure is defined by the scientist as follows: “... some effect exerted on the subject by an object or situation and usually perceived by him as a transient set of incentives that take the form of a threat or benefit to the organism. When defining pressure, it makes sense to distinguish: 1) alpha pressure - that actually existing pressure that can be established by scientific methods, and 2) beta pressure, which is the subject's interpretation of the phenomena he perceives. Need and pressure correspond meaningfully to each other, their interaction is called a theme, which is presented by Murray as a genuine unit of analysis of human activity.
1.1.4. Needs theory by American psychologist David ClarenceMcClelland(1917 -1998 ).
In the concept of motivationD. McClelland three main groups of needs are considered: in power, in success, in involvement. For the first time, the need for power as such is introduced into the system of stimuli for human activity. It is seen as synthetic and derived from the needs for respect and self-expression. The need for success (or achievement motivation) is the second basic need of the individual. The author was one of the first to show that it is natural for a person not only to “want something”, but also to determine for himself the level of mastering the object of his desire - to develop his own “bar” of achievements; thus, in itself the need for success (and through it - for recognition from others) is common to all, but the measure of its development is different. McClelland believed that human achievement and, ultimately, the prosperity and power of a country depend on the degree of development of this need.
1.1.5.Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom - Canadian psychologist (was born on 08/09/1932).
In "Expectancy Theory"V. Vrooma an important place in the organization of human behavior is given to the individual's assessment of the probability of a certain event. When revealing the structure of motivation and the very process of behavior in this theory, special attention is paid to three main relationships. First, these are expectations regarding the relationship between labor costs and results. If a person feels that there is a direct connection between them, then motivation increases, and vice versa. Secondly, these are expectations regarding the relationship of results and rewards, that is, the expectation of a certain reward or encouragement in response to the level of results achieved. If there is a direct connection between them and a person clearly sees this, then his motivation increases. Thirdly, it is the subjective valence of the expected reward or reward. Valence refers to the perceived value of satisfaction or dissatisfaction arising from a particular reward.
For many years, scientists have not given up hope to explain human behavior. The result of this interest are numerous theories of motivation, the number of which is more than a dozen. At present, this problem has not lost its relevance, rather the opposite. This is due to the growing demands of practice: in the field of production, the issues of activating and managing human behavior, the problems of optimizing the use of human resources are becoming more important and urgent. However, research on motivation is far from a definitive answer to all questions.
2.Motives and motivation of educational activities
2.1. The role of the teacher in the formation of various types of motives.
Motives are concretized and make needs subject. They can change, their circle with the development of the individual (his intellect and social experience) usually expands and changes. The child, coming to school, is guided by the motive that he needs to study, then the motive changes to the desire for a good mark, for praise, interest in the subject, interest in cognitive activity. Usually, human activity is stimulated and directed simultaneously by several motives, between which there is a hierarchy. They are interconnected and can strengthen and weaken each other.
In modern psychology, the opinion has been established: motives are determined by the conditions of life and social factors. The teacher should strive to create situations that cause the students to have the necessary positive motives and their development, aimed at self-improvement.
The role of the teacher in the formation and development of positive motives is as follows: to expand the child's need for independent cognitive, labor and social activities, and for this the teacher needs to put the student in situations that require a real choice (tasks, answers, deeds, assignments, etc.). P.); in comparing the student not with other children, but with himself, his previous results, evaluating him according to his individual contribution to this or that achievement; in issuing a conclusion in a gentle form, placing the child in conditions where there is the possibility of manifestation of activity, and the ability to note this activity and the slightest achievements. In the development of motivation, learning is one of the means of developing the student's personality.
2.2. Types of motives, methods of their formation.
Motives are different. Basically, the following motives of the doctrine prevail.
1) cognitive, aimed at the content of educational material
A) broad cognitive motives - manifested in the appeal of students to the teacher for additional information and additional literature
b) educational and cognitive motives - in independent search and assimilation of new ways of working
c) the motives of self-education - in the desire to expand knowledge through classes in a circle, conducting research, etc.
2) social, aimed at a person or society, which has different levels:
a) broad - characterizes the presence of a sense of duty and responsibility, an understanding of the social significance of education (well-being, prestige); reveals himself in actions that speak of the student's understanding of his academic duty, duty to society. In middle school age, among the broad social motives, the leading one is the desire of students to find their place among their comrades in the class team.
b) narrow, or positional - indicates the desire to occupy a certain position in the team, to obtain the approval of its members. A student with his knowledge, good grades wants to stand out among his peers.
3) social cooperation - its presence informs about the organization to establish essentially different contacts with people, the student strives to participate in various collective works.
2.3. How do motives reveal themselves?
Activity can be a form of manifestation of educational and cognitive motivation. For example - how many times he raised his hand, answered, spoke at the lesson at will, asked questions to the teacher, students' reaction to the call from the lesson, independence of conclusions and generalizations, voluntary presentation of a report, participation of their own free will in the analysis and additions of students' answers, the desire to delve into the essence of phenomena and laws, explain the surrounding phenomena, independent experiments, work with devices in the office and at home, free reading of popular science literature at home, participation in extracurricular activities in physics.
Also, the attitude to learning is fixed and revealed by academic performance, class attendance, the absence of distractions, the breadth and stability of interests in different aspects of learning.
For the process of forming motives, it is necessary to take into account: is there a delay in development that does not allow you to study well, national traditions, social circle, the presence or absence of the student's ability to learn. The reason for the negative attitude to learning is often the lack of precisely these skills to learn in the conduct of ordinary lessons, which cause in schoolchildren indifference to learning or outright boredom. Unfortunately, the teacher does not have enough opportunity to work out the educational material - everything is given to the main task: to have time to complete the program.
3. The possibility of using certain types of motives in the activities of the teacher.
The content of a school course in physics is one of the sources of formation of students' cognitive interests. Let us consider several criteria for the content of educational material, the accounting and implementation of which lead to an increase in the educational and cognitive motivation of students. Physics contains great opportunities for showing students something new that can amaze and surprise them.
3.1. The beginning of the lesson is a motive for learning.
At the initial stage of the lesson, create a difficulty or problem, a motive for learning. It is necessary to start the lesson with a question related to the current topic. For example: on the topic "Inertia" -Can a body at relative rest change its speed by itself?
In order to interest the student in the educational material, new information should be presented in such a way as to evoke an emotional perception of the topic. To do this, you can compare unexpected facts, discover contradictions, arouse surprise, bewilderment in students, a question that encourages the search for truth.
You can study the material known to schoolchildren from a new angle. “New” is not only a completely unfamiliar object or phenomenon encountered for the first time. “New” can also be learned about long-known things. It is important that the teacher constantly emphasizes this fact. The teacher's duty is to teach the student to be surprised at ordinary (familiar) phenomena. Updating the content of the material stimulates cognitive processes, thereby causing and developing interest in knowledge. For example: on the topic "Boiling" -
Why do bubbles appear?
Why do bubbles increase and rise up?
Why is there noise?
Why do bubbles burst near the surface of a liquid at the boiling point?
Why doesn't the temperature change when boiling?
Questions encourage reflection and action.
You can start the lesson with a task to search for and explain folk weather and household signs. For example: on the topic “Thermal phenomena” - explain the signs: “Rain without wind - to prolonged bad weather” (the topic is “Temperature”. “The water in the river becomes warmer - it will rain”, “If in the morning it spreads along the water (in the river, lake) fog, the weather will be fine" Why? "The fog that disappears just after sunrise promises good weather Why does he promise this? “The water in the rivers is decreasing - wait for dry and hot weather” (theme “Evaporation”). "Snow sticks to trees - it's warm" Why? “Until the first thunder in spring, the earth will not completely unfreeze” (topic “Heating, cooling”). "Hoarfrost on the trees - to frost, fog - to thaw" Why do they think so? "When it snows, it gets warmer." Why do they think so?
3.2. Using information from the history of physics in the classroom .
An appeal to the history of science will show the student how difficult and long the path of a scientist to the truth, which today is formulated in the form of a short equation or law. Among the information students need, first of all, are the biographies of great scientists and the history of significant scientific discoveries. The method of acquainting students with the work and views of physicists is very interestingly disclosed in the book by V.N.
3.3.Vital significance, the importance of physical knowledge.
The student is always fascinated by applying the theoretical knowledge gained in the lesson to explain phenomena well known to him, even such simple ones as dissolving sugar in a glass of tea, absorbing ink with blotting paper, beating dust out of a carpet, etc. It is especially important to show students the practical use of material that is traditionally (and with good reason) considered difficult. Ways of communicating to students information about the practical use of physical laws and phenomena can be different. This can be done after the introduction of new material, during the introductory conversation in the lesson, or even before the lesson, during the excursion. Awareness of the vital importance of the studied material is clearly manifested in solving qualitative problems.
3.4. Introducing students to modern scientific achievements.
In the physics program, it is proposed to indicate to students the limits of applicability of the concepts, laws and theories of classical physics, as well as to show the contradictions between its concepts and laws and new facts, the resolution of which is given by modern science. In order to form students' understanding of the language of physical science, clarify its specifics, and develop students' speech, it is useful to apply a comparison of the scientific and artistic vision of the world around us in the lesson. Such a comparison gives rise to the idea of mutual enrichment of science and art in students, teaches them to be attentive to words, to read the formulations of laws and rules; contributes to the development of students' speech, awakening the desire to express the material being studied in their own words. It helps to highlight the main features of the language of physics by comparing descriptions of the same phenomenon by scientists and poets or writers.
3.5. A variety of methods of conducting a lesson - as a means of developing the cognitive activity of students
In this regard, a special place belongs to such an effective pedagogical tool as entertainment. Two components of entertainment should be distinguished: internal, i.e. the possibilities of the content of the subject itself, and external - the methodological techniques of the teacher (elements of competition in the lesson, didactic games, a variety of forms and methods of the lesson). The use of entertainment gives a reliable effect in the lesson.
The technological scheme of the modern lesson has a huge variability. The system of lessons (according to the classification of A.A. Okunev): Lessons where students learn to recall material; Lesson in finding rational solutions; A lesson on checking results by comparing them with data; One task lesson; Self-study lesson requiring creativity; Lesson of independent work on material that was not explained; benefit lesson; Lesson - oral test; Lesson - offset.
In order to include students in the work and direct them to search for answers to questions, it is necessary to introduce fragments into traditional lessons devoted to the creative cognitive activity of students, i.e. perhaps a more complete "inclusion" of children in the performance of various developing creative tasks, or conducting whole, complete creative lessons, specially designed, in which students themselves gain knowledge, learn to realize it, comprehend, work out.
There are many methods of motivating students for the cognitive process, I use the following methods of motivation in practice at various stages of the lesson. Multimedia technologies at any stage of the lesson in the form of visual aids and tests, an exciting start to classes (an attractive goal in the area of immediate interest of students), solving practical problems, the usefulness of solving which is obvious to students. Working with the textbook various forms: make plans for an oral response in a paragraph, fill in tables, draw up diagrams, describe graphs, convert information into a graphic or symbolic one, underline the main idea with a pencil, draw up a table according to the text, highlight main idea Topics. Compilation of crossword puzzles, tests on the material being studied, describe in words - a film, experiments. Solving quantitative problems according to the algorithm and solving multi-level problems at will. Prepare abstracts, presentations, reports, use of Internet materials on the topic. Drafting reference notes.
Laboratory works, setting up experiments, demonstration experiment.
blitz survey, discussions, exchange of opinions in groups, participation in conversations and discussions.
We evaluate not only by numbers. The language is rich - let's be generous! You are very careful today! This is aerobatics, how you solve problems! Very accurate answer, nice to hear from you! Good question! Great! Fine! Well done! Great answer! Great job!
The role of the teacher is to be a compassionate friend, not an overseer, albeit a fair one. “You made me very upset with this work!”, “The work is worse than usual. You probably didn't feel well!"
3.6. The use of information technology in the classroom.
Modern society is a society that intensively forms a computer information environment. And this environment provides open access to information educational and communication resources and services and their use in the educational process. In the information environment, our children adapt much better than our generation, so for successful learning they need to use computer language, which will allow the teacher to instill interest in the process of cognition, make the learning process creative, active, devoid of tension and overload.
Therefore, it is necessary to create conditions for increasing the motivation of students in physics with the use of information technology. Introduce new pedagogical technologies: collaborative learning, project method, modular learning, elements of group work with students, multimedia programs.
The expediency of including multimedia programs in physics lessons: change of scenery, distraction from everyday life, intrigue, passion for game characters, children develop the ability not to get lost, identify the essence, quickly make decisions, a special attitude of students to learning activities, a clear formulation of the task, ways of working in the lesson . Educational and cognitive computer programs, which include: demonstration experiment, observation of experiments, simulation physical processes, studying devices, working with tests, solving problems, filling out tables, drawing up diagrams, preparing messages in the form of presentations, websites, videos, documentaries and educational films are one of the ways to include students in active activities.
I use the multimedia program (Teach Pro grades 7-11) as visual aids, I turn the screen into a blackboard, and use it to analyze problem solving. The educational computer program ("Enlightenment" Physics grades 7-9) is no less exciting than a computer game. I use programs to study the life and work of wonderful people.
David McAuley's educational computer program ("From Plow to Lizer", Grade 7) - I use it on the circle "This Wonderful World of Physics", as well as the educational game program of the Media House company "Physicus" The outcome of the lesson should be enlightening for students. Summing up the result at each lesson: “So, today in the lesson we learned ...”.
3.7. Development of cognitive interests of students in extracurricular time
One of the most important tasks of extracurricular work in physics is the development of cognitive interest. Without students' interest in learning, a methodically correctly constructed lesson presenting the material at the highest scientific level, with the involvement of the necessary examples from practical life will not give the desired result. As V.A. Sukhomlinsky wrote: “All our plans, all searches and constructions turn into dust if the student has no desire to learn.”
Features of extracurricular work in physics, which increase its effectiveness, are the possibility of greater individualization of work with students than in the classroom, providing each student with the opportunity to choose classes according to his interests, work at a pace corresponding to his desires and capabilities. Great importance It also has the fact that this activity is not regulated by the conditions for the obligatory achievement of any given results and, with the right approach of the leader, it is necessarily successful for the student.
The development of cognitive interest in physics and its practical applications in extracurricular work is ensured by the wide involvement of elements of entertaining science and technology, acquaintance with the latest achievements of science and modern production. The teacher is faced with the task of attracting every student who shows interest in physics to extracurricular work, the teacher must notice and find a form of satisfaction and development of interest that corresponds to his individual characteristics. Extracurricular activities are aimed at developing the cognitive motives of students: a visit to the “This Wonderful World” circle made it possible for students to present their projects to the Lomonov Readings competition, where they won prizes, the guys make projects that they perform at school at the day of defense of projects. Some guys take additional courses in physics and solve complex problems in additional classes in physics. With pleasure they participate in physics and mathematics KVN, during the physics and mathematics week at school, attend lectures and demonstrations on physics at the Polytechnic Museum.
3.8 Levels and types of homework.
Specificity homework is to ensure that, with maximum benefit, it is qualitatively fixed new material so that this technique increases the consciousness of performing d / z. The group of techniques for organizing kindergarten, developed by A. Gin "Techniques of Pedagogical Techniques" helped me in this, because. Working on the methodological materials of L.A. Kirik, it was not clear to me how it is possible to fit the solution of tasks of different levels (four levels of 6 tasks each, 24 tasks in total) in 15 minutes, allotted by SANPins for its implementation? Exit found.
Four levels of d \ z on any topic (Rectilinear non-uniform movement. average speed.) IN independent work No. 7 “Rectilinear non-uniform movement.) author L.A. Kirik for students in grade 7, 4 levels of d / z are offered. The initial level is a mandatory minimum (informational), where the student is able to solve problems and exercises only 1-2 logical steps of a reproductive nature are understood in the lesson with the help of a teacher. But the average (operational), sufficient (analytical-synthetic) and high (creative) are proposed to be completed at home, for example, 2 tasks of any level. In this case, the student himself chooses what tasks and what level he will do.
At the next lesson, written control is carried out, which allows you to adequately test knowledge than oral. At the first stage, the guys solve the very two problems that they solved at home, only at their desks. clean sheets and pen, task conditions. The work is carried out at a high pace - it is impossible to write off here, because. the guys solved different problems at home, and there is no time for cheating. This method is mainly used in those classes where the execution of d\z is considered optional. In some classes, such work is carried out at the beginning of almost every problem-solving lesson.
The second stage - when students get used to doing d / s for each lesson, I suggest doing other tasks that were not in the d / s, but of the same level. Students who were absent from the previous lesson and are not ready for the lesson complete the initial level with the help of the textbook.
Of course, checking all the work is a very big burden on the teacher! Therefore, I do not check all the works, but selectively, only a part of them - those that I deem necessary or selected randomly(5-6 works, more is possible), but first I stipulate this in advance. Whose work will be checked - none of the writers knows, it is important to ensure that all students hand in their work.
Psychological effect: an independent choice of a task provides an additional opportunity for self-realization and the subject becomes more interesting to them and the student, as it were, monitors the level of his competence, the educational horizon becomes much wider, that is, he knows much more tasks than he is given, and also learns to evaluate at a glance task complexity. Before the lesson, students have questions for the teacher on a particular task that he did not cope with at home, but would like to!
Conclusion
It is impossible and, probably, not necessary to form deep cognitive interests in physics in all students. It is important that all students are interested in doing physics in every lesson. For many students, the first, situational interest in the subject will develop into a deep and persistent interest in the science of physics.
The principle of purposefulness and motivation of learning is that
educational process as a complex interrelated activity
teachers and students must be subordinated to predetermined goals and
motives that reflect the personal aspirations of students.
Before the educational process there are common goals defined
society and curricula, and the specific goals that
determines the teacher for each segment of the educational process,
focusing on the profile of the educational institution. It is important that
the teacher could correctly determine the specific goals of each type of lesson -
teaching, educational, developing - and directed all his work to
their achievement. This purposefulness is manifested in the choice of form
training, the structure of the lesson, the content of the methods, teaching aids. Otherwise
speaking, the entire educational process should be aimed at
so that in the shortest way and with the least expenditure of time and effort
teachers and students (i.e. optimally) achieve their goals.
Bibliography.
I.Ya. Lanina "Formation of cognitive interests of students in physics lessons." M. Enlightenment, 1985
O.F.Kabardin "Extracurricular work in physics." M. Enlightenment, 1983
G.K. Selevko "Modern educational technologies" M. public education, 1998
L.A. Ivanova "Activation of cognitive activity of students in the study of physics" M. Education, 1983
I.Ya. Lanina "Not a single lesson: The development of interest in physics." M. Enlightenment, 1991
I.Ya. Lanina "100 games in physics". M. Enlightenment, 1995
E.M. Braverman "Teaching physics that develops the student", M. Association of Physics Teachers, 2003
Markova A.K. Formation of learning motivation at school age. M., 1983.-p. 69-87.
Karpova G.A. Pedagogical diagnostics of educational motivation. - Ekaterinburg: Ural.state.ped. in-t, 1996
Green A.A. Methods of pedagogical technique: freedom of choice. openness. activity. Feedback. ideality: teacher's guide, - 5th ed. – M.: Vita-press, 2003. -88 p.
Kirik L.A. Physics. 7th grade. Multi-level independent and test papers. – M.: Ileksa, 2014. -192p.
Application
Study plan
PHYSICAL LAW - Hooke's Law
c based on observations and experiments2. the relationship between what phenomena (or quantities) expresses the law;
Establishes a relationship between the modulus of elasticity and the elongation of the spring and the stiffness of the body.
3.formulation of the law;
The modulus of elasticity in tension (or compression) of the body is directly proportional to the change in the length of the body.
4. mathematical expression of the law;
page 60 of the textbook
elongation - designation (delta), also called deformation (m)
body stiffness-k (N / m) - tabular value, cat. depends on
body shape, size and material.
5.experiments confirming the justice of the law;
rice. 66 page 60 of the textbook
We hang one weight from the spring and measure the elongation of the spring, then two weights and again measure the elongation, then three ... ..
The elongation of the spring is proportional to the force of elasticity.
6. explanation of the law based on modern scientific theories;
The law is formulated on the basis of experimental data.
7. examples of the use of the law in practice;
As follows from Hooke's law, the lengthening of a spring can be used to judge the force acting on it. This fact is used to measure forces using a dynamometer - a spring with a linear scale calibrated on different meanings forces. You can calculate the maximum force that a spring can withstand without breaking. This helps to prevent accidents, for example when working on factory machines. And at the same time allows you to get maximum benefit from the same springs.
8.limits of application of the law;
This ratio will be fulfilled, however, not for all deformations, but for small ones. At large deformations, Hooke's law ceases to operate, the body is destroyed (at small deformations).
Study plan
INSTRUMENTS - Dynamometer
2.appearance and features device;
mechanical (lever and spring) simple demonstration dynamometer, steelyard, medical dynamometer, manual dynamometer (silometer), mercury dynamometers, hydraulic dynamometers, electric dynamometers.
3. the principle of operation of the device;
is based on comparing any force with the elastic force of a spring. The elastic force of the spring increases as many times as its elongation increases.
4. diagram of the device device (its main parts, their purpose);
simple dynamometer drawing
steel spring with two hooks mounted on a plank. At the lower end of the spring there is a pointer. A strip of white paper is pasted on the board. Mark the position of the pointer with an unstretched spring -0 (zero mark). Then we hang a weight of 102g from the hook and mark - 1H, then 204g - the spring will stretch and mark 2H, etc. We divide the distance between 1H and 2H into 10 equal parts, so we can measure tenths of a newton. A graduated spring will be the simplest dynamometer
5. rules for using the device;
Look at the limit of the permissible value of the measured value
6. scope of the device.
Mechanical dynamometers for determining the tensile and compressive forces acting on any structures in production shops and on construction sites, in laboratories of construction and industrial enterprises, in research institutes, in educational institutions, in everyday life -bezmen.
The device is used to measure the compression force of the leaves of automatically closing systems - doors, , wagons , metro, as well as the doors of passenger and cargo , Garage Doors, car windows, sliding sunroofs and so on. All of these systems can, in the event of a malfunctioncause injury.
The disadvantage of mechanical dynamometers is a relatively large error in the readings, which can be corrected by the use of more modern electronic dynamometers.
Electric dynamometers consist of a sensor that converts the strain into an electrical signal.
Traction dynamometers are used to measure large forces (up to several tens of thousands of newtons) - traction forces of tractors, tractors, locomotives, sea and river tugs
"You can't hold an eel in your hands."
“If you don’t grease, you won’t go.”
“Dry spoon rips the mouth”
“It went like clockwork”
Study plan
PHYSICAL PHENOMENA - Friction
Signs:
Change in the speed of a body while moving on the surface of another body.
2.Heavy objects are difficult to move.
2. conditions under which the phenomenon is observed and proceeds;
When moving bodies in contact with each other.
3. the essence of the phenomenon (its explanation on the basis of known scientific theories);
1. All surfaces are rough, there are irregularities on them, which, when you try to move them relative to each other, engage, as a result, forces arise that are similar to elastic forces - friction forces.
2. If the surfaces are polished, when they come into contact, forces of intermolecular attraction arise - the surfaces stick.
4.kinds of friction
static friction - occurs between bodies in contact when the force applied to displace them relative to each other is not enough to cause movement.
Sliding friction - occurs when one body slides over the surface of another.
Rolling friction - occurs between surfaces when one body rolls over the surface of another.
Rollers can be used to transport heavy blocks (logs, tree trunks).
5. examples of the use of the phenomenon in practice;
In winter, special tires are put on to increase the grip of the wheels with the soil.
In watches, to increase friction, the wheels are made geared.
Roads are laid out with solid non-slip materials (asphalt, gravel)
Without rest friction, neither people nor animals could walk on the ground, since when walking we push off with our feet from the ground. If there were no friction, objects would slip out of the hands. Many plants and animals have various organs that serve for grasping (the antennae of plants, the elephant's trunk, the tenacious tails of climbing animals). All of them have a rough surface to increase the friction force.
In machines, they tend to replace sliding friction with rolling friction, using so-called ball or roller bearings.
Blocks are used to lift heavy objects to a height.
Force used in mechanical watches
To reduce the friction of the rotating shafts of machines and machine tools, bearings are used. Bearings are ball and roller. The simplest bearing consists of an outer ring and an inner ring. The inner ring is made of hard steel, mounted on the shaft. The outer ring is fixed in the machine body. When the shaft rotates, the inner ring rolls on balls or rollers located between the rings.
6. Examples of the harmful effect of the phenomenon on technical installations created by man and on the environment and ways to prevent it.
In all machines, friction heats up and wears out moving parts. To reduce friction, the contacting surfaces are made smooth, a lubricant is introduced between them.
Study plan
PHYSICAL QUANTITY - elastic force
2.determination of the value;
The force that arises in the body as a result of its deformation and tends to return the body to its original position is called the elastic force.
3. formula (for derived quantities) expressing the relationship of a given quantity with others;
pp.59-60 of the textbook: notation and formula
4. classifying attribute (scalar or vector quantity, dimensional or dimensionless, constant);
The vector quantity is always directed in such a way that it tends to reduce the amount of deformation.
5. units of magnitude;
Newton (N)
6.methods of measurement;
dynamometer.
EXPERIENCE PLAN:
1. purpose (main idea) of setting up the experience;
2. when and by whom the experiment was first set;
3.scheme of experience;
4.equipment used in the experiments;
5. reproduction of experience in laboratory conditions;
6. conclusions from experience.
Question #14 . Psychological theory of activity. Activities.
activity theory - a system of methodological and theoretical principles for the study of mental phenomena. The main subject of research is activity that mediates all mental processes. The psychological theory of activity was created in Soviet psychology and has been developing for more than 50 years. It was developed by Vygotsky, Rubinstein, Leontiev, Luria, Zaporozhets, Galperin and many others. The authors of the theory of activity adopted the philosophy of dialectical materialism - the theory of K. Marx, and above all its main thesis for psychology that it is not consciousness that determines being, activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determine his consciousness.
The use of the theory of activity to explain the characteristics of the human psyche is based on the concept of higher mental functions developed by L.S. Vygotsky.
Higher mental functions - complex mental processes, social in their formation, which are mediated and, due to this, arbitrary. According to Vygotsky, mental phenomena can be “natural”, determined mainly by a genetic factor, and “cultural”, built on top of the first, actually higher mental functions, which are completely formed under the influence of social influences. The main sign of higher mental functions is their mediation by certain “psychological tools”, signs that have arisen as a result of the long socio-historical development of mankind, which include, first of all, speech.
Sign - the basis of symbolic modeling of the phenomena of the objective world, which consists in substituting one object or phenomenon for another, which serves the purpose of facilitating the modeling of certain relations of the original object. It is developed in joint activities, therefore it has a conventional character. It exists in an abstract form, independent of the material carrier. Signs can be natural language structures, diagrams, maps, formulas and drawings, symbolic images.
Sign mediation - the main theoretical construct of the cultural-historical theory of L.S. Vygotsky, as a way of controlling behavior, carried out by the individual himself. In the theory of L.S. Vygotsky everything mental development is considered as a change in the structure of the mental process due to the inclusion of a sign in it, which leads to the transformation of natural, direct processes into cultural, mediated ones. Initially, in ontogenetic development, the sign as a psychological tool acts as an intermediary in the relationship between the child and the adult. In this process, the sign acquires a certain meaning, corresponding to the social standards of the organization of activities.
The psychophysiological correlate of the formation of higher mental functions are complex functional systems that have a vertical (cortical-subcortical) and horizontal (cortical-cortical) organization. But each higher mental function is not rigidly tied to any one brain center, but is the result of the systemic activity of the brain, in which various brain structures make a more or less specific contribution to the construction of this function.
Initially, the highest mental function is realized as a form of interaction between people, between an adult and a child, as an interpsychic process, and only then - as an internal, intrapsychic one. At the same time, external means mediating this interaction pass into internal ones, i.e. they are internalized. If at the first stages of the formation of a higher mental function it is an expanded form of objective activity, based on relatively simple sensory and motor processes, then in the future actions are curtailed, becoming automated mental actions.
Activity - a form of active interaction, during which an animal or a person expediently influences the objects of the surrounding world and thereby satisfies its needs. Already relatively early stages phylogenesis, a psychic reality arises, represented in orienting-research activity, designed to serve such an interaction. Its task is to examine the surrounding world and form an image of the situation in order to regulate the animal's motor behavior in accordance with the conditions of the task facing it.
Among the components of the activity are:
Motives that induce the subject to activity;
Goals as the predicted results of this activity, achieved through actions;
Operations, with the help of the activity is implemented depending on the conditions of this implementation.
Actions - the process of interaction with any object, which is characterized by the fact that it achieves a predetermined goal. The following components of the action can be distinguished:
Decision-making;
Implementation;
control and correction.
There are the following types of actions:
1. external, which are performed using an external motor apparatus. These actions are objective and aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world;
2. internal (mental), which are performed in the mind, on the internal plane, on the plane of consciousness. Mental activities include:
a) perceptual (those that form a holistic image of the perception of objects and phenomena);
b) mnemonic (those that provide fixation, storage and reproduction of information);
c) mental (those that provide problem solving);
Activity and actions do not coincide with each other in reality, which is expressed by Leontiev in the formula: “activity is not of an additive nature”, i.e. activity is not a simple sum of individual actions, i.e. the same action can refer to different activities, it can pass from one activity to another. The same activity is different actions. One motive gives rise to many different actions.
Operation (lat. operatio - action) - the executive unit of human activity, correlated with the task and with the subject conditions for its implementation. The operations by which a person achieves his goals are the result of mastering socially developed methods of action. First of all, congenital or early formed perceptual, mnemonic and intellectual acts were considered as operations.
This or that activity can begin to play a decisive role in the psychological neoplasms that arise in the course of a person's ontogenetic development. This activity has been labeled “leading activity”.
Leading activity - activity, during the implementation of which the emergence and formation of the main psychological neoplasms of a person occurs at one stage or another of his development and the foundations are laid for the transition to a new leading activity.
Types of leading activities:
Direct communication of the infant with adults;
Object-manipulative activity in early childhood;
Role-playing game of preschool age;
Educational activities of schoolchildren;
Vocational and educational activities of youth.
Children's activities- a form of activity, which is an active interaction of the child with the outside world, during which the development of his psyche in ontogenesis takes place. During the implementation of the activity, by adjusting it to different, including socially modeled conditions, it is enriched and fundamentally new components of its structure emerge.
The most independent early activity is subject activity . It begins with the mastery of actions with objects, such as grasping, manipulation, actually objective actions, involving the use of objects for their functional purpose and in a way that is assigned to them in human experience. Particularly intensive development of objective actions occurs in the second year of life, which is associated with the mastery of walking. Somewhat later, on the basis of objective activity, the formation of other types of activity, in particular gaming, takes place.
Within the framework of the role-playing game, which is the leading activity in preschool age, elements of adult activity and interpersonal relationships are mastered.
Learning activities- the leading activity of primary school age, within the framework of which there is a controlled appropriation of the foundations of social experience, primarily in the form of intellectual basic operations and theoretical concepts. A detailed analysis of educational activity is given in the works of D.B. Elkonin (1904–1984) and V.V. Davydov (1930–1998).
Work- this is an activity aimed at the production of socially useful or consumed by society products - material or spiritual. At the same time, a person is also a producer of social relations. Labor is associated with the manufacture and use of tools. Collective activity involves the division of labor.
Activity human has a complex hierarchical structure . This is, firstly, the level of special activities, then the level of actions; the next level is the level of operations, and finally the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions.
1. Action is a process aimed at achieving a goal. The action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. Action is at the same time an act of behavior. Through the concept of action, the theory of activity affirms the principle of activity, opposing it to the principle of reactivity. Human actions are objective; they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals. An activity is a sequence of actions, each of which can be divided into actions of a lower order.
2. operation is the way in which an action is performed. Operations characterize the technical side of performing actions. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed. If the action corresponds to the goal itself, then the operation corresponds to the conditions in which this goal is given.
A goal given under certain conditions in activity theory is called a task.
3. The lowest level in the structure of activities - psychological functions. Physiological functions in the theory of activity are understood as the physiological provision of mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to sense, form and fix traces of past influences, motor ability, etc.
Question number 14. Psychological theory of activity. Activities.
The theory of activity was formulated by Leontiev. He characterized the macrostructure of activity or its operational and technical structure and described the need-motivational aspects of activity.
Activity:
- purposeful activity, focused on the transformation of the objective or inner world of a person.
Those specific processes that carry out this or that vital, i.e. active, attitude of the subject to reality.
This is a specifically human activity regulated by consciousness, generated by motives and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.
Any activity of an organism is directed to one or another object (something to which a living being belongs), non-objective activity is impossible. The various activities that carry out the diverse vital relations of the organism to the surrounding reality are essentially determined by their object, therefore Leont'ev distinguishes between individual types of activity according to the difference in their objects. Leontiev also says that activities differ from one another on the basis of motive.
Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several layers or levels. Let's call these levels, moving from top to bottom:
1. the level of special activities (or special types of activities);
2.level of action;
3.level of operations;
4.level of psychophysiological functions.
Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at achieving a goal. The goal is an image of the desired result, i.e. the result to be achieved in the course of the action. It should be noted right away that here we mean the conscious image of the result: the latter is held in consciousness all the time while the action is being carried out. The goal is always conscious.
Describing the concept of "action", the following 4 points can be distinguished:
1. Action includes as a necessary act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. But the given act of consciousness is not closed in itself, as the psychology of consciousness actually asserted, but is "revealed" in action.
2. Action is at the same time an act of behavior, therefore, the theory of activity also preserves the achievements of behaviorism, making the object of study the external activity of animals and humans. However, unlike behaviorism, it considers external movements in an inseparable unity with consciousness. After all, movement without a goal is rather a failed behavior than its true essence (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).
So, the first two points on which the theory of activity differs from previous concepts are the recognition of the inseparable unity of consciousness and behavior.
3. Through the concept of action, the theory of activity affirms the principle of activity, opposing it to the principle of reactivity. The principle of activity and the principle of reactivity differ in where, according to each of them, the starting point of the analysis of activity should be placed: in the external environment or inside the organism. Activity is an active purposeful process (principle of activity).
4. The concept of action brings human activity into the objective and social world. Human actions are objective, they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals (the principle of objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).
An activity is a sequence of actions that can be subdivided into lower order actions.
There are the following types of actions:
1. External, which are performed using an external motor apparatus. These actions are objective and aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world.
2. Internal (mental), which are performed in the mind, on the inner plane, on the plane of consciousness. Mental activities include:
a) perceptual (those that form a holistic image of the perception of objects and phenomena);
b) mnemonic (those that provide fixation, storage and reproduction of information);
c) thinking (those that provide problem solving);
d) imaginative (those that provide the processes of imagination in the processes of creativity).
Classification of activities: object-manipulative, play, educational, communication, labor.
Activity and actions do not coincide with each other in reality, which is expressed by Leontiev in the formula: "activity is not additive in nature", i.e. activity is not a simple sum of individual actions, i.e. the same action can refer to different activities, it can pass from one activity to another. The same activity consists of different actions. One motive gives rise to many different actions.
Let's move on to how, in what way the action is performed. Accordingly, we turn to the operations that form the next, lower level.
Operation - way to perform an action. This is the level of automatic actions and skills. They are either not realized or little realized (as opposed to actions).
What determines the nature of the operations used? From the conditions in which the action is performed. If the action corresponds to the goal itself, then the operation corresponds to the conditions in which this goal is given. In this case, the conditions are understood as external circumstances, and the possibilities, or internal means, of the acting subject himself.
Let's move on to the psychological characteristics of operations. Their main property is that they are little or not realized at all. Essentially, the Operations level is filled with automatic actions and skills.
Operations are of two kinds: some arise by adaptation, adjustment, direct imitation, others arise from actions by automating them. Moreover, operations of the first kind are practically not realized and cannot be called into consciousness even with special efforts. Operations of the second kind are on the border of consciousness. They are, as it were, guarded by consciousness and can easily become actually conscious.
Any complex action consists of a layer of actions and a layer of operations "underlying" them. The boundary separating the layer of actions from the layer of operations is mobile, and the upward movement of this boundary means the transformation of some actions (mostly the most elementary ones) into operations. In such cases, there is an consolidation of units of activity. The downward movement of the boundary means, on the contrary, the transformation of operations into actions, or, what is the same, the fragmentation of activity into smaller units.
But how do you know where in each case there is a boundary separating action from operations? Despite the importance of this question, psychology has not found an answer to it, it is one of the current problems of experimental research.
Let's move on to the last one low level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions.
Under psychophysiological functions in the theory of activity, the physiological provision of mental processes is understood. These include a number of abilities of our organism, such as the ability to feel, to form and fix traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. respectively, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, motor functions. This level also includes congenital mechanisms fixed in the NS morphology, and those that mature during the first months of life.
It is clear that the boundary between automatic operations and psychophysiological functions is rather conventional. However, despite this, the psycho-physiological functions stand out as an independent level due to their organismic nature. They come to the subject by nature, he does not have to do anything to have them, he finds them in himself ready for use.
Psychophysiological functions are both necessary preconditions and means of activity. They constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity. Without reliance on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions, but also to set the tasks themselves.
Let us now consider the level of direct activity. Let’s start by asking the question: where do goals come from? To answer this question, we need to turn to the concepts of "needs" and "motives".
Need- This is the original form of activity of living organisms. In a living organism, states of tension periodically arise; they are associated with an objective lack of substances that are necessary for the continuation of the normal functioning of the body.
The state of an objective need for an organism in something that lies outside it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning is called needs.
In humans, in addition to elementary biological needs, there are at least two more needs. This is, firstly, the need for contacts with their own kind, and primarily with adult individuals. The second need, with which a person is born and which is not related to organic, is the need for external impressions, or, in a broad sense, the cognitive need. Experiments show that already at the age of 2 months the child seeks and actively obtains information from the outside world.
There are two important points to note about both of these needs. First, the need for contacts and the cognitive need are at first closely intertwined with each other. After all, a close adult not only satisfies the child's need for contacts; he is the first and main source of the various impressions that the child receives. Secondly, both discussed needs constitute the necessary conditions for the formation of a person at all stages of his development. It is necessary to him as well as organic needs. But if these latter only ensure its existence as a biological being, then contact with people about the knowledge of the world turns out to be necessary for its formation as a human being.
Let us now turn to the connection between needs and activity. Here it is immediately necessary to single out two stages in the life of each need. The first stage is the period before the first meeting with the object that satisfies the need, the second stage is after this meeting.
At the first stage, the need, as a rule, is not presented to the subject, not deciphered for him. He may experience a state of some kind of tension, dissatisfaction, but not know what caused this state. On the part of behavior, the need state during this period is expressed in a state of anxiety, search, sorting through various objects.
During search activity usually there is a meeting of the need with its object, which ends the first stage of the "life" of the need.
The process of recognizing the need of its object is called the objectification of the need.
In the process of objectification, two important features of need are revealed. The first lies in the initially very wide range of items that can satisfy the need. The second feature is quick fix needs on the first subject that satisfies it.
So, at the moment the need meets the object, the objectification of the need takes place. This is a very important event. It is important because in the act of objectification a motive is born. The motive is defined as the subject of need.
If we look at the same event from the side of need, we can say that through objectification, the need receives its concretization. In this regard, the motive is defined in another way - as an objectified need.
The object and methods of satisfying a need form this need itself: a different object and even a different method of satisfaction mean a different need.
Following the objectification of the need and the appearance of a motive, the type of behavior changes dramatically, if up to this point the behavior was non-directional, search, now it acquires a "vector", or direction. It is directed towards the object or away from it - if the motive is negatively valent.
A lot of actions that gather around one object is a typical sign of a motive. So according to another definition, a motive is something for which an action is performed. “For the sake of” something, a person, as a rule, performs many different actions. And this set of actions that are connected by one motive is called activity, and more specifically, special activity or a special type of activity.
One activity, the actions of each specific subject can be prompted by several motives at once. Polymotivation of human actions is a typical phenomenon.
In terms of their role or function, not all motives "converging" on one activity are equivalent. As a rule, one of them is the main one, the others are secondary. The main motive is called the leading motive, the secondary motives are called stimulus motives: they not only start, but additionally stimulate this activity.
Let us turn to the problem of the relationship between motives and consciousness. Motives are not always recognized, therefore, two classes of motives are distinguished: those that are recognized and those that are not recognized.
Examples of motives of the first class are the great life goals that direct the activities of a person during long periods of his life. These are motives. The existence of such motives is characteristic of mature individuals.
Unconscious motives appear in consciousness in a different form. There are at least two such forms. These are emotions and personal meanings.
Emotions arise only about such events or results of actions that are associated with motives. If a person is worried about something, then this something affects his motives.
In the theory of activity, emotions are defined as a reflection of the relationship between the result of an activity and its motive.
personal meaning- this experience of increased subjective significance of an object, action or event that finds itself in the field of action of the leading motive. It is important to note that only leading motives induce meanings.
Let us now consider the question of the connection between motives and personality. It is known that human motives form a hierarchical system. Usually the hierarchical relationships of motives are not fully realized. They become clearer in a situation of conflict of motives.
New motives are formed in the course of activity. In the theory of activity, a mechanism for the formation of new motives is described, which is called the mechanism for shifting a motive to a goal.
The essence of this mechanism lies in the fact that the goal, previously prompted to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, i.e. becomes its own motive. It is important to emphasize that the transformation of a goal into a motive can only occur if positive emotions accumulate.
So far we have been talking about external activities. But there is also inner activity, let us consider it.
Function of internal actions- preparation of external actions. Internal actions save human efforts, making it possible to quickly select the desired action. Finally, they give a person the opportunity to avoid gross and sometimes fatal mistakes.
With regard to these forms of activity, activity theory puts forward two theses.
First, such an activity is an activity that has the same structure as external activity, and which differs from it only in the form of flow.
created in Soviet psychology. Significant contributions to it were made by L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, Leontiev, A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, P. Ya. Galperin, and many others. Its basis is ideas about the structure of activity (-> activity: structure), although they do not exhaust the theory completely.
One of the essential differences between the theory of activity and previous concepts is the recognition of the inseparable unity of consciousness and behavior. This unity is already contained in the main unit of analysis - action.
The main starting points, the principles of the theory of activity are as follows:
1) consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself, it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness);
2) behavior cannot be considered in isolation from consciousness: when considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and communication);
3) activity - an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity);
4) actions are objective, they realize social goals (the principle of objectivity of activity and the principle of social conditionality of activity).
The development of the theory of activity began with an analysis of external activity, but then turned to internal activity. With regard to these very important forms of activity, two main theses are put forward. ; 1. Internal activity has in principle the same structure as external activity, and differs only in the form of flow. This means that internal activity is also motivated by motives, accompanied by emotions (often even more acute), and has its own operational composition. The only difference is that actions are carried out not with real objects, but with their images, and the product is the image-result.
2. Internal activity originated from external activity through its internalization. So in order to successfully reproduce some action in the mind, it is necessary to master it realistically and get a real result. At the same time, during internalization, external activity, without changing its fundamental structure, is greatly transformed; this applies especially to its operational part: individual actions or operations are reduced, some of them drop out altogether, and the whole process goes much faster.
Through the concept of activity, the internal theory of activity has come very close to describing the stream of consciousness by its own means - however, this concept does not cover the entire content of the stream of consciousness. For a complete coverage, it is necessary to take another step after the theory of activity - in the direction of such traditional objects of psychology as individual mental processes or functions - perception, attention, memory, etc. The development of psychology within the framework of the activity approach made it possible to describe these concepts within the framework of the theory of activity and by her means.
Thus, in order to describe perception, it is necessary to introduce the concept of a perceptual action, and first it should be clarified whether there are perceptual goals. They undoubtedly exist and appear, for example, in the task of distinguishing two similar stimuli - tastes, smells, sound tones, etc. To solve all such problems, perceptual actions are performed, which can be characterized as actions of discrimination, detection, measurement, identification, etc. Ideas about the structure of activity are also applicable to the analysis of all other mental processes. The theory allows you to take a fresh look at these classical objects of psychology - they are comprehended as special forms of activity.
activity theory
Word formation. Comes from the Greek. theory - research.
Specificity. It is based on criticism of behaviorism for refusing to recognize a person's responsibility for their behavior and the ability to choose between different forms of response. In contrast, it is postulated that human behavior is arbitrary, goal-oriented and conscious. It is believed that a person is an active being who behaves purposefully and intentionally, who chooses from alternatives, chooses his own goals and can decide on something, the actions taking place on this basis are thorough and rational. Due to the fact that the basis of this approach is operationalism, the criticism lies in the denial of the possibility of operationally describing the existential and transcendental components of human behavior, as well as the components of the unconscious.
ACTIVITY THEORY
(A.N.Leontiev)
Etc., considering personal. in the context of the generation, functioning and structure of mental reflection in the processes of activity, developed in the second half of the 20th century. in the works of Leontiev.
The subject of consideration in T. d. is the integral activity of the subject as an organic system in all its forms and types. The initial method of studying the psyche is the analysis of the transformations of mental reflection in the activity studied in its phylogenetic, historical, ontogenetic. and functional aspects.
Genetically original yavl. external, objective, sensory-practical. activity from which all types of internal are derived. mental activity of the individual, consciousness. Both of these forms have a social history. origin and fundamentally general structure. The constitutive characteristic of activity yavl. objectivity. Initially, activity is determined by the object, and then it is mediated and regulated by its image as its subjective product.
Needs are considered to be mutually convertible units of activity.<=>motive<=>target<=>conditions and related activities<=>actions<=>operations. By action is meant a process, the subject and motive of which do not coincide with each other. The motive and object must be reflected in the subject's psyche: otherwise the action loses its meaning for him.
Action in T. d. is internally connected with personal meaning. Psych. merging into a single action private actions is the transformation of the latter into operations, and the content, which previously occupied the place of the conscious goals of private actions, takes the structure in the structure of the action. place of conditions for its implementation. Another kind of operation is born out of a simple fixture action to the conditions of its implementation. Operations are the quality of an action that forms actions. The genesis of the operation consists in the correlation of actions, their inclusion one into another.
The concept of “goal motive” is introduced in T., i.e., a conscious motive that acts as a “general goal” and a “goal zone”, the selection of which depends on the motive or a specific goal, and the process of goal formation is always associated with testing goals by action.
Together with the birth of this action, ch. "units" of human activity, and the main one, societies, by its nature, "unit" human. psyche - meaning for people. to which his activity is directed. The genesis, development and functioning of consciousness are derived from one or another level of development of the forms and functions of activity. Along with the change in the structure of human activity. changes internally. structure of his mind.
The emergence of a system of subordinate actions, i.e., a complex action, denotes the transition from a conscious goal to a conscious condition of action, the emergence of levels of awareness. The division of labor, production specialization give rise to a "shift of the motive to the goal" and the transformation of action into activity. There is a birth of new motives and needs, which entails a qualitative differentiation of awareness. The next step is to move on to internal mental processes, appear vnutr. actions, and subsequently - formed according to the general law of the shift of motives ext. activity and internal operations. Activity that is ideal in its form is not fundamentally separated from external, practical activity, and both of them are meaningful and meaning-forming processes. Ch. the processes of activity are the internalization of its form, leading to the subject, the image of reality, and the exteriorization of its internal. forms as an objectification of an image, as its transition into an objectively ideal property of an object.
The meaning of yavl. center, a concept by which the situational development of motivation is explained and psychol is given. interpretation of the processes of meaning formation and regulation of activity.
Personality in Etc. is internal. moment of activity, some unique unity, which plays the role of the highest integrating authority that controls mental processes, a holistic psychol. neoplasm that is formed in life. relations of the individual as a result of the transformation of his activity. Personal first appears in society. A person enters history as an individual, endowed with natural properties and abilities, and personal. he becomes only as a subject of societies, relations.
The concept of "personality" denotes a relatively late product of social history. and ontogenetic. development of people Societies, relations are realized by a set of diverse activities. Hierarchical relations of activities, behind which are the ratio of motives, and characterize the personal. The latter is born twice: the first time - when the child manifests in obvious forms polymotivation and subordination of his actions, the second time - when his conscious personality arises.
The formation of a personal is the formation of personality. meanings. Psychology personal. crowned by the problem of self-consciousness, since the main thing is awareness of oneself in the system of societies and relations. Personality is what a person creates from itself, asserting its human. life. In T. etc., it is proposed to use the following grounds when creating a personal typology: the richness of the individual's connections with the world, the degree of hierarchization of motives, and their general structure.
At each age stage of development of the personality in T. d. any determinant is more presented. a type of activity that acquires a leading role in the formation of new mental processes and properties of a child's personality. The development of the problem of leading activity was the foundation, Leontiev's contribution to child and developmental psychology. This scientist not only characterized the change of leading activities in the process of child development, but also initiated the study of the mechanisms of this change, the transformation of one leading activity into another.
Based on T., activity-oriented theories of personal social psychology, child and developmental psychology, and pathopsychology are developed and continue to be developed. and etc.
Summary
General psychological characteristics of activity. The concept of activity. Incentives for activity. The purpose of the activity. Will and attention in activity. The specificity of human activity and its attributes. Types of human activity. Activity and human development.
Basic concepts of the psychological theory of activity. Operational and technical aspects. Development and development of the theory of activity in the works of Russian scientists. Activity structure. Action as the central component of activity. The main characteristics of the action. Basic principles of the psychological theory of activity. Conditions of activity. The concept of operations. Automatic actions and skills. Psychophysiological functions of activity.
Activity theory and item psychology. Need as the initial form of activity of living organisms. The main stages of the formation and development of needs. Activity motive. Leading motive and incentive motives. Unconscious motives: emotions and personal meaning. Mechanisms of formation of motives. The concept of internal activity.
Physiology of movements and physiology of activity. General concept of psychomotor. I. M. Sechenov on the physiology of movements. Reflex movement concept. Types of sensorimotor processes. Sensory-speech reactions and ideomotor processes. Movement organization mechanisms. N. A. Bernshtein and his theory of the physiology of movements. The principle of sensory corrections. Factors affecting the course of movement. Signals feedback. Reflex ring. Levels of construction of movements according to Bernstein. The process of motor skill formation and the principle of activity. The main periods and phases of building movements. Movement automation. The principle of activity and the principle of reactivity. Arbitrary acts.
5.1. General psychological characteristics of activity
One of the most important features of a person is that he is able to work, and any kind of labor is activity. Activity is a dynamic system of interaction of the subject with the world. In the process of this interaction, the emergence of a mental image and its embodiment in the object, as well as the realization by the subject of his relations with the surrounding reality, takes place. Any elementary act of activity is a form of manifestation of the activity of the subject, which means that any activity has incentives and is aimed at achieving certain results.
The driving forces behind human activity are motives - a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine the direction of activity. It is the motive, prompting to activity, that determines its direction, i.e., determines its goals And tasks.
The goal is a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is aimed at the action of a person. The goal can be any object, phenomenon or a certain action. A task is a given activity goal under certain conditions (for example, in a problem situation), which must be achieved by transforming these conditions according to a certain procedure. Any task always includes the following: requirements, or a goal to be achieved; conditions, i.e. a known component of the problem statement; what is sought is the unknown, which must be found in order to reach the goal. An objective can be a specific goal to be achieved. However, in complex activities, most often the tasks act as private goals, without achieving which it is impossible to achieve the main goal. For example, in order to master any specialty, a person must first study its theoretical aspects, i.e., solve certain educational problems, and then put this knowledge into practice and gain practical skills, i.e., solve a number of practical tasks.
The man of modern society is engaged in a variety of activities. It is hardly possible to classify all types of activity, since in order to represent and describe all types of human activity, it is necessary to list the most important needs for a given person, and the number of needs is very large, due to the individual characteristics of people.
However, it is possible to generalize and single out the main activities characteristic of all people. They will correspond to the general needs that can be found in almost all people without exception, or rather, to those types of social human activity in which each person inevitably joins in the process of his individual development. These types of activities are game, learning And work.
The game is a special kind of activity, the result of which is not the production of any material or ideal product. Most often, games are in the nature of entertainment, they pursue the goal of obtaining relaxation. There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and story, role-playing and games with rules. Individual games represent a type of activity when one person is engaged in the game, group - include multiple individuals. Object games associated with the inclusion of any objects in the game activity of a person. Story games unfold according to a certain scenario, reproducing it in the main details. Role-playing games allow the behavior of a person, limited to a certain role that he takes on in the game. Finally, games with rules regulated by a certain system of rules of behavior of their participants. There are also mixed types of games: object-role-playing, plot-role-playing, story-based games with rules, etc. The relationships that develop between people in the game, as a rule, are artificial in the sense of the word, that they are not taken seriously by others and are not the basis for conclusions about a person. Play behavior and play relationships have little effect on real relationships between people, at least among adults. Nevertheless, games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games are primarily educational. In adults, the game is not the leading activity, but serves as a means of communication and relaxation.
Rice. 5.1. Structural diagram of activity
Another activity is teaching. Teaching acts as a kind of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It may be unorganized and occur along the way, in other activities as their side, additional result. In adults, learning can acquire the character of self-education. Features of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.
occupies a special place in the system of human activity. work. Thanks to work, a person became what he is. Thanks to labor, man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is connected with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity.
Human activity is a very complex and diverse phenomenon (Fig. 5.1). In the implementation of activities, all components of the hierarchical structure of a person are involved: physiological, mental and social.
5.2. Basic concepts of the psychological theory of activity. Operational and technical aspects of activity
We begin to consider the theory, which was of great importance for the development of domestic psychology. It was created in Soviet period, has been a central psychological theory and has evolved over more than 50 years. The development and development of this theory is associated with the names of such well-known Russian psychologists as L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, P. Ya. Galperin et al. Why does this theory occupy such a significant position in Russian psychology? First, earlier we spoke about the decisive role of labor and activity in the origin of consciousness and the development of the human psyche. This point of view is still fundamental in the research methodology of domestic psychologists. Secondly, the psychological theory of activity, based on this point of view, reveals the role of activity in the manifestation of human mental phenomena, including consciousness. The fact is that we can mainly judge a person, his personality traits only by the results of his activities.
The psychological theory of activity began to develop in the late 1920s and early 1930s. 20th century The main difference of this theory is that it is based on the basic principles of dialectical materialism and uses the main thesis of this philosophical direction: it is not consciousness that determines being, human activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determines its consciousness. The most complete theory of activity is set forth in the works of A. N. Leontiev.
Names
Leontiev Alexey Nikolaevich(1903–1979) - well-known domestic psychologist. In the late 1920s, working with L. S. Vygotsky and using the ideas of the cultural-historical concept, he conducted a series of experiments aimed at studying higher mental functions (voluntary attention and memory processes). In the early 1930s stood at the head of the Kharkov activity school and began the theoretical and experimental development of the problem of activity. As a result, he put forward the concept of activity, which is currently one of the recognized theoretical trends in modern psychology.
In domestic psychology, on the basis of the scheme of activity proposed by Leontiev (activity - action - operation - psychophysiological functions), correlated with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive - goal - condition), almost all mental phenomena were studied, which stimulated the emergence and development of new psychological industries.
The logical development of this concept, Leontiev considered the possibility of creating an integral system of psychology as "the science of the generation, functioning and structure of mental reflection of reality in the process of activity."
The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality. Let us consider what meaning is put into these concepts, what is their structure.
Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several nonequilibrium levels. The top level is the level special types activities, then comes the level of actions, followed by the level of operations, and the lowest level is the level of psychophysiological functions.
Central to this hierarchical structure is action, which is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at the realization of a goal, which, in turn, can be defined as an image of the desired result. It is necessary to immediately pay attention to the fact that the goal in this case is a conscious image. Performing a certain activity, a person constantly keeps this image in his mind. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of human activity. Exceptions are cases when, for certain reasons or circumstances, the adequacy of the mental regulation of behavior is violated in a person, for example, in case of illness or in a state of passion.
The main characteristics of the concept of "action" are four components. First, the action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. Secondly, action is at the same time an act of behavior. At the same time, attention should be paid to the fact that action is a movement interconnected with consciousness. In turn, one of the fundamental conclusions of the activity theory can be drawn from the foregoing. This conclusion consists in the statement about the inseparability of consciousness and behavior.
Thirdly, the psychological theory of activity, through the concept of action, introduces activity principle, contrasting it with the principle of reactivity. What
the difference between the concepts of "activity" and "reactivity"? The concept of "reactivity" means a response or reaction to the impact of a stimulus. The formula "stimulus - response" is one of the main provisions of behaviorism. From this point of view, the stimulus affecting the person is active. From the point of view of the theory of activity, activity is a property of the subject itself, that is, it characterizes a person. The source of activity is in the subject itself in the form of a goal towards which the action is directed.
Fourthly, the concept of "action" brings human activity into the objective and social world. The fact is that the goal of an action can have not only a biological meaning, such as getting food, but can also be aimed at establishing social contact or creating an object that is not related to biological needs.
Based on the characteristics of the concept of "action" as the main element of the analysis of activity, the fundamental principles of the psychological theory of activity are formulated:
1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must manifest itself in activity (the principle of “blurring” the circle of consciousness).
2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).
3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).
4. Human actions are objective; their goals are social in nature (the principle of objective human activity and the principle of its social conditioning).
Action in itself cannot be considered as that element entry level from which the activity is formed. Action is complex element, which often itself consists of many smaller ones. This provision is explained by the fact that every action is conditioned by a goal. Human goals are not only diverse, but also of different scales. There are large goals that are divided into smaller sub-goals, and those, in turn, can be subdivided into even smaller sub-goals, etc. For example, you want to plant an apple tree. For this you need:
1) choose the right place for landing; 2) dig a hole; 3) take a seedling and sprinkle it with earth. Thus, your goal is broken down into three sub-goals. However, if you look at private goals, you will notice that they also consist of even smaller goals. For example, in order to dig a hole, you must take a shovel, push it into the ground, remove and discard the earth, etc. Therefore, your action aimed at planting an apple tree consists of smaller elements - private actions.
Now you need to pay attention to the fact that each action can be performed in different ways, that is, using different methods. The way in which an action is performed is called an operation. In turn, the way the action is performed depends on the conditions. Under different conditions, different operations can be used to achieve the same goal. At the same time, conditions mean both external circumstances and the possibilities of the acting subject himself. Therefore, the goal given in certain conditions, in the theory of activity
From the history of psychology
learning theory
The theory of activity is not the only theory that considers mental development through the prism of the performance of certain labor and behavioral acts. In American psychology, which is the successor of behaviorism, the theory of learning has become very popular and widespread.
From the point of view of American psychologists, learning is a relatively stable behavior that results from practice. Behavioral changes due to maturation (not practice) or temporary bodily conditions (such as fatigue or drug-induced conditions, etc.) are not included here. It is customary to distinguish four types of learning: a) habituation, b) classical conditioning, c) operant conditioning and d) complex learning.
addictive - simplest form learning, which boils down to learning to ignore a stimulus that has already become familiar and does not cause serious consequences; for example, learning to ignore the ticking of a new clock.
Classical and operant conditioning are concerned with the formation of associations, that is, with learning that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, the organism learns that one event is followed by another; for example, a child learns that the sight of breasts will be followed by the taste of milk. (In general, it is generally accepted that IP Pavlov's experiments on the formation of conditioned reflexes are an example of classical conditioning.) In operant conditioning, the organism learns that the reaction it performs will have certain consequences; for example, a small child learns that hitting a brother or sister will cause the disapproval of the parents.
Complex learning involves more than association formation, such as applying a strategy to a problem or building a mental map of one's environment.
The first work on learning, and especially on conditioning, was carried out within the framework of a behaviorist approach. They studied how animals learn to establish associations between stimuli or between a stimulus and a response. In accordance with the general position of behaviorism, behavior is best understood in terms of external causes rather than mental processes, so the focus of these works has been on external stimuli and responses. The behaviorist approach to learning contained other key points. According to one of them, simple associations of the classical or operant type are the "bricks" from which all learning is built. So, behaviorists believed that such a complex thing as mastering speech, in fact, is the memorization of many associations. According to another position, regardless of what exactly is being learned and who exactly is learning by heart - be it a rat learning to navigate a maze, or a child mastering the operation of division by a column - the same basic laws of learning apply everywhere.
In these works it was many phenomena and obtained data that formed the basis for further research on associative learning. During
called a task. Depending on the task, an operation may consist of a variety of actions, which can be subdivided into even smaller (private) actions. Thus, operations are larger units of activity than actions.
The main property of operations is that they are little or not realized at all. In this, operations differ from actions that involve both a conscious goal and conscious control over the course of the action. Essentially, the level of operations is the level of automatic actions and skills. Skills are understood as automated components of conscious activity that are developed in the process of its implementation. Unlike those movements that proceed automatically from the very beginning, such as reflex movements, habits become automatic as a result of more or less duration.
From the history of psychology
In these studies, many of the provisions of the behaviorists have undergone significant changes, but this has already happened within the framework of another direction - cognitive psychology.
In cognitive psychology, the rules and strategies of associative learning have been studied, so it was necessary to study how learning occurs in various biological species. As a result, learning problems began to be studied within the framework of biological approaches. One of the first attempts to identify biological mechanisms was to find a specific region of the brain that is responsible for learning (similar to the fact that there is a specific region of the cortex responsible for color processing). However, this attempt was not successful. Current evidence suggests that the products of long-term learning are distributed throughout the cortex, but it is possible that the visual aspects of what is being learned are stored primarily in the visual areas of the brain, the motor aspects in the motor areas, and so on.
Another approach that has not worked is the one that assumes that whatever areas of the brain and neurons are involved in learning, some of them remain active after learning. Although this idea, as it turned out, is true for short-term learning and memory, researchers agree that it does not apply to long-term learning. If everything we learned gave a constant increase in neural activation, our brain would become more powerful every day. All more active; it is obvious that this is not the case.
Today, learning theorists believe that the neural basis of learning lies in structural changes in the nervous system, and they are increasingly looking for these changes at the level of nerve connections. In particular, the most popular today is the following idea. An impulse from one neuron to another is transmitted along the axon of the sending neuron. Because the axons are separated by the synaptic cleft, the sender axon releases a neurotransmitter that propagates through the cleft and stimulates the recipient neuron. More precisely, when an impulse travels along the sender's axon, it activates the terminals of that neuron, releasing a transmitter that is picked up by the receptors of the recipient neuron. This whole mechanism is called a synapse. The key points related to learning are:
some structural changes in the synapse are the neural basis of learning; the result of this structural change is more efficient synaptic transmission.
Thus, today there are two theories that consider the development of mental phenomena through practical activity. These are activity theory and learning theory. What is their fundamental difference? The theory of activity primarily proceeds from the principle of activity. The subject is active, which is expressed in the freedom of his choice. In turn, the choice of the subject is determined by his needs, motives and goals. The conditions of upbringing and other social factors play an important role in shaping the behavior of the subject, but nevertheless, personality traits are leading in the implementation of activities. Learning theory, as we have seen, primarily focuses on the external factors and biological mechanisms that underlie learning.
By; Atninson R. L., Atkinson R. S., Smith E. E. et al. Introduction to psychology: A textbook for universities / Per. from English. under. ed. V. P. Zinchenko. - M.: Toivola, 1999.
body exercise. Therefore, operations are of two types: the operations of the first type include those that arose through adaptation and adaptation to the conditions of habitation and activity, and the operations of the second type are conscious actions that have become skills due to automation and moved to the area of unconscious processes. At the same time, the former are practically not realized, while the latter are on the verge of consciousness.
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that it is difficult to distinguish a clear line between operations and actions. For example, when baking pancakes, you do not hesitate to turn the pancake from one side to the other - this is an operation. But if, while performing this activity, you begin to control yourself and think about how to do it better, then you are faced with the need to perform a number of actions. In this case, flipping the pancake becomes a goal
a whole series of actions, which in itself cannot be considered as an operation. Consequently, one of the most informative signs that distinguish between actions and operations is the ratio between the degree of awareness of the activity being performed. In some cases, this indicator does not work, so you have to look for another objective behavioral or physiological sign.
Now let's move on to the third, lowest level of the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. In the theory of activity, psychophysiological functions are understood as physiological mechanisms for ensuring mental processes. Since a person is a biosocial being, the course of mental processes is inseparable from the processes of the physiological level, which provide the possibility of the implementation of mental processes. There are a number of possibilities of the body, without which most of the mental functions cannot be carried out. First of all, these abilities include the ability to sense, motor abilities, the ability to fix traces of past influences. This should also include a number of innate mechanisms fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, as well as those that mature during the first months of life. All these abilities and mechanisms go to a person at his birth, i.e. they have a genetic condition.
Psychophysiological functions provide both the necessary prerequisites for the implementation of mental functions and the means of activity. For example, when we try to remember something, we use special techniques for faster and better memorization. However, memorization would not have happened if we did not have mnemonic functions, which consist in the ability to remember. The mnemonic function is innate. From the moment of birth, the child begins to remember great amount information. Initially, this is the simplest information, then, in the process of development, not only the amount of memorized information increases, but the qualitative parameters of memorization also change. At the same time, there is a memory disease in which memorization becomes completely impossible (Korsakov's syndrome), since the mnemonic function is destroyed. With this disease, events are not remembered at all, even those that happened a few minutes ago. Therefore, even when such a patient tries to specifically learn a text, not only the text is forgotten, but also the very fact that such an attempt was made. Consequently, psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity. Without them, not only concrete actions are impossible, but also the setting of tasks for their implementation.
5.3. Activity theory and subject
psychology
Having considered the operational and technical aspects of activity, we must ask ourselves the question of why this or that action is performed, where do the goals come from? To answer this question, it is necessary to refer to concepts such as needs And motives.
Need is the initial form of activity of living organisms. Need can be described as a periodically occurring state of tension in the body of living beings. The occurrence of this condition in a person is caused by a lack of a substance in the body or the absence of an object necessary for the individual. This state of an organism's objective need for something that lies outside it and constitutes a necessary condition for its normal functioning is called a need.
Human needs can be divided into biological or organic (the need for food, water, oxygen, etc.), and social. Social needs include, first of all, the need for contacts with their own kind and the need for external impressions, or cognitive need. These needs begin to manifest in a person in the very early age and persist throughout his life.
How are needs related to activities? In order to answer this question, it is necessary to distinguish two stages in the development of each need. The first stage is the period until the first meeting with the subject that satisfies the need. The second stage - after this meeting.
As a rule, at the first stage, the need for the subject is hidden, “not deciphered”. A person may experience a feeling of some kind of tension, but at the same time not be aware of what caused this state. On the part of behavior, the state of a person during this period is expressed in anxiety or a constant search for something. In the course of search activity, a meeting of a need with its object usually occurs, which ends the first stage of the “life” of a need. The process of "recognition" by the need of its object is called the objectification of the need.
In the act of objectification, a motive is born. The motive is defined as an object of need, or an objectified need. It is through the motive that the need receives its concretization, becomes understandable to the subject. Following the objectification of a need and the appearance of a motive, a person's behavior changes dramatically. If earlier it was undirected, then with the appearance of a motive it receives its direction, because the motive is that for which the action is performed. As a rule, for the sake of something a person performs many separate actions. And this set of actions caused by one motive is called activity, and more specifically, special activity, or a special type of activity. Thus, thanks to the motive, we reached the highest level of the structure of activity in the theory of A. I. Leontiev - the level of special activity.
It should be noted that the activity is performed, as a rule, not for the sake of one motive. Any special activity can be caused by a whole complex of motives. Polymotivation of human actions is a typical phenomenon. For example, a student at school may strive for academic success not only for the desire to acquire knowledge, but also for the sake of material rewards from parents for good grades or for the sake of entering a higher educational institution. Nevertheless, despite the polymotivation of human activity, one of the motives is always leading, while others are secondary. These secondary motives are incentive motives that not so much “start” as additionally stimulate this activity.
Motives give rise to actions by forming a goal. As we have already noted, goals are always realized by a person, but the motives themselves can be divided into two large classes: conscious and unconscious motives of activity. For example, life goals belong to the class of conscious motives. These are motives. The existence of such motives is characteristic of most adults. A much larger number of motives belongs to another class. It should be emphasized that up to a certain age, any motives are unconscious. Such a statement raises a logical question: if motives are unconscious, then to what extent are they represented in consciousness? Does this mean that they are not represented in the mind at all?
Unconscious motives appear in consciousness in special form. There are at least two such forms. This emotions And personal meanings.
In the theory of activity, emotions are defined as a reflection of the relationship between the result of an activity and its motive. If, from the point of view of the motive, the activity is successful, positive emotions arise, if not successfully, negative ones. Thus, emotions act as the primary regulators of human activity. It should be noted that not only A. N. Leontiev speaks about emotions as a variety of mechanisms that control the human state. This was written by 3. Freud, W. Cannon, W. Jeme, G. Lange.
Personal meaning is another form of manifestation of motives in consciousness. Under the personal meaning is understood the experience of increased subjective significance of an object, action or event that is in the field of action of the leading motive. It should be noted that it is the leading motive that has a semantic function. Incentive motives do not perform a meaning-forming function, but only play the role of additional stimuli and generate only emotions.
There are at least two other very significant questions connected with the problem of activity motivation. This is, firstly, the question of the connection between motive and personality, and, secondly, the question of the mechanisms for the development of motives. Let's take a look at the first question.
It is known that we judge a person by the activity and behavior of a person. However, as we have already found out, human activity depends on the motives that determine it. Since human activity is characterized by polymotivation, we can talk about the existence of a system of motives. Moreover, the system of motives of one person will differ from the system of motives of another person, since people differ from each other in their direction in their activities. The system of human motives has a hierarchical structure. This structure will vary from person to person. In one case, a person will have one vital leading motive. In other cases, there may be one, two or more leading motives. Leading motives can differ not only in their essence, but also have different strengths. To characterize the personality, it is important which motives are used as the foundation of the entire system of motives. It can be just one selfish motive or a whole system of altruistic motives, etc. Thus, motives, acting as a source of human activity, characterize his personality.
Another question is the question of how new motives are formed. In the analysis of activity, the only way is to move from need to motive, then to goal and activity. In real life, the reverse is constantly happening.
cess, - in the course of activity, new motives and needs are formed. So, a child is born with a limited range of needs, and, moreover, mostly organic ones. But in the process of activity, the range of needs, and hence motives, expands significantly. It must be emphasized that the mechanisms of formation of motives in modern psychological science have not been fully studied. In the psychological theory of activity, one such mechanism has been studied in more detail - this is the mechanism for shifting a motive to a goal (the mechanism for turning a goal into a motive). Its essence lies in the fact that the goal, previously impelled to its implementation by a motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, that is, it becomes a motive itself. This happens only if the achievement of the goal is accompanied by positive emotions.
From the above description of the mechanism of formation of motives, a very significant conclusion follows regarding the development of the psyche. If we showed in the previous examples that the motive is an incentive to activity, that is, it forms the direction of activity and regulates it in certain ways, then we can conclude that the motive also determines the uniqueness of the personality, since we judge a person based on his actions and performance. But if the appearance, or birth, of new motives that determine the patterns of manifestation of personality traits is associated with activity, then it follows that activity affects the development of the individual. Thus, the nature of the activity in which a person is engaged largely determines the likely paths of his further development, i.e., we come to the fundamental formulation of dialectical materialism that being determines consciousness. It is on these principles that the psychological theory of activity is built.
There is another aspect of activity that we have not discussed, but it was this aspect that played a huge role in the fact that the psychological theory of activity was the leading one in Soviet psychology for a decade. So far, we have only talked about practical activity, i.e., visible to outside observers, but there is another type of activity - internal activity. What are the internal activities? First of all, that internal actions prepare external actions. They help save human effort, making it possible to quickly select the desired action. In addition, they enable a person to avoid mistakes.
Internal activity is characterized by two main features. First, internal activity has the same basic structure as external activity, which differs from it only in the form of flow. This means that internal activity, like external activity, is motivated, accompanied by emotional experiences, and has its own operational and technical composition. difference internal activities from the external lies in the fact that actions are performed not with real objects, but with their images, and instead of a real product, a mental result is obtained.
Secondly, internal activity originated from external, practical activity through the process of internalization, i.e., by transferring the corresponding actions to the internal plan. To successfully mentally reproduce some action, you must first master it in practice and get a real result.
It should be noted that through the concept of internal activity, the authors of the theory of activity came to the problem of consciousness and the analysis of mental processes. According to the authors of the theory of activity, mental processes can be analyzed from the position of activity, since any mental process is carried out with a specific goal, has its own tasks and operational and technical structure. For example, the perception of taste by a taster has its own perceptual goals and tasks associated with finding differences and evaluating the conformity of taste qualities. Another example of a perceptual task is discovery. We constantly face this task in everyday life, solving visual problems, recognizing faces, voices, etc. To solve all these problems, perceptual actions are performed, which can be characterized, respectively, as actions of discrimination, detection, measurement, identification, etc. Moreover, As it turned out, ideas about the structure of activity are also applicable to the analysis of all other mental processes. Therefore, it is no coincidence that Soviet psychology for several decades has been developing activity approach in psychology.
As we have already noted, from the standpoint of the activity approach, psychology is the science of the laws of generation, functioning and structure of the individual's mental reflection of objective reality in the process of human activity. In this definition, activity is taken as the initial reality with which psychology deals, and the psyche is considered as a derivative of it and at the same time as its integral side. Thus, it is asserted that the psyche cannot be considered outside of activity, just as activity cannot be considered without the psyche. Thus, in a simplified form, from the position of the activity approach, the subject of psychology is mentally controlled activity.
In conclusion, we should dwell on the methodological significance of the psychological theory of activity. The point is that most scientific works and research of domestic psychologists is based on the principles of the activity approach. They study the mental aspects of people's activities or the patterns of activity, taking into account the psychological characteristics of people. The results of these studies confirmed the expediency of developing the theory of activity and using the methodology of the activity approach. Moreover, the activity approach eliminated the need to solve such philosophical, theoretical and methodological problems as the primacy of being and consciousness, the psychophysiological problem, etc. No one doubts that human activity is real, but at the same time it is also conditioned by subjective (mental) factors. Therefore, by studying the facts of real-life activity, we can explore its subjective aspects. Consequently, the psyche and the patterns of its development may well be studied within the framework of the activity approach.
Thus, we can draw several conclusions. Firstly, the psyche and human activity are inextricably linked, therefore it is advisable to build the study of the psyche and the study of the laws of its development on the principles of the activity approach. Secondly, the activity in which a person is engaged largely determines the development of his motives and life values, which determine the general direction of the subject. Consequently, special types of activity affect the patterns of human mental development.
5.4. Physiology of movement and physiology of activity
General concept of psychomotor. In the previous sections of this chapter, we got acquainted with one of the central concepts of domestic psychological science - activity. Activity is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. This phenomenon exists due to the unity of mental and physiological processes. But the unity of the physiological and mental is not the only condition for activity. Activity would be impossible if there were no unity of the above processes and movement. Among domestic scientists, for the first time, I. M. Sechenov drew attention to movement as a necessary condition for our life and activity. In his book Reflexes of the Brain, he wrote: “Does a child laugh at the sight of a toy, does Garibaldi smile when he is persecuted for excessive love for the Motherland, does a girl tremble at the first thought of love, does Newton create world laws and write them on paper—everywhere the ultimate fact is muscle movement.”
The connection of various mental phenomena with the movements and activities of a person I. M. Sechenov called psychomotor. In his opinion, the primary element of a person's psychomotor activity is a motor action, which is a motor solution to an elementary task, or, in other words, the achievement of an elementary conscious goal by one or more movements. In turn, a motor action that develops in the process of learning, exercise or repetition should be called a motor or psychomotor skill.
However, is an elementary conscious movement as simple as it may seem at first glance? You already know that any action or conscious movement must always have a goal, that is, it must always be directed towards something. Therefore, there must be some sphere or field of application of our efforts. This field, when considering psychomotor problems, is usually called motor field.
In addition to the fact that there is a sphere for the application of our efforts, the implementation of conscious movement requires a sphere from which we draw information. This area is called touch field. But along with these two components of conscious movement, one more important condition is necessary - the presence of mechanisms for processing sensory information and the formation of a motor act. Thus, to perform a conscious movement, three components are necessary, which are equally important and without which movements are impossible.
It should be noted that as psychology developed, ideas about the system of organization of movements changed. With the advent of the work of I. M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the brain” and the justification of the term “psychomotor”, and then with the discovery of conditioned reflexes by I. P. Pavlov, the idea of the reflex nature of movements was strengthened in psychology for a long time. At the same time, movement was most often considered as a response to the received information.
The connection between perception and response movement began to be called the sensorimotor process. In the process of studying psychomotor, the researchers identified three groups of responses: a simple sensorimotor reaction, a complex sensorimotor reaction, and sensorimotor coordination.
Any sensorimotor reaction was considered as an independent action or an element of a complex psychomotor act. From a physiological point of view, sensorimotor reactions were considered as conditioned reflexes. Let us explain this point of view with an example (Fig. 5.2). In response to a mosquito bite, a person involuntarily pulled back his leg - this is an unconditioned reflex (1). Its central moment takes place in the lower parts of the nervous system, although it also has its own cortical representation, as a result of which the person felt pain. At the same time, the pain caused a change in the frequency of heart contractions - this is an autonomic reaction (2), which is associated with the activity of the autonomic nervous system; it closes in the subcortical nodes of the brain, but also has its own cortical representation. The reflex movement of the leg might not drive the mosquito away, and the person, whose consciousness had reached the pain, hit the mosquito with his hand, performing a voluntary psychomotor action (3). At the same time, this hand movement was also his sensorimotor reaction, the central moment of which proceeded in the cerebral cortex. The same motor moment could also complete another sensorimotor reaction. A person could not feel pain, but see a mosquito when he was just sitting on his leg. In both cases, the movements of the hand could be exactly the same, but in the second case, the sensory moment would no longer be tactile, but visual perception. Correspondingly, the localization of the central moment of the reaction in the brain would also change.
Another example that illustrates the meaning of the theory of sensorimotor reactions is a pilot who noticed a deviation in the direction of flight and turned the steering wheel. This sensorimotor reaction to the trigger signal (detection of a deviation) was only a part, one of the acts of a motor action to correct the deviation that had arisen, which required further movements performed according to the mechanism of sensorimotor coordination.
Depending on how complex the central moment of the reaction is, it is customary to distinguish between simple and complex reactions. A simple sensorimotor reaction is the fastest possible response with a simple single movement known in advance to a signal that suddenly appeared and, as a rule, known in advance. It has only one parameter - time. Moreover, latent reaction time is distinguished, i.e., the time from the moment the stimulus appears, to which attention is drawn, until the start of the response movement, and the time for the implementation of the motor action.
Rice. 5.2 Scheme of organization of sensorimotor processes (based on the concept of reflex mechanisms of movement organization)
In complex reactions, the formation reciprocal actions always associated with choice desired answer from a range of possible ones. So, if it is necessary to select only one of the buttons on the remote control, which should be pressed in response to a certain signal, then the central moment of the reaction is complicated by selecting the button and recognizing the signal. Therefore, such a complex reaction is usually called a choice reaction.
The most complex variant of a sensorimotor reaction is sensorimotor coordination, in which not only the sensory field is dynamic (for example, in response to a moving object), but also the implementation of a motor act. We encounter this type of reaction when we are forced not only to observe changes in the sensory field, but also to respond to them with a significant number of complex and multidirectional movements. For example, this happens when you play a computer game.
As special types of psychomotor processes are distinguished sensory speech And ideomotor reactions. In sensory-speech reactions, perception is associated with a speech response to what is perceived. Seismo-speech reactions, like sensorimotor reactions, have the same three moments: sensory, central, and motor. But their central moment is very complicated and takes place in the second signal system, while the motor moment manifests itself as a motor component of speech.
A special place in psychomotor is occupied by ideomotor processes that connect ideas about movement with its implementation. The essence of these processes lies in the formation of automatisms and skills in the course of mastering professional activities. It is assumed that any activity is associated with the acquisition of certain motor skills, without which the successful performance of professional duties is impossible. The process of transforming the idea of a movement into a skill, followed by the successful execution of this movement, is an ideomotor process.
It should be noted that the development of psychomotor problems gave its positive results, which were widely used in sports, military affairs, vocational training, etc. However, in the process of the development of psychology, it became clear that movement as a component of activity has a much more complex organization than the sensorimotor process . Moreover, the main drawback of psychomotor was that the motor act was considered as a response to a sensory signal. Action, as we know, is always conscious, that is, it is in the field of our consciousness, controlled by it. We, except in rare cases, are aware of what we are doing. Considering that consciousness is always active, we have the right to assume that conscious movement and activity in general are active, and not reactive, as it is interpreted in the framework of psychomotor. The source of human activity and activity is not the conditions of the external environment, but the human psyche, its needs and motives.
Of course, it cannot be denied that sensorimotor processes do not exist. They are present in human activity, but they are not able to explain all the mechanisms of conscious movements. Their interpretation lacks the most important component of the human psyche - his consciousness. Most likely, sensorimotor reactions are a particular variant of automatisms and nothing more. All this became clear in the course of development.
Names
Bernstein Nikolai Alexandrovich(1896–1966) - Russian psychophysiologist. He created and applied new research methods - kymocyclography and cyclogrammetry, with the help of which he studied human movements (in the process of labor, playing sports, etc.). The analysis of the received research allowed him to develop the concept of the physiology of activity and the formation of human movements in normal and pathological conditions. In the course of ongoing research, Bernstein formulated the idea of a "reflex ring".
On the basis of his developments, the movement of the wounded during the Great Patriotic War was restored, and in the post-war years, the formation of skills among athletes was carried out. In addition, Bernstein's developments were used in the design of walking automata, as well as other computer-controlled devices.
The general theory of the construction of movements created by him is set forth in the monograph "On the construction of movements", 1947.
psychology. A more accurate description of the physiological and mental mechanisms of movements was found, which allows us today to talk not about psychomotor, but about the psychology of building movements.
Movement organization mechanisms. The concept of the physiology of movements that currently exists in psychology was formulated and experimentally substantiated by the outstanding Russian scientist N. A. Bernshtein.
A neuropathologist by education, a physiologist by his scientific interests, Bernstein appeared in the scientific literature as a passionate defender of the principle of activity - one of those principles on which the psychological theory of activity is built. In 1947, one of Bernstein's main books "On the Construction of Movements" was published, which was awarded the State Prize. In this book, a number of completely new ideas were expressed. One of them consisted in refuting the principle of the reflex arc as a mechanism for organizing movements and replacing it with the principle of the reflex ring.
Bernstein made the natural movements of a normal, intact organism, and, in general, the movements of a person, the object of study. The main focus of Bernstein's research was on labor movements. To study movements, he had to develop a special method for registering them. Prior to Bernstein's work, there was an opinion in physiology that a motor act was organized as follows: at the stage of learning to move in the motor centers, its program is formed and fixed; then, as a result of the action of some stimulus, it is excited, motor command impulses go to the muscles, and the movement is realized. Thus, in the most general form, the movement mechanism was described by a reflex arc diagram: stimulus - the process of its central processing (excitation of programs) - motor reaction.
Bernstein's first conclusion was that such a mechanism could not carry out any kind of complex movement. If a simple movement, such as a knee jerk, can occur in re-
As a result of direct conduction of motor commands from the center to the periphery, then complex motor acts that are designed to solve certain problems cannot be built in this way. The main reason is that the result of any complex movement depends not only on the actual control signals, but also on a number of additional factors that introduce deviations into the planned course of the movements. As a result, the ultimate goal can only be achieved if the progress of the movement is constantly amended. And for this, the central nervous system must have information about the progress of the movement.
Thus, Bernstein proposed a completely new principle of motion control, which was called the principle of sensory correction.
Consider the factors that, according to Bernstein, influence the progress of the movement. First, when performing a movement, to a greater or lesser extent, there is the phenomenon of reactive forces. For example, if you wave your arm strongly, then reactive forces will develop in other parts of the body, which will change their position and tone.
Secondly, when moving, the phenomenon of inertia occurs. If you sharply raise your hand, then it flies up not only due to those motor impulses that are sent to the muscles, but from some moment it moves but of inertia, i.e. certain inertial forces. Moreover, the phenomenon of inertia is present in any movement.
Thirdly, there are certain outside forces, that affect the progress of the movement. For example, if the movement is directed at any object, then it meets resistance from its side. Moreover, this resistance is most often unpredictable.
Fourthly, there is another factor that is not always taken into account when starting to perform movements - this is initial state of the muscles. The state of the muscle changes when performing a movement along with a change in its length, as well as as a result of fatigue and other reasons. Therefore, the same motor impulse, reaching the muscle, can give a completely different result.
Thus, there is a whole list of factors that have a direct impact on the progress of the movement. Therefore, the central nervous system needs constant information about the progress of the movement. This information is called feedback signals. These signals can simultaneously come from the muscles to the brain through several channels. For example, when we move, information about the position of individual parts of the body comes from proprioceptive receptors. However, in parallel, information enters through the organs of vision. A similar picture is observed even when performing speech movements. A person receives information not only from the receptors that control the movements of the language apparatus, but also through hearing. Moreover, the information coming through different channels must be consistent, otherwise the execution of the movement becomes impossible.
Thus, we can conclude that there is a certain scheme for the implementation of movement mechanisms. It was called the reflex ring diagram by Bernstein. This scheme is based on the principle of sensory corrections and is his further development.
In a simplified form, this scheme looks like this: effector commands come from the motor center (M) to the muscle (working point of the muscle). Afferent feedback signals go from the working point of the muscle to the sensory center (3). In the central nervous system, the information received is processed, i.e., it is recoded into motor correction signals, after which the signals again enter the muscle. It turns out a ring process of control (Fig. 5.3).
Rice. 5.3. The fundamental difference between the concepts of building movements based on the reflex arc and the reflex ring. Explanations in the text
In this scheme, the reflex arc looks like one of its special cases, when movements are made that do not need correction, that is, movements of a reflex nature. Bernstein later detailed the scheme of the reflex ring. The scheme contains the following elements: motor "outputs" (effector), sensory "inputs" (receptor), working point or object (if we are talking about objective activity), decoding block, program, controller, setting device, comparison device.
With the presence of more elements, the reflex ring functions as follows. The program contains the successive stages of a complex movement. At each specific moment, some particular stage or element is being worked out, the corresponding particular program is launched into the master device. Signals (SW - “what should be”) are sent from the master device to the comparison device. Feedback signals (IW - “what is”) come to the same block from the receptor, reporting on the state of the operating point. In the comparison device, these signals are compared, and at the output of it, mismatch signals (B) are obtained between the required and actual state of affairs. Then they get to the recoding block, from where correction signals come out, which through intermediate instances (regulator) get to the effector (Fig. 5.4).
Considering this scheme, it is necessary to pay attention to one interesting detail. The receptor does not always send signals to the comparison device. There are times when the signal goes directly to the master device. This happens in those cases when it is more economical to rebuild the movement than to correct it. This is especially important in emergency situations.
In addition to the reflex ring, Bernstein put forward the idea about the level construction of movements. In the course of his research, he found that depending on
what information the feedback signals carry - whether they report the degree of muscle tension, the relative position of body parts, the objective result of movement, etc. - afferent signals come to different sensory centers of the brain and, accordingly, switch to motor pathways on different levels. Moreover, the level should be understood literally as “layers” in the central nervous system. Thus, the levels of the spinal and medulla oblongata, the level of subcortical centers, and the level of the cortex were distinguished. Each level has specific motor manifestations peculiar only to it, each level has its own class of movements.
Level A is the lowest and phylogenetically the oldest. In man, he has no self-
Rice. 5.4. Scheme of the reflex ring according to N. A. Bernshtein. Explanations in the text
of significant importance, but is responsible for the most important aspect of any movement - muscle tone. This level receives signals from muscle proprioceptors that report the degree of muscle tension, as well as information from the balance organs. Independently, this level regulates very few movements. They are mainly associated with vibration and tremor. For example, the chatter of teeth from the cold.
Level B - level synergies. At this level, signals are processed mainly from muscle-articular receptors, which report on the relative position and movement of body parts. Thus, this level is closed to the space of the body. Level B takes a great part in the organization of movements of higher levels, and there it takes on the task of internal coordination of complex motor ensembles. The own movements of this level include sipping, facial expressions, etc.
Level C. Bernstein called this level the level spatial field. This level receives signals from sight, hearing, touch, i.e. all information about the external space. Therefore, at this level, movements are built that are adapted to the spatial properties of objects - to their shape, position, length, weight, etc. Movements of this level include all displacement movements.
Level D - the level of subject actions. This is the level of the cerebral cortex responsible for organizing actions with objects. This level includes all weapon actions and manipulations with objects. Movements on this
level are presented as actions. They are not fixed motor composition, or a set of movements, and only a specific result is given.
Level E - highest level- the level of intellectual motor acts. This level includes: speech movements, writing movements, movements of symbolic or coded speech. The movements of this level are determined not by the objective, but by the abstract, verbal meaning.
Considering the construction of movement levels, Bernstein draws several very important conclusions. Firstly, as a rule, several levels are involved in the organization of movements at once - the one on which the movement and all lower levels are built. So, for example, writing is a complex movement in which all five levels participate. Level A provides muscle tone. Level B gives movements a smooth roundness and provides cursive writing. Level C ensures the reproduction of the geometric shape of the letters, the even arrangement of lines on paper. Level O ensures proper pen control. Level E determines the semantic side of the letter. Based on this position, Bernstein concludes that only those components of the movement that are built on the leading level are represented in the human mind, and the work of the lower levels, as a rule, is not realized.
Secondly, formally the same movement can be built on different leading levels. The level of construction of the movement is determined meaning or task, movement. For example, a circular movement, depending on how and why it is performed (movement of the fingers, movement of the body or action with an object), can be built on any of the five levels. This position is extremely interesting for us in that it shows the decisive importance of such a psychological category as the task, or goal, of movement for the organization and flow of physiological processes. This result of Bernstein's research can be regarded as a major scientific contribution to the physiology of movements.
The process of motor skill formation and the principle of activity. The development of the scheme of the reflex ring and the level construction of movements allowed Bernstein to consider the mechanisms of skill formation in a completely new way.
The process of habit formation was described by Bernstein in great detail. Considering this process, he singles out a large number of partial phases, which are combined into larger periods.
In the first period, there is an initial acquaintance with the movement and initial mastery of it. According to Bernstein, it all starts with identifying motor composition movement, i.e. how to do it, what elements of the movement, in what sequence, in what combination should be performed. Familiarization with the motor composition of the action occurs by telling, showing or explaining, i.e. during this period there is an acquaintance with how the movement looks externally, or from the outside.
This phase is followed by another, the most time-consuming phase of the first period - the clarification phase. internal picture of movement. At the same time, one learns recipher afferent signals to commands. Thus, following the scheme of the reflex ring, the most "hot" are the following blocks: "program", where the clarification of the external motor composition occurs;
“setting device”, where an internal picture of movement is formed; recoding block, which ensures the development of the correct corrections.
The latter is especially important, since it consists of the initial distribution of corrections over the underlying levels, i.e., the construction of the movement is based not on one reflex ring, but on a whole chain of rings, which is formed in the process of working out the correct corrections. As we have already noted, initially the mastery of movement occurs under the control of consciousness, i.e., all the processes that make up the reflex ring of the highest level are in the field of consciousness. However, in the course of repeated repetition, feedback signals at the underlying levels begin to clear up and master. As a rule, they provide more accurate and inaccessible to a higher level information about the various sides of the movement. For example, at level A there is information about muscle tone and body balance, at level B - about the position of body parts, etc.
Thus, the ring of the leading level belongs to general program movement, and all other blocks are duplicated in the ring of the lower level. In particular, each ring has its own “receptor”, since the information received about the aspects of movement is different and corresponds to its level, and the effector (the block to which control signals from different levels converge) is common for the rings (Fig. 5.5).
The above process brings us to the second period - movement automation. During this period, there is a complete transfer of individual components of the movement or the entire movement to the jurisdiction of the background levels.
As a result, the leading level is partially
rice. or completely freed from concern for this movement. In the same period, two more important processes take place: firstly, the coordination of the activities of all lower levels, during which the complex hierarchical systems of many rings are debugged, and secondly, the “recruitment” of ready-made motor blocks.
rice. 5.5. Scheme of subordination of the rings of the leading and background levels
(functional systems) that were previously formed for other reasons. Therefore, if, when mastering a new movement, the body establishes the need for a certain type of recoding (already available to it), then it sometimes literally looks for and finds them in its “dictionary”. Bernstein called this dictionary "the record library". Moreover, “phono” was understood in the meaning not of sound, but of the background against which motor processes unfold. He believed that each organism has its own "record library", that is, a set of backgrounds, on the volume of which its motor capabilities and even abilities depend (Fig. 5.5).
An interesting fact is that the required block can be extracted from a movement that is completely different from the one being mastered. For example, when learning to ride a two-wheeled bicycle, skating is very useful because both types of movement have the same internal elements.
In the last, third, period, the final polishing of the skill takes place due to stabilization and standardization. Stabilization is understood as the achievement of such a level of execution of the movement, at which it acquires high strength and noise immunity, i.e., it does not collapse under any circumstances.
In turn, standardization refers to the acquisition of skills of stereotyping. During this period, with repeated repetition of the movement, a series of absolutely identical copies is obtained, resembling, in the words of Bernstein, "guardsmen in the ranks."
It should be noted that, in addition to automation, stereotype is provided by the mechanism of using reactive and inertial forces. When the movement is carried out at a fast pace, reactive and inertial forces arise. Their influence can be twofold: they can interfere with movement or, if the body learns to use them effectively, promote movement. Therefore, stability is also achieved by finding dynamically stable trajectory. A dynamically stable trajectory is a special, unique line, during movement along which mechanical forces are developed that contribute to the continuation of movement in the chosen direction, due to which the movement acquires ease, ease and stereotyping. According to Bernstein, after the formation of a dynamically stable trajectory, the formation of a skill is completed.
Closely related to the above theory of motion is the concept developed by Bernstein principle of activity. The essence of the principle of activity is to postulate the determining role of the internal program in the acts of vital activity of the organism. The principle of activity is opposed principle of reactivity according to which this or that act - movement, action - is determined by an external stimulus,
Let us consider several aspects of the principle of activity: concrete physiological, general biological and philosophical. In concrete physiological terms, the principle of activity is inextricably linked with the discovery of the principle of reflex ring control of movement. You already know that a necessary condition for the functioning of the reflex ring is the presence of a central program. Without a central program and a control device, the reflex ring will not function, the movement will be carried out along the reflex arc, but, as it was found, it is expedient and reasonable to move along the reflex arc.
purposeful movement cannot take place. If we assume that the central program is presented in the body as a mechanism for the implementation of activity, then it is necessary to conclude that the principle of activity in a concrete physiological expression and the recognition of the mechanism of circular motion control are theoretical postulates that are firmly interconnected. Thus, the following logical conclusion suggests itself: the movement of a person is the result of the manifestation of his activity.
However, if you do not agree with the second conclusion, then you can ask the question: is the nature of all movements really active and reactivity does not manifest itself in movement? Of course not. There are a huge number of movements or motor acts that are reactive in nature, such as blinking or sneezing. In these examples, the movement is caused by a specific stimulus. But if this is so, then how to combine activity and reactivity in human movement?
Answering this question, Bernstein proposes to place all the movements of the animal and man along an imaginary axis. Then they will be at one pole without conditioned reflexes, for example, sneezing or blinking, as well as conditioned reflexes formed during life, for example, salivation in a dog to a bell. These movements are actually triggered by the stimulus and determined by its content.
At the other pole of this imaginary axis, there will be movements and acts for which the initiative to launch and the content, that is, the program, are set from within the organism. These are the so-called arbitrary acts.
Between these poles there is also an intermediate link, which is made up of movements that are activated by an external stimulus, but not as rigidly as the reflexes associated with them in content. These movements in response to the stimulus have various manifestations. For example, in response to a blow, you respond with a blow or "turn the other cheek." In these motor acts, the stimulus does not lead to movement, but rather to the adoption of a decision, i.e., it plays the role of a trigger mechanism - it initiates movement.
Thus, answering the question posed, we can assert that there are both jet and active motions. However, having arranged all movements along an imaginary axis, we did not say what kind of axis it was. This axis can be characterized as the activity axis. In this case, unconditioned reflex reactions can be considered as acts with zero activity, and voluntary motor acts as active movement.
Meanwhile, if one does not agree with these arguments about the active nature of movements, one can ask an even more subtle question. When the reflex ring is functioning, the comparison unit receives a signal of two levels at once: from the external environment and from the program. And these two streams occupy, as it were, a symmetrical position. Therefore, the following question arises: why is it necessary to give preference to program signals, rather than signals from the external environment, which act according to the reactive principle?
The question is quite fair. But in practice it turns out that these signals are asymmetric. Program signals are far ahead of signals from the external environment. So, when conducting an experiment, the essence of which was the need for the subject to read the text while recording the voice and the position of the eyes,
it was found that there is a discrepancy between what word the subject says and what word he looks at. The gaze of the subject is ahead of the spoken words. Consequently, the signals coming from the program (active) and coming from the external environment (reactive) are functionally asymmetric in the sense that the former are ahead of the latter. But asymmetry has one more, more important aspect. As Bernstein showed, active signals provide the essential parameters of movement, while reactive signals provide non-essential, technical details of movement.
There is another confirmation of the priority role of activity in the formation of the movement. This confirmation lies in our ideas about the stimulus. We are accustomed to the fact that once the impact of the stimulus has occurred, then a reaction should follow it. But a person is constantly affected by a very large number of stimuli, and the motor reaction is manifested only in relation to only some of them. Why? Because the subject himself chooses the appropriate incentives. For example, we need to write a letter, and we pick up a pen that has fallen into our field of vision, but we take it into our hands not because it caught our eye, but because we need to write a letter.
Now let's move on to the general biological aspects of the activity principle and ask ourselves the question: is there any evidence of the existence of the activity principle at the general biological level? Bernstein answers this question in the affirmative.
Thus, the processes of development of an organism from a germ cell can be understood as the processes of implementing a genetic program. The same happens with the regeneration of lost organs or tissues. Of course, external factors influence these processes, but it manifests itself in relation to insignificant features. For example, a birch grown in the northern regions or in a swamp will have certain external differences from birches in the middle zone or grown on favorable soil, but it will still be a birch, despite the fact that the size of its trunk and the shape of the leaves will be somewhat different. Thus, the influences of the external environment, i.e., reactive processes, take place, but they determine the variation of insignificant features.
It is also necessary to dwell on the philosophical aspects of the problem of activity. One of the central questions of philosophy is the question of what is life and vital activity. As a rule, this question is answered that life activity is a process of continuous adaptation to the environment. According to Bernstein, the main thing that makes up the content of the life process is not adaptation to the environment, but the implementation of internal programs. In the course of such realization, the organism inevitably overcomes various obstacles. Adaptation also occurs, but this event is less significant.
However, this statement can have two interpretations. The problem is what to consider as the source of activity: the phenomena of the ideal plan or the material phenomena. Bernstein believed that the manifestation of activity has a material nature, and the development of the organism is due to the material code. This point of view corresponds to the ideas of materialistic philosophy on the nature of activity as a special property of living nature.
In conclusion, attention should be paid to the significance of Bernstein's theory for psychology. Thanks to this theory, psychology received confirmation of the validity of the principle of activity from the side of physiology, and, consequently, the truth of the psychological theory of activity. Based on the results of Bernstein's research, we can assume that it is the psyche that acts as one of the sources of human activity, that activity is a property inherent in every person and manifests itself not only at the physiological, but also at the mental and social levels.
Control questions
1. What is an activity?
2. Describe the concepts of "motivating causes of activity" and "goals of activity."
3. Describe labor as a type of human activity.
4. What do you know about play as a child's activity? What types of games do you know?
5. Describe the structure of the activity.
6. Tell us about the main provisions of the theory of activity.
7. What are the main characteristics of actions.
8. Tell us about operations as a structural element of activity.
9. What do you know about psychophysiological functions?
10. What is the significance of needs for living organisms?
11. Describe the main stages in the formation and development of needs.
12. What do you know about the motives of activity?
13. Open the mechanisms of formation of motives.
14. What do you know about leading motives and incentive motives?
15. Expand the content of the concept of "psychomotor".
16. Tell us about the reflex concept of movements.
17. What types of sensorimotor reactions do you know? Describe them.
18. What do you know about the theory of physiology of movements by N. A. Bernshtein?
19. What is the principle of sensory corrections?
20. Name the external factors influencing the organization of movements.
21. What do you know about the "reflex ring concept"?
22. Name the main levels and stages of the formation of movements.
23. Expand the content of the phases of building movements.
24. What is the essence of the principle of activity in building movements?
1. Bernstein N. A. Essays on the physiology of movements and the physiology of activity. - M.:
Medicine, 1966.
2. Bespaloy B.I. Action: Psychological mechanisms of visual thinking. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1984.
3. Vygotsky L.S. Collected Works: In 6 vols. Vol. 3: Problems in the development of the psyche / Ch. ed. A. V. Zaporozhets. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983.
4. Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to General Psychology: A Course of Lectures: Textbook for High Schools. - M.: ChsRo, 1997.
5. Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - 2nd ed. - M.: Politizdat, 1977.
6. Merlin V.S. Essays on the integral study of individuality. - M.: Enlightenment, 1989.
7. Obukhova L. F. Jean Piaget's concept: pros and cons. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1981.
8. Psychology / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilova, prof. A. A. Smirnova, prof. B. M. Teplov. - Ed. 3rd, revised. and additional - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1948.
9. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.
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