Great physicists and their discoveries. The history of the emergence of physics

Physics is a science that studies the structure and evolution of the world, and is also the main and important area of ​​natural science. The word "fusis" with Greek means nature. The basis of all natural science and nature are the laws of physics.

Already in the 4th century, Aristotle betrayed great importance the term "physics". The scale of thoughts seemed the most majestic. It seemed that philosophy became closer to physics. A very important question united them into one path - the laws of the emergence and functioning of the Universe. True, after science began to dominate more, separate divisions of physics began to appear.
This science entered the Russian language only after the appearance of physics textbooks. The author is M.V. Lomonosov. Here, as regards domestic educational book, then the author became - Strakhov. Such a maneuver of the Russian academician changed the entire education system of that time.

In our century, everyone began to consider physics in their own way. After all, if you think about it, the difference modern society from what was before, directly depends on physical discoveries. For example, the study of electromagnetism. Similar breakthroughs in science led to the emergence of the telephone. So, if we start talking about a car, then it arose due to thermodynamics. The computer arose as a result of the development of electronics.

Such processes do not stand still, but only improve. New discoveries contribute to the improvement of industry and technology. You should think about new mysteries of nature that require explanation. This will help - physics.

Of course, despite the fact that science has gone too far, it is impossible to explain all the phenomena of nature the first time. Basics of physical research and methods developed carefully, based on accumulated knowledge.

Exists: experimental and theoretical physics. If we consider the experimental, then theories and laws are based only on data after research.

Theoretical physics has several tasks. Any theory has the ability to consider experimentally the whole essence of the "adequacy" of phenomena. Any study of physics carries with it the ability to decipher the formulation of various systems.

The fields of physics are multifaceted and thus interesting. In classical mechanics, the solution will be correct if the atoms are smaller than the dimensions of the objects under study. It is important that the gravitational forces are small and that the speed of objects is less than the speed of light.

Physics is one of the most important sciences studied by man. Its presence is noticeable in all spheres of life, sometimes discoveries even change the course of history. That is why great physicists are so interesting and significant for people: their work is relevant even after many centuries after their death. Which scientists should be known first of all?

André-Marie Ampère

The French physicist was born into the family of a businessman from Lyon. The parents' library was full of the works of leading scientists, writers and philosophers. Since childhood, Andre was fond of reading, which helped him gain in-depth knowledge. By the age of twelve, the boy had already learned the basics of higher mathematics, and at next year presented his work to the Lyon Academy. Soon he began to give private lessons, and from 1802 he worked as a teacher of physics and chemistry, first in Lyon, and then at the Polytechnic School of Paris. Ten years later he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. The names of great physicists are often associated with the concepts they have devoted their lives to studying, and Ampère is no exception. He dealt with the problems of electrodynamics. Unit of force electric current measured in amperes. In addition, it was the scientist who introduced many of the terms used today. For example, these are the definitions of "galvanometer", "voltage", "electric current" and many others.

Robert Boyle

Many great physicists conducted their work at a time when technology and science were practically in their infancy, and, despite this, they succeeded. For example, a native of Ireland. He was engaged in various physical and chemical experiments, developing the atomistic theory. In 1660, he managed to discover the law of change in the volume of gases depending on pressure. Many of the greats of his time had no idea of ​​atoms, and Boyle was not only convinced of their existence, but also formed several concepts related to them, such as "elements" or "primary corpuscles." In 1663, he managed to invent litmus, and in 1680 he was the first to propose a method for obtaining phosphorus from bones. Boyle was a member of the Royal Society of London and left behind many scientific works.

Niels Bohr

Not infrequently, great physicists turned out to be significant scientists in other fields as well. For example, Niels Bohr was also a chemist. A member of the Royal Danish Society of Sciences and a leading scientist of the twentieth century, Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen, where he received his higher education. For some time he collaborated with the English physicists Thomson and Rutherford. Bohr's scientific work became the basis for the creation quantum theory. Many great physicists subsequently worked in the directions originally created by Niels, for example, in some areas of theoretical physics and chemistry. Few people know, but he was also the first scientist who laid the foundations of the periodic system of elements. In the 1930s made many important discoveries in atomic theory. For his achievements he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Max Born

Many great physicists came from Germany. For example, Max Born was born in Breslau, the son of a professor and a pianist. From childhood he was fond of physics and mathematics and entered the University of Göttingen to study them. In 1907, Max Born defended his dissertation on the stability of elastic bodies. Like other great physicists of the time, such as Niels Bohr, Max collaborated with Cambridge specialists, namely with Thomson. Born was also inspired by Einstein's ideas. Max was engaged in the study of crystals and developed several analytical theories. In addition, Born created the mathematical basis of quantum theory. Like other physicists, the anti-militarist Born categorically did not want the Great Patriotic War, and during the years of battles he had to emigrate. Subsequently, he will denounce the development of nuclear weapons. For all his achievements, Max Born received the Nobel Prize, and was also accepted into many scientific academies.

Galileo Galilei

Some great physicists and their discoveries are connected with the field of astronomy and natural science. For example, Galileo, an Italian scientist. While studying medicine at the University of Pisa, he became familiar with the physics of Aristotle and began to read the ancient mathematicians. Fascinated by these sciences, he dropped out and began composing "Little Scales" - a work that helped determine the mass of metal alloys and described the centers of gravity of the figures. Galileo became famous among Italian mathematicians and received a chair in Pisa. After some time, he became the court philosopher of the Duke of Medici. In his works, he studied the principles of balance, dynamics, falling and motion of bodies, as well as the strength of materials. In 1609 he built the first telescope, giving a threefold magnification, and then - with a thirty-twofold one. His observations provided information about the surface of the Moon and the sizes of the stars. Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter. His discoveries made a splash in the scientific field. The great physicist Galileo was not too approved by the church, and this determined the attitude towards him in society. However, he continued to work, which was the reason for the denunciation of the Inquisition. He had to give up his teachings. But nevertheless, a few years later, treatises on the rotation of the Earth around the Sun, created on the basis of the ideas of Copernicus, were published: with the explanation that this is only a hypothesis. Thus, the most important contribution of the scientist was preserved for society.

Isaac Newton

The inventions and sayings of great physicists often become a kind of metaphor, but the legend of the apple and the law of gravity is the most famous. Everyone knows the hero of this story, according to which he discovered the law of gravity. In addition, the scientist developed integral and differential calculus, became the inventor of the mirror telescope and wrote many fundamental works on optics. Modern physicists consider him the creator of classical science. Newton was born into a poor family, studied at a simple school, and then at Cambridge, while working as a servant in parallel to pay for his studies. Already in the early years, he came up with ideas that in the future will become the basis for the invention of systems of calculus and the discovery of the law of gravity. In 1669 he became a lecturer in the department, and in 1672 a member of the Royal Society of London. In 1687, the most important work entitled "Beginnings" was published. For invaluable achievements in 1705, Newton was granted the nobility.

Christian Huygens

Like many other great people, physicists were often talented in various fields. For example, Christian Huygens, a native of The Hague. His father was a diplomat, scientist and writer, his son received an excellent education in legal field but got carried away with mathematics. In addition, Christian spoke excellent Latin, knew how to dance and ride a horse, played music on the lute and harpsichord. As a child, he managed to independently build himself and worked on it. During his university years, Huygens corresponded with the Parisian mathematician Mersenne, which greatly influenced the young man. Already in 1651 he published a work on the quadrature of the circle, ellipse and hyperbola. His work allowed him to gain a reputation as an excellent mathematician. Then he became interested in physics, wrote several works on colliding bodies, which seriously influenced the ideas of his contemporaries. In addition, he made contributions to optics, designed a telescope, and even wrote a paper on gambling calculations related to probability theory. All this makes him an outstanding figure in the history of science.

James Maxwell

Great physicists and their discoveries deserve every interest. Thus, James-Clerk Maxwell achieved impressive results, which everyone should familiarize themselves with. He became the founder of the theories of electrodynamics. The scientist was born into a noble family and was educated at the universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge. For his achievements he was admitted to the Royal Society of London. Maxwell opened the Cavendish Laboratory, which was equipped with the latest technology for conducting physical experiments. In the course of his work, Maxwell studied electromagnetism, the kinetic theory of gases, issues of color vision and optics. He also showed himself as an astronomer: it was he who established that they are stable and consist of unrelated particles. He also studied dynamics and electricity, having a serious influence on Faraday. Comprehensive treatises on many physical phenomena are still considered relevant and in demand in the scientific community, making Maxwell one of the greatest specialists in this field.

Albert Einstein

The future scientist was born in Germany. Since childhood, Einstein loved mathematics, philosophy, was fond of reading popular science books. For education, Albert went to the Institute of Technology, where he studied his favorite science. In 1902 he became an employee of the patent office. During the years of work there, he will publish several successful scientific works. His first works are connected with thermodynamics and the interaction between molecules. In 1905, one of the papers was accepted as a dissertation, and Einstein became a doctor of science. Albert owned many revolutionary ideas about the energy of electrons, the nature of light and the photoelectric effect. The most important was the theory of relativity. Einstein's conclusions have transformed mankind's ideas about time and space. Absolutely deservedly, he was awarded the Nobel Prize and recognized throughout the scientific world.

Prehistory of physics. Physical observation. phenomena occurred in ancient times. At that time, the process of accumulation of factual knowledge was not yet differentiated: physical, geometrical and astronomical representations developed jointly.

The systematic accumulation of facts and attempts to explain and generalize them, which preceded the creation of physics (in the modern sense of the word), took place especially intensively in era of Greco-Roman culture(6th century BC - 2nd century AD). During this era, the initial ideas about atomic structure of matter(Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius), the geocentric system of the world was created (Ptolemy), the beginnings of the heliocentric system appeared (Aristarchus of Samos), some simple laws of statics(rules of leverage, center of gravity), first results obtained applied optics(mirrors were made, the law of light reflection was discovered, the phenomenon of refraction was discovered), the simplest principles were discovered hydrostatics(Law of Archimedes). The simplest phenomena of magnetism and electricity were known in ancient times.

Doctrine Aristotle (389 - 322 BC) summed up the knowledge of the previous period 1 . The teaching of Aristotle, canonized by the Church, became a brake on the further development of physical science. After thousands of years of stagnation and barrenness, physics was revived only in the 15th-16th centuries. in the struggle against scholastic philosophy. The revival of science was mainly due to the needs of production in the manufacturing period. The great geographical discoveries, in particular the discovery of America, contributed to the accumulation of many new observations and the overthrow of old prejudices. The development of crafts, navigation and artillery created incentives for scientific research. Scientific thought focused on the problems of construction, hydraulics and ballistics, and interest in mathematics increased. The development of technology has created opportunities for experimentation. Leonardo da Vinci posed a whole series of physical questions and tried to solve them by experiment. He owns the saying: "experience never deceives, only our judgments deceive" .

However, in the 15-16 centuries, individual physical observations and experimental studies were random character. Only the 17th century marked the beginning systematic application of the experimental method in physics and the continuing growth of physical knowledge since then.

The first period of development of physics , dubbed classical, begins with the works Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) . Exactly Galileo was the creator of the experimental method in physics. A carefully thought-out experiment, the separation of minor factors from the main one in the phenomenon under study, the desire to establish exact quantitative relationships between the parameters of the phenomenon - such is Galileo's method. With this method, Galileo laid the initial foundations speakers. Galileo refuted the erroneous statements of Aristotle's mechanics: he, in particular, was able to show that not speed, but acceleration is a consequence of external influence on the body. In his work "Conversations and mathematical proofs concerning two new branches of science ..." (1638) Galileo convincingly substantiates this conclusion, which is the first formulation law of inertia eliminates apparent contradictions. He proves by experience that the free fall acceleration of bodies does not depend on their density and mass. Considering the motion of a thrown body, Galileo finds law of addition of motions and in essence expresses the position on the independence of the action of forces. The "Conversations" also provides information about the strength of bodies. They also came up with ideas about relativity of motion(principle of relativity), body movements along inclined plane ( in fact, he discovered Newton's first two laws).

In the writings of Galileo and Blaise Pascal foundations were laid hydrostatics. Galileo also made important discoveries in other areas of physics. For the first time, he confirms experimentally the phenomenon of surface tension, which was studied much later. Galileo enriches applied optics with his telescope, and his thermometer led to quantitative study of thermal phenomena.

In the first half of the 17th century, the physical doctrine of gases arose, which was of great practical importance. Disciple of Galileo E. Torricelli discovers the existence of air pressure and creates the first barometer. O. Guericke invents the air pump and finally refutes the Aristotelian statement about the "fear of the void." R. Boyle and somewhat later E. Mariotte investigate the elasticity of gases and discover the law known under their name. W. Snellius (Holland) and R. Descartes (France) discover the law of refraction of light. The creation of the microscope dates back to this time. Observations on magnets (in navigation) and on electrification during friction provide valuable information in the field of electrostatics and magnetostatics, the pioneer of which should be recognized as an English naturalist W. Gilbert .

The 2nd half of the 17th century is even richer in events. "Conversations" of Galileo marked the beginning of research fundamentals of mechanics. Curvilinear motion study ( X. Huygens ) prepared the opening fundamental law of mechanics- the relationship between force, mass and acceleration, first formulated I. Newton in his "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687) . Newton also established the basic law of system dynamics (equality of action against reaction), in which the previous studies of the impact of bodies (H. Huygens) found their generalization. For the first time, the basic concepts of physics crystallize - concepts of space and time.

Based on the laws of planetary motion established by Kepler, Newton in his Elements for the first time formulates law of gravity, which many scientists of the 17th century tried to find. Newton confirmed this law by calculating the acceleration of the Moon in its orbit based on the value of the acceleration of gravity measured in the 70s of the 17th century. He also explained the perturbations of the motion of the moon and the cause of the tides of the sea. The significance of this discovery by Newton cannot be overestimated. It showed contemporaries the power of science. It changed the whole picture of the universe.

At the same time X. Huygens and G. Leibniz formulate law of conservation of momentum ( previously expressed by Descartes in an inexact form) and the law of conservation of living forces. Huygens creates the theory of the physical pendulum and constructs a clock with a pendulum. One of the versatile scientists of the 17th century R. Hooke (England) opens known by his name law of elasticity. M. Mersenne (France) lays the foundations physical acoustics; he studies the sound of a string and measures the speed of sound in air.

During these years, in connection with the increasing use of spotting scopes, geometric optics was rapidly developing and fundamentals of physical optics. F. Grimaldi (Italy) in 1665 discovers the diffraction of light. Newton develops his doctrine of the dispersion and interference of light. He puts forward the hypothesis of light corpuscles. Spectroscopy originates from Newton's optical research. O. Römer (Denmark) in 1672 measures the speed of light. Newton's contemporary Huygens develops the initial fundamentals of wave optics, formulates the principle of propagation of waves (of light), known under his name, investigates and explains the phenomenon of double refraction in crystals 2 .

Thus, in the 17th century, the foundations of mechanics were created and research began in the most important areas of physics - in the doctrine of electricity and magnetism, on heat, physical optics and acoustics.

In the 18th century further development of all areas of physics continues. Newtonian mechanics becomes an extensive system of knowledge, covering the laws of motion of the earth and celestial bodies. labors L. Euler , French scientist A. Clairaut etc. is being created celestial mechanics brought to the highest perfection P. Laplace. In its developed form, mechanics becomes the basis of the machine technology of that time, in particular hydraulics.

In other branches of physics in the 18th century there was a further accumulation of experimental data, the simplest laws were formulated. W. Franklin formulates law of conservation of charge. Created in the middle of the 18th century first electric capacitor(Leiden Bank P. Mushenbruk in Holland), which made it possible to accumulate large electric charges, which facilitated the study of the law of their interaction. This law, which is the basis of electrostatics, was discovered independently of each other. G. Cavendish And J. Priestley (England) and Sh. Coulomb (France). arose theory of atmospheric electricity. W. Franklin in 1752 and a year later M. V. Lomonosov And G. V. Richman studied lightning discharges and proved the electrical nature of lightning.

Photometry began to be created in optics: British scientists W. Herschel And W. Wollaston opened infrared rays, and the German scientist I. Ritter - ultraviolet. The development of chemistry and metallurgy stimulated the development the doctrine of warmth: the concept of heat capacity was formulated, the heat capacities of various substances were measured, calorimetry was founded. Lomonosov predicted the existence of absolute zero. Studies of thermal conductivity and thermal radiation, as well as the study of the thermal expansion of bodies, began. During the same period, it was created and began to improve Steam engine.

True, heat was imagined as a special weightless liquid - caloric. In a similar way, the electrification of bodies was explained using the hypothesis of an electric fluid, and magnetic phenomena were explained by a magnetic fluid. In general, during the 18th century, weightless fluid models penetrated into all branches of physics. The overwhelming majority of researchers did not doubt their existence! This was the result of the belief that different physical phenomena- thermal, electrical, magnetic, optical - are not interconnected, independent of each other. It was believed that each phenomenon has its own "carrier", a special substance. Only a few advanced minds, including Euler and Lomonosov, denied the existence of weightless matter and saw in thermal phenomena and the properties of gases a hidden, but unceasing movement of the smallest particles. This difference of opinion revealed the difference physical "pictures of the world" - Newtonian And Cartesian originated in the 17th century.

The followers of Descartes (Cartesia) considered all physical phenomena as various movements of the same primary matter, the only properties of which are extension and inertia. He believed that as a result of various movements and collisions of parts of the primary matter, particles of matter (corpuscles) of various volumes and shapes are formed, between which particles of the most refined form of matter, the ether, move. The followers of Descartes saw the problem of physics in creation of purely mechanical models of phenomena. Universal gravitation, electrical and magnetic interactions, chemical reactions - everything was explained by various vortices in the ether, connecting or separating particles of matter.

However, this picture of the world met with objections as early as the middle of the 17th century. Its unsatisfactoriness was shown most convincingly by Newton in his Principia. Newton proved that the explanation of universal gravitation given by the Cartesians contradicts the facts: vortices in the ether, which, according to Descartes, completely fill the entire solar system and carry the planets with them, exclude the possibility of free passage of comets through the solar system without losing their motion.

Newton's picture of the world is based on the concept of atoms separated by emptiness and instantly interacting through the emptiness by forces of attraction or repulsion (long-range action). Forces, according to Newton, are the primary, initial property of certain types of particles; such a force as gravitation is inherent in all particles of matter. Unlike the Cartesians, Newton considered it possible that mechanical motion could not be preserved in nature. Newton saw the main task of physics is to find the forces of interaction between bodies. He did not rule out the existence of the ether, but considered it as a thin elastic gas that fills the pores of bodies and interacts with matter.

The struggle between Newtonian and Cartesian ideas lasted for almost two centuries. The same laws of nature were interpreted differently by the supporters of these two trends. In the 18th century Newton's views triumphed in physics and had a profound influence on its further development. They contributed introduction of mathematical methods in physics. At the same time, they strengthened for 100 years the idea of ​​long-range action. Cartesian tendencies revived again in the 2nd half of the 19th century, after the creation of the wave theory of light, the discovery of the electromagnetic field and the law of conservation of energy.

The second period of the history of physics begins in the first decade of the 19th century. In the 19th century, the most important discoveries and theoretical generalizations were made, which gave physics the character a single holistic science. The unity of various physical processes found expression in law of conservation of energy. The decisive role in the experimental preparation of this law was played by discovery of electric current and the study of its manifold actions, as well as the study of the mutual transformations of heat and mechanical work. In 1820 H. K. Oersted (Denmark) discovered the action of electric current on a magnetic needle. Oersted's experience served as an impetus for research A. Ampera, D. Arago and others. The law of interaction of two electric currents, found by Ampere, became the basis electrodynamics. With the lively participation of other researchers, Ampère in a short time found out connection of magnetic phenomena with electrical, reducing, in the end, magnetism to the actions of currents. So the idea of ​​magnetic fluids ceased to exist. In 1831, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, thus realizing his plan: "to turn magnetism into electricity."

At this stage of development the mutual influence of physics and technology has increased significantly. The development of steam technology posed numerous problems for physics. Physical studies of the mutual transformation of mechanical energy and heat, culminating in creation thermodynamics, served as the basis for the improvement of heat engines. After the discovery of the electric current and its laws, development begins electrical engineering(the invention of the telegraph, electroforming, dynamos), which, in turn, contributed to the progress electrodynamics.

In the 1st half of the 19th century there is a collapse of the idea of ​​weightless substances. This process was done slowly and with great difficulty. The first gap in the then dominant physical worldview was made by wave theory of light(English scientist T. Jung , French scientists O. Fresnel and D. Arago ) 3 . The whole set of phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization of light, in particular the phenomenon of interference of polarized rays, could not be theoretically interpreted from a corpuscular point of view and at the same time found a complete explanation in the wave theory, according to which light is transverse waves propagating in a medium ( on air). Thus, the light substance was rejected as early as the second decade of the 19th century.

More tenacious, in comparison with light matter and ferrofluid, turned out to be a concept of caloric. Although experiments B. Rumford , which proved the possibility of obtaining an unlimited amount of heat due to mechanical work, were in clear contradiction with the idea of ​​​​a special thermal substance, the latter lasted until the middle of the century; it seemed that only with its help it was possible to explain the latent heat of melting and evaporation. The merit of creating the kinetic theory, the beginnings of which date back to the times of Lomonosov and D. Bernoulli, belonged to English scientists J. Joule, W. Thomson (Kelvin) and German scientist R. Clausius .

Thus, as a result of many-sided and lengthy experiments, in the conditions of a difficult struggle with obsolete ideas, the mutual convertibility of various physical processes was proved, and thereby the unity of all physical phenomena known at that time.

Immediate proof of conservation of energy for any physical and chemical transformations was given in the works Y. Mayer (Germany), J. Joule And G. Helmholtz . After the law of conservation of energy won universal recognition (in the 50s of the 19th century), it became the cornerstone of modern natural science. The law of conservation of energy and the principle of entropy change [R. Clausius, W. Thomson (Kelvin)] formed the basis thermodynamics; they are usually formulated as the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

The proof of the equivalence of heat and work confirmed the view on heat as the disordered motion of atoms and molecules. The works of Joule, Clausius, Maxwell, Boltzmann and others created kinetic theory of gases. Already at the first stages of the development of this theory, when molecules were still considered as solid elastic balls, it was possible to reveal the kinetic meaning of such thermodynamic quantities as temperature and pressure. The kinetic theory of gases made it possible to calculate the average paths of molecules, the sizes of molecules and their number per unit volume.

The idea of ​​the unity of all physical processes led in the 2nd half of the 19th century to a radical restructuring of all physics, to its unification into two big sections- physics of matter And field physics. The basis of the first was the kinetic theory, the second - the doctrine of the electromagnetic field.

Kinetic theory, operating with averages, for the first time introduced the methods of probability theory into physics. She served as a starting point statistical physics one of the most general physical theories. The fundamentals of statistical physics were systematized already at the threshold of the 20th century by an American scientist J. Gibbs .

Equally fundamental was discovery of the electromagnetic field and its laws. The creator of the doctrine of the electromagnetic field was M. Faraday . He was the first to express the idea that electric and magnetic actions are not transferred directly from one charge to another, but propagate through an intermediate medium. Faraday's views on the field were mathematically developed by Maxwell in the 60s of the 19th century, who managed to give complete system electromagnetic field equations. Field theory became as consistent as Newton's mechanics.

The electromagnetic field theory leads to the idea of ​​a finite propagation velocity of electromagnetic actions expressed by Maxwell (anticipated even earlier by Faraday). This idea enabled Maxwell to predict the existence electromagnetic waves. Maxwell also concluded that electromagnetic nature of light. The electromagnetic theory of light has merged electromagnetism and optics.

However, the generally accepted theory of the electromagnetic field became only after the German physicist G. Hertz discovered electromagnetic waves by experience and proved that they follow the same laws of refraction, reflection and interference as light waves.

In the second half of the 19th century, the role of physics in technology grew significantly. Electricity has found application not only as a means of communication (telegraph, telephone), but also as a method of transmission and distribution of energy and as a source of lighting. In the late 19th century, electromagnetic waves were used for wireless communication ( A. S. Popov, Marconi ), which was the beginning of radio communication. Technical thermodynamics contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. arose low temperature technology. In the 19th century, all gases were liquefied, with the exception of helium, which was obtained in a liquid state only in 1908 (Dutch physicist G. Kammerling-Onnes ).

By the end of the 19th century, physics seemed almost complete to contemporaries.. Concept approved mechanistic determinism Laplace, proceeding from the possibility to uniquely determine the behavior of the system at any time, if the initial conditions are known. It seemed to many that physical phenomena could be reduced to the mechanics of molecules and the ether, for to explain physical phenomena meant at that time to reduce them to mechanical models easily accessible on the basis of everyday experience. The mechanical theory of heat, elastic (or vortex) ether as a model of electromagnetic phenomena - this is how it looked until the end of the 19th century physical picture of the world. The ether seemed to be similar to matter in a number of its properties, but, unlike matter, weightless or almost weightless (some calculations led to the weight of a ball of ether, equal in volume to the Earth, at 13 kg).

However, mechanical models ran into more contradictions, the more detailed they were tried to be developed and applied. The ethereal vortex tube models created to explain variable fields were unsuitable for explaining constant electric fields. On the contrary, various constant field models did not explain the possibility of propagation of electromagnetic waves. Finally, none of the ether models was able to clearly explain the connection of the field with discrete charges. Various mechanical models of atoms and molecules (for example, the vortex model of the atom proposed by W. Thomson) also turned out to be unsatisfactory.

The impossibility of reducing all physical processes to mechanical gave rise to some physicists and chemists desire in general refuse to recognize the reality of atoms and molecules, to reject the reality of the electromagnetic field. E. Mach proclaimed the task of physics to be a "pure description" of phenomena. German scientist W. Ostwald opposed kinetic theory and atomism in favor of the so-called energy -- universal, purely phenomenological thermodynamics, as the only possible theory of physical phenomena.

The third (modern) period in the history of physics , dubbed non-classical or quantum relativistic physics begins in the last years of the 19th century. This the period is characterized by the direction of research thought deep into the substance, to its microstructure. A new era in the history of physics begins with electron detection and studies of its action and properties (English. scientist J. Thomson , Dutch scientist G. Lorenz ).

The most important role was played by the investigation of electric discharges in gases. It turned out that an electron is an elementary particle of a certain mass, which has the smallest electric charge and is part of an atom of any chemical element. This meant that an atom is not elementary, but is a complex system. It was proved that the number of electrons in an atom and their distribution over layers and groups determine the electrical, optical, magnetic and chemical properties of the atom; the polarizability of an atom, its magnetic moment, optical and x-ray spectra, and valency depend on the structure of the electron shell.

The creation of the most general theories of modern physics is connected with the dynamics of electrons and their interaction with the radiation field - theory of relativity and quantum mechanics.

The study of the motions of fast electrons in electric and magnetic fields has led to the conclusion that classical Newtonian mechanics is inapplicable to them. Such a fundamental attribute of a material particle as mass turned out to be not constant, but variable, depending on the state of electron motion. It was the collapse of ideas rooted in physics about the motion and properties of particles.

A way out of contradictions was found A. Einstein who created (in 1905) a new physical theory of space and time, theory of relativity. Later, Einstein created (in 1916) general theory of relativity who transformed the old doctrine of gravity

No less important and effective generalization of physical facts and regularities was quantum mechanics, created at the end of the first quarter of the 20th century as a result of research into the interaction of radiation with particles of matter and the study of the states of intraatomic electrons. The basic idea of ​​quantum mechanics is that all microparticles have a dual corpuscular-wave nature.

These radically new ideas about microparticles turned out to be extremely fruitful and effective. Quantum theory succeeded in explaining the properties of atoms and the processes occurring in them, the formation and properties of molecules, the properties of a solid body, and the laws of electromagnetic radiation.

The twentieth century. marked in physics powerful development experimental research methods And measuring technology. The detection and counting of individual electrons, nuclear and cosmic particles, the determination of the arrangement of atoms and the electron density in crystals and in a single molecule, the measurement of a time interval of the order of 10 -10 seconds, the observation of the movement of radioactive atoms in matter - all this characterizes the leap in measuring technology in a few recent decades.

Unprecedented in terms of power and scale, the means of research and production were directed to study of nuclear processes. The last 25 years of nuclear physics, closely associated with cosmic rays and then with the creation of powerful accelerators, have led to a technical revolution and created new, exceptionally subtle research methods not only in physics, but also in chemistry, biology, geology, and in the most diverse fields of technology. and agriculture.

Accordingly, with the growth of physical research and with their growing influence on other natural sciences and technology, the number of physical journals and books increased. At the end of the 19th century in Germany, England, the USA and Russia, in addition to academic ones, only one physical journal was published. Currently, more than two dozen magazines are published in Russia, the USA, England, Germany (in each country).

To an even greater extent the number of research institutions and scientists has increased. If in the 19th century scientific research was carried out mainly by the physical departments of universities, then in the 20th century in all countries there appeared and began to increase in number and in scale research institutes in physics or in its individual areas. Some of the institutes, especially in the field of nuclear physics, have such equipment, which in its scale and cost exceeds the scale and cost of factories.

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Great physicists and their discoveries. Prepared by a student of 7 "A" class MBOU secondary school No. 1 Syromyatnikova Julia

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Isaac Newton (physicist) Born: January 4, 1643 Died: March 31, 1727 (aged 84) English physicist, mathematician, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of classical physics. The author of the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", in which he outlined the law of universal gravitation and the three laws of mechanics, which became the basis classical mechanics. He developed differential and integral calculus, color theory, laid the foundations of modern physical optics, created many other mathematical and physical theories.

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Isaac Newton's discoveries Isaac Newton was the first to scientifically explain the nature of the colored bands resulting from the decomposition of sunlight by an optical prism. He believed that white sunlight is the sum of light rays with different refractive powers. Each such light beam causes a color impression inherent only to it. When white light passes through glass prisms, it decomposes into simple colored rays. When passing through a converging lens, the colored rays decomposed by the prism are collected and again form white light. Finally, passing colored rays through a second prism, Newton found that they did not further decompose. Newton was the first to arrange the colors of the spectrum in the form of a circle. He distinguished seven regions in the spectrum, similarly to the seven steps of the octave. The terminology used by Newton to refer to the phenomena of color was very precise. He spoke, for example, not of red or green rays, but of light rays, which evoke the sensation of red or green. It should be noted that after the discoveries of Newton, optics began to develop very rapidly. He was able to generalize such discoveries of his predecessors as diffraction, double refraction of the beam and the determination of the speed of light. But most famous discovery Newton became the law of universal gravitation. He was also able to prove that the forces of gravity apply not only to terrestrial, but also to celestial bodies. These laws were described in 1687 after the publication of Newton's book on the use of mathematical methods in physics.

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Galileo Galilei (astronomer) Born: February 15, 1564, Italy, Pisa. Died: January 8, 1642, (aged 77), Arcetri. Italian physicist, mechanic, astronomer, philosopher and mathematician who had a significant impact on the science of his time. He was the first to use a telescope to observe celestial bodies and made a number of outstanding astronomical discoveries. Galileo is the founder of experimental physics. With his experiments, he convincingly refuted the speculative metaphysics of Aristotle and laid the foundation for classical mechanics. During his lifetime, he was known as an active supporter of the heliocentric system of the world, which led Galileo to a serious conflict with the Catholic Church.

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G. Galileo's discoveries He was the first to use the concept of inertia He developed coordinate transformations that were named after him a less appropriate model of the solar system

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Albert Einstein (physicist) Born: March 14, 1879 Died: April 18, 1955 (aged 76) Theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern theoretical physics, Nobel Prize winner in physics in 1921, humanist public figure. Lived in Germany, Switzerland and the USA. Honorary doctor of about 20 leading universities in the world, a member of many Academies of Sciences, including a foreign honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

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A. Einstein's discoveries Passion for physics and mathematics, constant research lead to the publication of a number of articles on static mechanics, molecular physics. Einstein's most famous theory is the theory of relativity. This theory was developed on the basis of Lobachevsky's geometric theory of relativity. Other great discoveries of the scientist include work on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion. Using quantum statistics, Einstein, together with the physicist Bose, discovered the fifth state of matter, named after them the Bose-Einstein condensate.

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Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich (Russian scientist) Born: November 19, 1711, the village of Mishaninskaya (now the village of Lomonosovo) Died: April 15, 1765 (53 years old) The first Russian natural scientist of world importance, encyclopedist, chemist and physicist; he entered science as the first chemist who gave physical chemistry a definition very close to the modern one, and outlined an extensive program of physical and chemical research; his molecular-kinetic theory of heat in many ways anticipated the modern idea of ​​the structure of matter and many fundamental laws, including one of the principles of thermodynamics; laid the foundations of the science of glass. Astronomer, instrument maker, geographer, metallurgist, geologist, poet, philologist, artist, historian and genealogist, champion of the development of national education, science and economics. He developed the project of the Moscow University, later named after him.

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M. Lomonosov's discoveries Lomonosov was especially attracted by chemistry and physics. The Russian scientist holds the first place in the world in the history of the law of conservation of energy and mass. It was Lomonosov who in 1748 in his new laboratory discovered one of the fundamental laws of nature - the law of conservation of matter. This law was published only 12 years later. Lomonosov was the first to formulate the foundations of the kinetic theory of gases, although today many associate this discovery with the name of Bernoulli. Mikhail Vasilyevich argued that any body consists of the smallest particles - atoms and molecules, which move more slowly when cooled, and faster when heated. Lomonosov discovered the secret of thunderstorms, the nature of the northern lights, and was even able to estimate their height. He owns the conjecture about vertical atmospheric currents and the original theory of colors.

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Vavilov Nikolai Ivanovich (scientist) Born: November 25, 1887, Moscow Died: January 26, 1943 (55 years old) Russian and Soviet geneticist, botanist, breeder, geographer, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR and VASKhNIL. President, Vice-President of VASKhNIL, President of the All-Union geographical society, founder and director of the All-Union Institute of Plant Growing until the moment of arrest, director of the Institute of Genetics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, member of the Expeditionary Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences, member of the board of the USSR People's Commissariat of Agriculture, member of the Presidium of the All-Union Association of Oriental Studies. In 1926-1935 he was a member of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, in 1927-1929 he was a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, a member of the Imperial Orthodox Palestinian Society.

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N. Vavilov's discoveries Creator of the doctrine of the world centers of origin of cultivated plants and plant immunity, the law of homological series in the hereditary variability of organisms, a network of scientific institutions in biology and related sciences

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Maria Sklodowska-Curie (physical chemist) Born: November 7, 1867, Warsaw Died: July 4, 1934 (66 years old) French experimental scientist of Polish origin, teacher, public figure. Awarded the Nobel Prize: in physics and in chemistry, the first double Nobel laureate in history. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw. The wife of Pierre Curie, together with him was engaged in the study of radioactivity. Together with her husband, she discovered the elements radium and polonium.

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Discoveries of M. Sklodowska-Curie Maria Sklodowska-Curie isolated pure metallic radium, proving that it is an independent chemical element. She received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery and became the only woman in the world with two Nobel Prizes.

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Blaise Pascal (physicist - mathematician) Born: June 19, 1623, Clermont-Ferrand Died: August 19, 1662 (39 years old) French mathematician, mechanic, physicist, writer and philosopher. Classic French literature, one of the founders of mathematical analysis, probability theory and projective geometry, the creator of the first samples of counting technology, the author of the basic law of hydrostatics.

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Discoveries of B. Pascal Twelve years of his short life Pascal gives credit to the creation of the calculating machine (1640-1652). In it, he put all his knowledge of mathematics, mechanics, physics, the talent of an inventor. According to Pascal's sister Gilberte, "this work was very tiring for my brother, but not because of the strain of mental activity and not because of the mechanisms, the invention of which did not cause him much effort, but because the workers did not understand him well." Pascal himself often had to take up a file and a hammer or puzzle over how to change a complex structure in accordance with the qualifications of the master.

Introduction

General characteristics of scientific discoveries of the twentieth century

The most high-profile scientific discoveries of the twentieth century in physics

The Importance of Physics in the Modern World

Conclusion

List of used literature

Personalities

Introduction

The relevance of the research topic is due to the fact that at the beginning of the twentieth century people were not yet ready to accept some inventions that could already enter the world of science, but, unfortunately, they were destined to enter the world only after several decades. In the twentieth century, many scientific discoveries were made, perhaps even more than in all previous times. The knowledge of mankind is steadily growing every year, and if the development trend continues, it is even impossible to imagine, then we are still waiting.

In the twentieth century, the main discoveries were made mainly in two areas: biology and physics.

The purpose of the work under study is to study the main scientific discoveries in physics in the twentieth century.

For a detailed study of this goal, we highlight the following tasks for the disclosure of the topic:

-give a general description of the scientific discoveries of the twentieth century;

consider the loudest scientific discoveries of the twentieth century in physics;

reveal the importance of physics in the modern world;

draw conclusions.

Work structure. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references, lists of terms and personalities.

1. General characteristics of scientific discoveries of the twentieth century

One of the most important discoveries in this area was the discovery of the famous physicist Max Planck. He discovered the uneven radiation of energy. Based on this discovery, in 1905 Einstein began to develop the most important theory of the photoelectric effect. Further, a model of the structure of the atom was proposed, according to which it was assumed that the atom was built like the solar system, where small objects (atoms) revolve around a large and heavy object (nucleus). But the revolutionary discoveries did not end there, Albert Einstein in 1916 discovered the theory of relativity, which practically opened the eyes of all scientists of that time. As a result, which was practically proved that gravity is not the effect of fields and bodies, but the curvature of temporary space. It explains the existence of black holes, as well as their origin. 1932 James Chadwick proved the existence of neutrons. And although this discovery led to the explosion of bombs in Nagasaki and Hiroshima Japan, it also helped develop the peaceful atom, which is now actively used in nuclear power plants. For example, in Germany more than 70% of electricity is generated nuclear power plants, in the world this figure is approximately 20%. 1947, December 16, scientists Brattain, Bardeen, Shockley discovered a material - a semiconductor, as well as its properties, which are now used in all electronic devices. Thus, the transistor was discovered, his invention helped to develop microcircuits, which, in fact, allow programming electronic systems.

At the same time, DNA - and although it was discovered back in 1869 by the biologist Misher, he did not assume that all the data about the creature was stored in it. In addition, DNA is present in all living beings (from plants to any animal). And already Rosalyn Franklin discovered the structure of the DNA molecule, which looked like a spiral staircase. Genes were also discovered that indicated the future species, and the characteristics of each person and creature in general.

Despite the improvement of our lives, every year it becomes more dangerous, due to the fact that humanity has stopped thinking about security, and hopes only for wealth there are various cataclysms, even nuclear ones: Chernobyl, Fukushima. These events forced Japan to decide to abandon nuclear energy within 7-8 years.

2. The most high-profile scientific discoveries of the twentieth century in physics

Theory of relativity. In 1905 there was a revolution in the world of science, the greatest discovery took place. A young, unknown scientist working at the patent office in the Swiss city of Bern has formulated a revolutionary theory. His name was Albert Einstein.

Einstein once said that all theories should be explained to children. If they don't understand the explanation, then the theory is meaningless. As a child, Einstein once read a children's book about electricity, then it was just emerging, and a simple telegraph seemed like a miracle. This book was written by a certain Bernstein, in which he invited the reader to imagine himself riding inside the wire along with the signal. We can say that then in the head of Einstein his revolutionary theory was born.

In his youth, inspired by his impression of that book, Einstein imagined himself moving along with a beam of light. He pondered this idea for 10 years, including in his reflections the concept of light, time and space.

He realized that Newton's theory, according to which time and space are unchanged, was wrong when applied to the speed of light. This was the beginning of the formulation of what he called the theory of relativity.

In the world that Newton described, time and space were separated from each other: when it was 10 a.m. on Earth, it was the same time on Venus, Jupiter, and throughout the universe. Time was something that never wavered or stopped. But Einstein saw time differently.

Time is a river that meanders around the stars, slowing down and speeding up. And if space and time can change, then our ideas about atoms, bodies and the Universe in general change too!

Einstein demonstrated his theory through so-called thought experiments. The most famous of these is the "twin paradox". So, we have two twins, one of which flies into space on a rocket. Since she flies at almost the speed of light, time inside her slows down. After the return of this twin to Earth, it turns out that he is younger than the one who remained on the planet. So time in different parts The universe goes differently. It depends on speed: the faster you move, the slower time passes for you.

This experiment is to some extent carried out with astronauts in orbit. If a person is in outer space, then time goes more slowly for him. On the space station, time passes more slowly. This phenomenon also affects satellites. Take, for example, GPS satellites: they show your position on the planet to within a few meters. Satellites move around the Earth at a speed of 29,000 km / h, so the postulates of the theory of relativity apply to them. This must be taken into account, because if the clock runs slower in space, then synchronization with earthly time will fail and the GPS system will not work.

A few months after the publication of the theory of relativity, Einstein made the following great discovery: the most famous equation of all time.=mc2 Probably the most famous formula in the world. In the theory of relativity, Einstein proved that when the speed of light is reached, the conditions for a body change in an unimaginable way: time slows down, space shrinks, and mass grows. The higher the speed, the greater the mass of the body. Just think, the energy of movement makes you heavier. Mass depends on speed and energy. Einstein imagined how a flashlight emits a beam of light. It is known exactly how much energy comes out of the flashlight. At the same time, he showed that the flashlight became lighter, i.e. he became lighter when he began to emit light. So E - the energy of the flashlight depends on m - the mass in a proportion equal to c2. Everything is simple.

This formula also showed that a huge energy can be contained in a small object. Imagine that a baseball is thrown to you and you catch it. The harder it is thrown, the more energy it will have.

Now for the state of rest. When Einstein was deriving his formulas, he discovered that even at rest, a body has energy. By calculating this value by the formula, you will see that the energy is truly enormous.

Einstein's discovery was a huge scientific leap. It was the first glimpse of the power of the atom. Before scientists fully realized this discovery, the next one happened, which again plunged everyone into shock.

Quantum theory. The quantum leap is the smallest possible leap in nature, while its discovery was the greatest breakthrough in scientific thought.

Subatomic particles, such as electrons, can move from one point to another without occupying the space between them. In our macrocosm it is impossible, but at the level of an atom it is a law.

In the subatomic world, atoms and their components exist according to completely different laws than large material bodies. The German scientist Max Planck described these laws in his quantum theory.

Quantum theory appeared at the very beginning of the 20th century, when there was a crisis in classical physics. Many phenomena were discovered that contradicted Newton's laws. Madame Curie, for example, discovered radium, which itself glows in the dark, the energy was taken from nowhere, which contradicted the law of conservation of energy. In 1900, people believed that energy was continuous, and that electricity and magnetism could be infinitely divided into absolutely any parts. And the great physicist Max Planck boldly declared that energy exists in certain volumes - quanta.

If we imagine that light exists only in these volumes, then many phenomena become clear even at the level of the atom. Energy is released sequentially and in a certain amount, this is called the quantum effect and means that the energy is undulating.

Then they thought that the Universe was created in a completely different way. The atom was seen as something resembling a bowling ball. And how can a ball have wave properties?

In 1925, the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger finally came up with a wave equation that described the motion of electrons. Suddenly it became possible to look inside the atom. It turns out that atoms are both waves and particles at the same time, but at the same time they are unstable.

Soon Max Born, Einstein's colleague, took a revolutionary step: he asked himself the question - if matter is a wave, then what changes in it? Born suggested that the probability of determining the position of the body at a given point changes.

Is it possible to calculate the possibility that a person will be divided into atoms, and then materialize on the other side of the wall? Sounds absurd. How can you wake up in the morning and be on Mars? How can you go to sleep and wake up on Jupiter? This is impossible, but the probability of this is quite realistic to calculate. This probability is very low. For this to happen, a person would need to experience the universe, but for electrons this happens all the time.

All modern "miracles" like laser beams and microchips work on the basis that an electron can be in two places at once. How is this possible? You don't know exactly where the object is. This became such a difficult hurdle that even Einstein gave up quantum theory, saying he didn't believe God was playing dice in the universe.

Despite all the strangeness and uncertainty, quantum theory remains so far our best understanding of the subatomic world.

Neutron. An atom is so small that it is difficult to imagine it. There are 72 quintillion atoms in one grain of sand. The discovery of the atom led to another discovery.

People knew about the existence of the atom 100 years ago. They thought that electrons and protons were evenly distributed in it. This was called the "raisin pudding" type model because it was believed that the electrons were distributed inside the atom like raisins inside a pudding.

In the early 20th century, Ernest Rutherford conducted an experiment to further explore the structure of the atom. He directed radioactive alpha particles at gold foil. He wanted to know what would happen when alpha particles hit gold. The scientist did not expect anything special, since he thought that most of the alpha particles would pass through the gold without being reflected or changing direction.

However, the result was unexpected. According to him, it was the same as firing a 380-mm projectile at a piece of matter, and in doing so, the projectile would bounce off it. Some alpha particles immediately bounced off the gold foil. This could only happen if there was a small amount of dense matter inside the atom, not distributed like raisins in a pudding. Rutherford called this small amount of matter the nucleus.

Thanks to the discovery of Rutherford, scientists learned that the atom consists of a nucleus, protons and electrons. This picture was completed by James Chadwick, a student of Rutherford. He discovered the neutron.

Chadwick conducted an experiment that showed that the nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. To do this, he used a very clever method of recognition. To intercept the particles that came out of the radioactive process, Chadwick used paraffin wax.

The discovery of the neutron was the greatest scientific achievement. In 1939, a group of scientists led by Enrico Fermi used the neutron to split the atom, opening the door to the age of nuclear technology.

Superconductors. Fermi Laboratory has one of the world's largest particle accelerators. This is a 7-kilometer underground ring in which subatomic particles are accelerated to almost the speed of light and then collide. This became possible only after superconductors appeared.

Superconductors were discovered around 1909. A Dutch physicist named Heike Kamerling-Onnes was the first to figure out how to turn helium from a gas into a liquid. After that, he could use helium as a freezing liquid, and yet he wanted to study the properties of materials at very low temperatures. At that time, people were interested in how electrical resistance metal depends on temperature - it rises or falls.

He used mercury for experiments, which he knew how to purify well. He placed it in a special apparatus, dropping it into liquid helium in a freezer, lowering the temperature and measuring the resistance. He found that the lower the temperature, the lower the resistance, and when the temperature reached minus 268 °C, the resistance dropped to zero. At this temperature, mercury would conduct electricity without any loss or disruption of flow. This is called superconductivity.

Superconductors allow electric current to move without any loss of energy. At the Fermi Lab, they are used to create a strong magnetic field. Magnets are needed so that protons and antiprotons can move in the Phasotron and the huge ring. Their speed is almost equal to the speed of light.

The particle accelerator at Fermi Lab requires incredibly powerful power. Every month, it costs millions of dollars of electricity to cool superconductors to minus 270°C, when resistance becomes zero.

Now the main task is to find superconductors that would work at more high temperatures and require less cost.

In the early 1980s, a group of researchers from the Swiss branch of IBM discovered new type superconductors that had zero resistance at a temperature 100 °C higher than usual. Of course, 100 degrees above absolute zero is not the temperature you have in your freezer. We need to find a material that would be a superconductor at ordinary room temperature. This would be the greatest breakthrough, which would be a revolution in the world of science. Everything that now runs on electric current would be much more efficient.

Quark. This discovery is a search for the smallest particles of matter in the Universe.

First the electron was discovered, then the proton, and then the neutron. Now science had a new model of the atom that makes up any body.

With the development of accelerators that could push subatomic particles together at the speed of light, man became aware of the existence of dozens of other particles into which atoms were broken. Physicists have come to call it all "particle zoo."

American physicist Murray Gell-Man noticed a pattern in a number of newly discovered "zoo" particles. He divided the particles into groups according to the usual characteristics. Along the way, he isolated the smallest components of the atomic nucleus, which make up the protons and neutrons themselves.

He suggested that the neutron or proton are not elementary particles, as many thought, but consist of even smaller particles - quarks - with unusual properties.

The quarks discovered by Gell-Mann were to subatomic particles what the periodic table was to chemical elements. For his discovery in 1969, Murray Gell-Man was awarded Nobel Prize in the field of physics. His classification of the smallest material particles streamlined their entire "zoo".

Although Gell-Manom ​​was sure of the existence of quarks, he did not think that anyone could actually detect them. The first confirmation of the correctness of his theories was the successful experiments of his colleagues, carried out at the Stanford linear accelerator. In it, electrons were separated from protons, and a macrophoto of a proton was taken. It turned out that there were three quarks in it.

After the discoveries of Isaac Newton and Michael Faraday, scientists believed that nature had two main forces: gravity and electromagnetism. But in the twentieth century, two more forces were discovered, united by one concept - atomic Energy. Thus, there were four natural forces.

Each force operates in a certain spectrum. Gravity prevents us from flying into space at a speed of 1500 km/h. Then we have the electromagnetic forces, which are light, radio, television, and so on. in addition, there are two more forces, the field of action of which is very limited: there is nuclear attraction, which does not allow the nucleus to decay, and there is nuclear energy, which emits radioactivity and infects everything, and also, by the way, heats the center of the Earth, it is thanks to it that the center of our the planet has not cooled down for several billion years - this is the effect of passive radiation, which turns into heat.

How to detect passive radiation? This is possible thanks to Geiger counters. The particles that are released when an atom splits hit other atoms, creating a small electrical discharge that can be measured. When it is detected, the Geiger counter clicks.

How to measure nuclear attraction? Here the situation is more difficult, because it is this force that prevents the atom from disintegrating. Here we need an atom splitter. It is necessary to literally break the atom into fragments, someone compared this process to throwing a piano down a ladder in order to understand the principles of its work, listening to the sounds that the piano makes when it hits the steps.

So, we have four forces of fundamental interaction: gravity (gravity), electromagnetism (electromagnetism), nuclear attraction (weak force, weak interaction) and nuclear energy (strong force, strong interaction). The last two are called quantum forces, their description can be combined into something called standard model. It may be the ugliest theory in the history of science, but it is indeed possible at the subatomic level. The theory of the standard model claims to be superior, but that doesn't stop it from being ugly. On the other hand, we have gravity - a magnificent, beautiful system, it is beautiful to tears - physicists literally cry when they see Einstein's formulas. They seek to unite all the forces of nature into one theory and call it the "theory of everything." She would combine all four powers into one superpower that has existed since the beginning of time.

It is not known whether we will ever be able to discover a superpower that would include all four basic forces of Nature and whether we will be able to create a physical theory of Everything. But one thing is certain: every discovery leads to new research, and people - the most curious species on the planet - will never stop striving to understand, seek and discover.

Wave properties of electrons. When in 1911 Bohr and Rutherford proposed a model of the atom that was very similar to the solar system, it seemed that we knew all the secrets of matter. Indeed, on its basis, taking into account the additions of Einstein and Planck on the nature of light, scientists were able to calculate the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. However, already with the helium atom, difficulties arose. Theoretical calculations differed significantly from the experimental data.

The German physicist Heisenberg found that one cannot simultaneously determine the location and speed of electrons. The more precisely we determine the speed of an electron, the more uncertain its location becomes. This relation has been called "Heisenberg's uncertainty principle". However, the oddities of electrons did not end there. In the twenties, physicists already knew that light has the properties of both waves and particles. Therefore, the French scientist de Broglie in 1923 suggested that other elementary particles, in particular electrons, could have similar properties. He managed to set up a series of experiments that confirmed the wave properties of the electron.

division of the atom. The thirties of the last century can be called radioactive. It all started in 1920, when Ernest Rutherford hypothesized that positively charged protons are held in the nucleus of an atom by some particles that have a neutral charge. Rutherford proposed to call these particles neutrons.

This assumption was forgotten by physicists for many years. It was remembered only in 1930, when the German physicists Bothe and Becker noticed that when boron or beryllium is irradiated with alpha particles, unusual radiation occurs.

January 1932 Frederic and Irene Joliot-Curie directed Bothe-Becker radiation to heavy atoms. As it turned out, under the influence of this radiation, the atoms became radioactive. Thus, artificial radioactivity was discovered. James Chadwick repeated the experiments of the Joliot-Curie spouses and found out that some neutrally charged particles with a mass close to a proton are to blame for everything. Electrical neutrality allows these particles to freely penetrate the nucleus of an atom and destabilize it. This discovery made it possible to create both peaceful nuclear power plants and the most destructive weapon- a nuclear bomb.

Semiconductors and transistors. On December 16, 1947, AT&T Bell Laboratories engineers William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain were able to control large currents with small currents. On this day, the transistor was invented - a small device consisting of two p-n junctions directed towards each other.

This made it possible to create a device that could control the current. The transistor replaced electronic tubes, which significantly reduced both the weight of the equipment and the electricity consumed by the devices. He paved the way for logic circuits, which led to the creation of the first microprocessor in 1971. Further development of microelectronics made it possible to create modern processors for computers.

Space exploration. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite Earth. And even though it was very small and had practically no scientific equipment on board, it was from that moment that humanity entered into space age. In less than four years, on April 12, 1961, a man flew into space. And again, the Soviet Union managed to get ahead of the United States and, before anyone else, sent the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit around our planet. This event spurred scientific and technological progress. Two great powers began the race for space exploration. The next goal was to land a man on the moon. To implement this project, it took a lot of inventions. US designers have already celebrated their victory here.

At first, space was only a costly project, the return on which was extremely small. However, the gradual exploration of outer space allowed mankind to create systems without which our life is no longer conceivable. Particular advances have been made in the areas of weather prediction, exploration, communications and positioning on the planet's surface. This made it possible to make launches of space satellites commercially viable.

Carbon nanotubes. In 1985, researchers Robert Curl, Heath O Brian, Harold Kroto, and Richard Smalley studied the mass spectra of graphite vapor produced by a laser. So new variations of carbon were discovered, called "fullerene" (in honor of the engineer Buckminster Fuller) and "rugben" (because its molecule resembles a rugby ball).

These unique formations have a number of useful physical properties, so they are widely used in various devices. However, this is not the most important thing. Scientists have developed a technology for obtaining nanotubes from these carbon variations - twisted and cross-linked layers of graphite. Nanotubes with a length of 1 centimeter and a diameter of 5-7 nanometers have already been obtained! At the same time, such nanotubes have a variety of physical properties - from semiconductor to metallic.

On their basis, new materials for displays and optical fiber communications have been obtained. In addition, in medicine, nanotubes are used to deliver biologically active substances to the right place in the body. Based on them, fuel cells and ultra-sensitive sensors of chemicals, as well as many other useful devices, have been developed.

Thus, speaking about the role of physics, we highlight three main points. Firstly, physics is the most important source of knowledge about the surrounding world for a person. Secondly, physics, continuously expanding and repeatedly multiplying the capabilities of man, ensures his confident progress along the path of technical progress. Thirdly, physics makes a significant contribution to the development of the spiritual image of a person, forms his worldview, and teaches him to navigate the scale of cultural values. Therefore, we will talk about the scientific, technical and humanitarian potentials of physics, respectively.

These three potentials have always been contained in physics. But they manifested themselves especially brightly and weightily in the physics of the 20th century, which predetermined the exceptionally important role that physics began to play in the modern world.

Physics as the most important source of knowledge about the surrounding world. As is known, physics investigates the most general properties and forms of motion of matter. She is looking for answers to questions: how the world around works; What laws govern the phenomena and processes occurring in it? In an effort to know the "original principles of things" and the "primary causes of phenomena", physics in the process of its development formed first a mechanical picture of the world (XVIII - XIX centuries), then an electromagnetic picture (second half of the XIX - early XX centuries) and, finally, a modern physical picture world (mid-twentieth century).

3. Significance of physics in the modern world

The last decades are poor in discoveries as never before in the history of mankind. In practically no field of knowledge, nothing fundamentally new has appeared, only a continuation of what has already been done, logical consequences from old discoveries. And, of course, new technologies based, again, on all the same already known facts. High physics has taken a vacation, and most scientists are engaged in applied problems.

At the dawn of the sciences, physics was part of philosophy and was not so much an "exact" science, as it is now commonly called, but a descriptive one. There was no "exact" language that could bring physics to any common denominator, make it less speculative. That is, there was no mathematics corresponding to physical theories.

Nevertheless, the lack of mathematics did not prevent the creation of the atomistic theory of Leucippus-Democritus, was not an obstacle for Lucretius, who was able to present this theory in detail and quite clearly. But, according to the information that has come down to us, Democritus was by no means a student of the famous philosophers and materialists of that time. On the contrary, magicians and Chaldeans were engaged in his training. And he studied not how many will be twice two, but the theory of levitation, reading thoughts at a distance, teleportation and other absolutely incredible things that modern traditional science almost completely dismisses as non-existent, fabulous fantasies. And yet, it was these "fantasies" that made it possible to create one of the most materialistic theories. It would seem incredible! But, as you can see, it is not just possible, but a fact. Modern physics, as a fundamental science, is in a state of deep crisis. This became known by no means today. Almost since the beginning of the 20th century, many scientists have tried to draw attention to a simple fact: physics has reached a dead end, the mathematical apparatus, which was originally the language of physics, has become so cumbersome that it does not so much describe physical phenomena as masks their essence. Moreover, this mathematical apparatus is hopelessly outdated and backward, it is impossible to describe with its help, and even more so to explain many observed phenomena, the results and essence of ongoing experiments, and so on.

How does language appear and evolve? If we consider it in a simplified way, then the emergence of a language is a consequence of the complexity of everyday life and an increase in the amount of knowledge. At the dawn of civilization, auditory communication was only complementary, it was quite possible to get by with the language of gestures and body movements. But the amount of information was constantly increasing, and for its description, transmission using sign language, one had to spend too much time, and the accuracy of transmission left much to be desired (imagine for a moment how, for example, a disabled person gnawed on a hunt by a saber-toothed tiger can explain the new principles of device traps - it will be very difficult to understand him, because he is limited in the possibilities of gestures). But the auditory transmission of information did not have such disadvantages and began to spread widely. Each item began to correspond to a certain symbol-word.

If humanity stopped at sign language, then, most likely, some kind of relatively civilized life could be established, but the development of science would have to be forgotten. Think - how can you express the concept of cybernetics with the help of gestures, how to explain what a computer is? Again, the development of science and technology requires a corresponding linguistic evolution. Imagine that the word "computer" did not appear, and indeed no other substitute for it. How would you explain what in question? "An electronic device that can count and solve logical problems, equipped with a rectangular screen and a set of keys"? Agree, this not only sounds wild, but also extremely inconvenient for the user. If every time one spoke of a computer one had to describe it with such a cumbersome set of symbols, then one would have to forget about any development in cybernetics.

But precisely this situation has developed in physics, whose language - mathematics - has lagged behind and is no longer able to describe the observed phenomena. Cumbersome and indigestible formulas are reminiscent of the above description of a computer: they are just as “convenient” for work and just as “completely” describe the object of which they are a symbol.

As a result, it remains either to put aside attempts to further knowledge of the world - until mathematics begins to cope with the task assigned to it ... no, not the task, the mission; or use the method of Democritus and describe the phenomena, using minimal mathematics.

Conclusion

Thus, we can conclude that even at the beginning of the twentieth century, people could not even imagine what a car, TV or computer is. Scientific discoveries in the 20th century had a significant impact on all mankind. More scientific discoveries were made in the 20th century than in all previous centuries. The knowledge of mankind is growing rapidly, so it can be said with confidence that if this trend continues, then in the 21st century even more scientific discoveries will be made, which can radically change a person's life.

At the same time, there is no need to prove that the modern world outlook is an important component of human culture. Every man of culture should, at least in general terms, imagine how the world in which he lives works. This is necessary not only for general development. Love for nature presupposes respect for the processes taking place in it, and for this it is necessary to understand by what laws they are carried out. We have many instructive examples when nature punished us for our ignorance; it's time to learn to learn from this lesson. It also cannot be realized that it is the knowledge of the laws of nature that is an effective weapon in the fight against mystical ideas, that it is the foundation of atheistic education.

Modern physics makes a significant contribution to the development of a new style of thinking, which can be called planetary thinking. It addresses issues of great importance to all countries and peoples. These include, for example, the problems of solar-terrestrial relations concerning the impact of solar radiation on the magnetosphere, atmosphere and biosphere of the Earth; forecasts of the physical picture of the world after a nuclear catastrophe, if one breaks out; global ecological problems associated with pollution of the oceans and the earth's atmosphere.

In conclusion, we note that by influencing the very nature of thinking, helping to navigate the scale of life values, physics ultimately contributes to the development of an adequate attitude to the world around us and, in particular, an active life position. It is important for any person to know that the world is cognizable in principle, that randomness is not always harmful, that it is necessary and possible to navigate and work in a world saturated with randomness, that in this changing world there are nevertheless “reference points”, invariants (no matter what changes , and energy is conserved) that as knowledge deepens, the picture inevitably becomes more complicated, becomes more dialectical, so that yesterday’s “partitions” are no longer suitable.

Thus, we are convinced that modern physics really contains a powerful humanitarian potential. The words of the American physicist I. Rabi can not be considered too great an exaggeration: “Physics is the core of liberal education our time".

physics scientific discovery

List of used literature

1.Ankin D.V. Actual problems of the theory of knowledge. Yekaterinburg: Ural University, 2013 - 69 p.

2.Baturin VK. Fundamentals of the theory of knowledge and modern philosophy of science: monograph. Odintsovo: Odintsovo Humanitarian Institute, 2010 - 244 p.

.Illarionov S.V. Theory of knowledge and philosophy of science / SV Illarionov. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2007 - 535 p.

.Kulikova O.B. Philosophy of knowledge: an analysis of the main problems. General characteristics of methods scientific knowledge: Ivanovo: Ivanovo state. energy university im. IN AND. Lenin, 2009 - 91 p.

.Kurashov V.I. Theoretical and practical philosophy in brief. Moscow: University. Book House, 2007 - 131 p.

.Motroshilova N.V. Domestic philosophy of the 50-80s of the XX century and Western thought. Moscow: Acad. project, 2012 - 375 p.

.Orlov V.V. History of human intelligence. Perm: Perm State University. un-t, 2007 - 187 p.

.Starostin A.M. Social and humanitarian knowledge in the context of philosophical innovation. Rostov-on-Don: Donizdat, 2013 - 512 p.

.Tetyuev L.I. Theoretical philosophy: the problem of knowledge: Modern discussions around the theory of knowledge. Saratov: Nauka, 2010 - 109 p.

10.Shchedrina T.G. Philosophy of knowledge. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2010 - 663 p.

Terms

1.ABSOLUTELY BLACK BODY- This is a model of a body that completely absorbs any electromagnetic radiation falling on its surface. The closest approximation to a black body is a device consisting of a closed cavity with a hole whose dimensions are small compared to the dimensions of the cavity itself.

2.ADATOM - an atom on the surface of a crystal.

.ADIABATIC APPROXIMATION - an approximation in the theory of a solid body, in which the movement of the cores of the ions of the crystal lattice is considered as a perturbation.

.ACCEPTOR - an impurity in a semiconductor material that captures a free electron.

.ALPHA PARTICLE (α- particle) - the nucleus of a helium atom. Contains two protons and two neutrons. by emission α- particles is accompanied by one of the radioactive transformations (alpha decay of nuclei) of certain chemical elements.

.ANNIHILATION is one of the types of mutual transformations of elementary particles, in which a particle and its corresponding antiparticle are transformed into electromagnetic radiation.

.ANTIPARTICLES are elementary particles that differ from their corresponding particles in the sign of electric, baryon and lepton charges, as well as some other characteristics.

.BARYON CHARGE (baryon number) (b) - characteristic of elementary particles equal to +1 for baryons, -1 for antibaryons and 0 for all other particles.

.BETA PARTICLE - An electron emitted during beta decay. The flux of beta particles is one of the types of radioactive radiation with a penetrating power greater than that of alpha particles, but less than that of gamma radiation.

10.VALENCE BAND - the zone of valence electrons, at zero temperature in its own semiconductor is completely filled.

11.HYDROGEN-LIKE ATOMS - ions consisting, like a hydrogen atom, of a nucleus and one electron. These include ions of elements with an atomic number Z greater than or equal to 2 that have lost all electrons except one: He+, Li2+, etc.

.EXCITED STATE of a quantum system (atom, molecule, atomic nucleus, etc.) is an unstable state with an energy exceeding the energy of the ground (zero) state.

.VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTIC - dependence of current on voltage. The main characteristic for any semiconductor device.

.FORCED RADIATION (induced radiation) is electromagnetic radiation emitted by excited atoms or molecules under the action of external radiation of the same frequency. The emitted stimulated radiation coincides with the driving one not only in frequency, but also in the direction of propagation, polarization and phase, not differing from it in any way.

.GALLIUM is an element of the fifth group of the periodic system of elements.

.GALVANOMAGNETIC EFFECTS - effects associated with the action of a magnetic field on the electrical (galvanic) properties of solid conductors.

.GAMMA RADIATION (gamma quanta) - short-wave electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength less than 2 × 10-10 m.

.HYPERONS are elementary particles belonging to the class of baryons along with nucleons (proton, neutron). Hyperons are more massive than nucleons and have a non-zero characteristic of elementary particles called strangeness.

.THE MAIN QUANTUM NUMBER (n) is an integer that determines the possible values ​​of the energy of the stationary states of hydrogen atoms and hydrogen-like atoms.

.TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRON GAS - electron gas, which is located in a potential well, which limits the movement along one of the coordinates.

.DEUTERIUM is a heavy stable isotope of hydrogen with a mass number of 2. The content in natural hydrogen is 0.156% (by mass).

.The deuteron is the nucleus of the deuterium atom. Consists of one proton and one neutron.

.MASS DEFECT is the difference between the sum of the masses of particles (bodies) that form a connected system and the mass of this entire system.

.CRYSTAL DEFECTS - any violation of the periodicity of the crystal.

.DIVACANCY - a conglomerate of crystal defects, consisting of two vacancies.

.DIODE - a semiconductor device with two electrodes.

.DISLOCATION - a linear defect in a crystal.

.A misfit dislocation is one of the types of linear defects in a crystal when an additional half-plane is inserted into the crystal lattice.

.RADIATION DOSE is a physical quantity that is a measure of the radiation impact on living organisms of radioactive radiation or high-energy particles. Distinguish between absorbed radiation dose, equivalent dose and exposure dose.

.DONOR - a type of dopants supplying free electrons.

.HOLE - a quasi-particle in a solid body with a positive charge equal in absolute value to the charge of an electron.

.HOLE CONDUCTIVITY - in a p-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers make the main contribution to the conductivity.

.HOLE SEMICONDUCTOR - a semiconductor with p-type conductivity, the main current carriers are holes.

.LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY - The number of undecayed radioactive nuclei in any sample is halved every time interval, called the half-life.

.THE LAW OF SHIFT OF WINE - as the temperature rises, the maximum energy in the radiation spectrum of a completely black body shifts towards shorter wavelengths and, moreover, so that the product of the wavelength that accounts for the maximum radiation energy and the absolute temperature of the body is equal to a constant value.

.STEFAN-BOLTZMAN'S LAW - the energy emitted in one second by a unit area of ​​the surface of a completely black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

.SHUTTER - a control electrode in a field-effect transistor.

.ZONE - the term of the band theory, denoting the range of allowed energy values ​​that electrons or holes can take.

.ZONE THEORY OF SOLID BODIES is a one-electron theory for a periodic potential that explains many electrical properties of semiconductors. Uses the adiabatic approximation.

.RADIATIVE RECOMBINATION - recombination with the emission of one or more photons upon the death of an electron-hole pair; source of radiation in light-emitting diodes and laser diodes.

.Isotopes are varieties of a given chemical element that differ in the mass number of their nuclei. The nuclei of isotopes of the same element contain the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. Having the same structure of electron shells, isotopes have almost the same chemical properties. However, the physical properties of isotopes can differ quite sharply.

.INJECTION - a phenomenon that leads to the appearance of non-equilibrium carriers in a semiconductor when an electric current is passed through a p-n junction or heterojunction.

.IONIZING RADIATION - this is radiation, the interaction of which with the environment leads to the ionization of its atoms and molecules. This is X-ray and γ- radiation, flows β- particles, electrons, positrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Visible and ultraviolet radiation are not classified as ionizing radiation.

.SOURCE is a term for one of the contacts in a field effect transistor.

.QUANTUM OF LIGHT (photon) - a portion of the energy of electromagnetic radiation, an elementary particle, which is a portion of electromagnetic radiation, a carrier of electromagnetic interaction.

.QUARKS are point, structureless formations related to true elementary particles, which were introduced to systematize numerous (more than a hundred) elementary particles discovered in the 20th century (electron, proton, neutron, etc.). A characteristic feature of quarks, which is not found in other particles, is a fractional electric charge, a multiple of 1/3 of the elementary charge. Attempts to detect quarks in the free state have not been successful.

.CORPUSCULAR-WAVE DUALISM is a universal property of nature, which consists in the fact that both corpuscular and wave features are manifested in the behavior of micro-objects.

.NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION FACTOR is a characteristic of the chain process of decay of radioactive nuclei, equal to the ratio of the number of neutrons in any generation of the chain reaction to the number of neutrons that generated them in the previous generation.

.THE RED BORDER OF THE PHOTOEFFECT is the minimum frequency of light ν0 or maximum wavelength λ0, at which the photoelectric effect is still possible.

.SILICON is a semiconductor, the main material of the modern semiconductor industry.

.CRYSTAL is an idealized model of a rigid body with translational symmetry.

.CRITICAL MASS is the minimum mass of nuclear fuel at which a nuclear fission chain reaction is possible.

.LASER (optical quantum generator) is a light source operating on the principle of stimulated emission.

.LINE SPECTRA are optical spectra consisting of individual spectral lines. Line spectra are characteristic of the radiation of heated substances that are in a gaseous atomic (but not molecular) state.

.LUMINESCENCE is an excess of electromagnetic radiation of a body (cold glow) above thermal radiation, caused either by the bombardment of a substance with electrons (cathodoluminescence), or by passing an electric current through a substance (electroluminescence), or by the action of some kind of radiation (photoluminescence).

.PHOSCHORS are solid and liquid substances capable of emitting light under the action of electron flows (cathodoluminophores), ultraviolet radiation (photoluminophores), etc.

.MASS NUMBER is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in an atomic nucleus. The mass number is equal to the relative rounded to an integer atomic mass element. There is a conservation law for the mass number, which is a special case of the baryon charge conservation law.

.A NEUTRINO is a light (possibly massless) electrically neutral particle that participates only in weak and gravitational interactions. A distinctive property of neutrinos is their enormous penetrating power. It is believed that these particles fill the entire outer space with an average density of about 300 neutrinos per 1 cm3.

.A NEUTRON is an electrically neutral particle with a mass 1839 times that of an electron. A free neutron is an unstable particle that decays into a proton and an electron. The neutron is one of the nucleons (along with the proton) and is part of the atomic nucleus.

.A CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM (continuous spectrum) is a spectrum containing a continuous sequence of all frequencies (or wavelengths) of electromagnetic radiation, smoothly passing into each other.

.NUCLEOSYNTHESIS is a sequence of nuclear reactions leading to the formation of ever heavier atomic nuclei from other, lighter ones.

.NUCLEONS is the general name for protons and neutrons - the particles from which atomic nuclei are built.

.OPTICAL TRANSITIONS - transitions of an electron in a solid body between states with different energies with the emission or absorption of light.

.GROUND STATE is the state of an atom, molecule or some other quantum system with the smallest possible value of internal energy. Unlike excited states, the ground state is stable.

.BASIC CARRIERS - the type of charge carriers prevailing in a semiconductor.

.HALF-LIFE is the period of time during which the initial number of radioactive nuclei is on average halved. For different elements, it can take values ​​from many billions of years to fractions of a second.

.POSITRON - an elementary particle with a positive charge equal to the charge of an electron, with a mass equal to the mass of an electron. It is the antiparticle with respect to the electron.

.STRIPED SPECTRA - These are the optical spectra of molecules and crystals, consisting of wide spectral bands, the position of which is different for different substances.

.Bohr's postulates are the basic principles of the "old" quantum theory - the theory of the atom, developed in 1913 by the Danish physicist Bohr.

.PROTON is a positively charged elementary particle with a mass exceeding the mass of an electron by 1836 times; the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. The proton (along with the neutron) is one of the nucleons and is part of the atomic nuclei of all chemical elements.

.Work function is the minimum work that must be done to remove an electron from a solid or liquid into a vacuum. The work function is determined by the type of substance and the state of its surface.

.RADIOACTIVITY is the ability of some atomic nuclei to spontaneously transform into other nuclei, while emitting various particles: Any spontaneous radioactive decay is exothermic, that is, it occurs with the release of heat.

.STRONG INTERACTION is one of the four fundamental interactions of elementary particles, a particular manifestation of which is nuclear forces.

.WEAK INTERACTION is one of the four fundamental interactions of elementary particles, a particular manifestation of which is the beta decay of atomic nuclei.

.The UNCERTAINTY RELATION is a fundamental relation of quantum mechanics, according to which the product of uncertainties ("inaccuracies") in the coordinate and the corresponding projection of the particle's momentum, with any accuracy of their simultaneous measurement, cannot be less than a value equal to half of Planck's constant.

.RADIATION SPECTRUM is a set of frequencies or wavelengths contained in the radiation of a given substance.

.THE ABSORPTION SPECTRUM is a set of frequencies (or wavelengths) of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by a given substance.

.SPECTRAL ANALYSIS is a method for determining the chemical composition of a substance from its spectrum.

.SPIN is the intrinsic angular momentum of an elementary particle. It has a quantum nature and (unlike the angular momentum of ordinary bodies) is not associated with the motion of a particle as a whole.

.THERMAL RADIATION is electromagnetic radiation that occurs due to the internal energy of the substance emitting it.

.THERMONUCLEAR REACTIONS are nuclear reactions between light atomic nuclei occurring at very high temperatures (~108 K and above).

.A TRACK is a trace left by a charged particle in a detector.

.TRITIUM is a superheavy radioactive isotope of hydrogen with a mass number of 3. The average content of tritium in natural waters- 1 atom per 1018 hydrogen atoms.

.EINSTEIN'S EQUATION for the photoelectric effect is an equation that expresses the relationship between the energy of a photon participating in the photoelectric effect, the maximum kinetic energy of an electron emitted from a substance, and the characteristic of the metal on which the photoelectric effect is observed - the work function for the metal.

.PHOTON is an elementary particle, which is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation (in the narrow sense - light).

.PHOTOEFECT (external photoelectric effect) is the emission of electrons by bodies under the influence of light.

.CHEMICAL ACTIONS OF LIGHT - these are the actions of light, as a result of which chemical transformations occur in substances that absorb light - photochemical reactions.

.A CHAIN ​​REACTION is a self-sustaining fission reaction of heavy nuclei, in which neutrons are continuously reproduced, fissuring more and more new nuclei.

.A BLACK HOLE is a region of space in which there is such a strong gravitational field that even light cannot leave this region and go to infinity.

.ELEMENTARY PARTICLES is a conventional name for a large group of micro-objects that are not atoms or atomic nuclei (with the exception of the proton - the nucleus of the hydrogen atom).

.The binding energy of an atomic nucleus is the minimum energy that is necessary for the complete splitting of the nucleus into individual nucleons.

.The COMPTON EFFECT is a decrease in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation when it is scattered by free electrons.

.NUCLEAR (PLANETARY) MODEL OF THE ATOM - a model of the structure of the atom, proposed by the English physicist Rutherford, according to which the atom is as empty as the solar system.

.NUCLEAR REACTIONS are the transformations of atomic nuclei as a result of interaction with each other or with any elementary particles.

.NUCLEAR FORCES is a measure of the interaction of nucleons in an atomic nucleus. It is these forces that hold like-charged protons in the nucleus, preventing them from scattering under the action of electrical repulsive forces.

.NUCLEAR PHOTO-EMULSIONS are photographic emulsions used to register tracks of charged particles. When studying high-energy particles, these photographic emulsions are stacked in stacks of several hundred layers.

.A NUCLEAR REACTOR is a device in which a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction is carried out. The main part of a nuclear reactor is the core, in which a chain reaction takes place and nuclear energy is released.

100.NUCLEUS (atomic) is the positively charged central part of the atom, in which 99.96% of its mass is concentrated. The radius of the nucleus is ~10-15 m, which is approximately one hundred thousand times less than the radius of the entire atom, determined by the size of its electron shell.

Personalities

1.ABDUS SALAM. Contribution to the unified theory of weak and electromagnetic interactions between elementary particles, including the prediction of weak neutral currents.

2.IVOR GYEVER. Experimental discoveries of tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively.

.ALEXANDER GRIGORYEVICH STOLETOV (1839-1896). Alexander Grigoryevich Stoletov was born on August 10, 1839 in the family of a poor Vladimir merchant. His father, Grigory Mikhailovich, owned a small grocery store and a leather dressing workshop.

.ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879-1955). His name is often heard in the most common vernacular. “There is no smell of Einstein here”; "Wow Einstein"; "Yes, it's definitely not Einstein!" In his age, when science dominated like never before, he stands apart, like a symbol of intellectual power. Sometimes the thought even seems to arise: "humanity is divided into two parts - Albert Einstein and the rest of the world.

.ALFRED CASTLER. Discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms.

.AMEDEO AVOGADRO (1776-1856). Avogadro entered the history of physics as the author of one of the most important laws of molecular physics. Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro di Quaregna e di Cerreto was born on August 9, 1776 in Turin, the capital of the Italian province of Piedmont, in the family of Philippe Avogadro, an employee of the judicial department. Amedeo was the third of eight children.

.ANDRE MARIE AMPER (1775-1836). The French scientist Ampère is known in the history of science mainly as the founder of electrodynamics. Meanwhile, he was a universal scientist, having merits in the field of mathematics, chemistry, biology, and even in linguistics and philosophy. He was a brilliant mind, striking with his encyclopedic knowledge of all the people who knew him closely.