April 17, 2016

Alexander II is known for his numerous reforms that affected all aspects of the life of Russian society. In 1874, on behalf of this tsar, Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin changed the conscription system in national army. The format of the universal conscription with some changes existed in the Soviet Union and remains today.

Military reform

The introduction of universal military service, epoch-making for the then inhabitants of Russia, took place in 1874. It took place as part of large-scale reforms in the army undertaken during the reign of Emperor Alexander II. This king ascended the throne at a time when Russia was shamefully losing the Crimean War unleashed by his father Nicholas I. Alexander had to conclude an unfavorable peace treaty.

However, the real consequences of failure in another war with Turkey appeared only a few years later. The new king decided to look into the causes of the fiasco. They consisted, among other things, in an outdated and inefficient system for replenishing army personnel.

Disadvantages of the recruiting system

Before the introduction of universal military service, there was a recruitment service in Russia. It was introduced by decree of Peter I in 1705. Important feature of this system was that the duty did not extend to citizens, but to communities that chose young men sent to the army. At the same time, the term of service was for life. The philistines, state peasants and artisans chose their candidates by a blind lot. This provision was enshrined in law in 1854.

The landlords, who owned their own serfs, themselves chose the peasants, for whom the army became a home for life. The introduction of universal military service saved the country from another problem. It consisted in the fact that there was no legally defined draft age. It fluctuated depending on the region. At the end of the 18th century, the service life was reduced to 25 years, but even such a time frame took people away from their own economy for too long a period. The family could be left without a breadwinner, and when he returned home, he was actually incapacitated. Thus, not only a demographic but also an economic problem arose.

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Reform Proclamation

When Alexander Nikolaevich assessed all the disadvantages of the existing order, he decided to entrust the introduction of universal military service to the head of the Military Ministry, Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin. He worked on the new legislation for several years. The development of the reform ended in 1873. On January 1, 1874, the introduction of universal military service finally took place. The date of this event became significant for contemporaries.

The recruiting system has been abolished. Now all men who reached the age of 21 were subject to conscription. The state did not make exceptions for estates or ranks. Thus, the reform also affected the nobles. The initiator of the introduction of universal military service, Alexander II, insisted that in new army there shouldn't have been privileges.

Service life

The basic term of service in the army was now 6 years (in the navy - 7 years). The time frame for being in the reserve has also been changed. Now they were equal to 9 years (in the Navy - 3 years). In addition, a new militia was formed. Those men who had already served in fact and in the reserve fell into it for 40 years. Thus, the state received a clear, regulated and transparent system replenishment of the troops for any occasion. Now, if a bloody conflict began, the army could not worry about the influx of fresh forces into its ranks.

If the family had a single breadwinner or only son, he was released from the obligation to serve. A flexible system of deferments was also provided (for example, in case of low welfare, etc.). The period of service was reduced depending on what kind of education the conscript had. For example, if a man has already studied at the university, he could stay in the army for only a year and a half.

Delays and releases

What other features did the introduction of universal military service in Russia have? Among other things, there were delays for conscripts who had health problems. If, due to his physical condition, a man was not able to serve, he was generally exempted from the obligation to go to the army. In addition, an exception was also made for the ministers of the church. People who had specific professions (medical doctors, students at the Academy of Arts) were immediately enrolled in the reserve without actually being in the army.

ticklish was national question. For example, representatives of the indigenous peoples of Central Asia and the Caucasus did not serve at all. At the same time, such benefits were abolished in 1874 for the Lapps and some other northern nationalities. Gradually this system changed. Already in the 1880s, foreigners from the Tomsk, Tobolsk and Astrakhan provinces, as well as the Turgai, Semipalatinsk and Ural regions began to be called up for service.

Picking areas

There were other innovations, which marked the introduction of universal military service. The year of the reform of Dmitry Milyutin was remembered in the army by the fact that now it began to be completed according to the regional ranking. The entire Russian Empire was divided into three large sections.

The first of them was Great Russian. Why was it named like that? It included the territories where the absolute Russian majority lived (above 75%). Counties became the objects of ranking. Precisely according to them demographic indicators the authorities decided to which group to classify the inhabitants. The second section included lands where there were also Little Russians (Ukrainians) and Belarusians. The third group (foreigner) is all other territories (mainly Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Far East).

This system was necessary for the acquisition of artillery brigades and infantry regiments. Each such strategic unit was replenished by residents of only one site. This was done in order to avoid interethnic hatred in the troops.

Reform in the military personnel training system

It is important that the military reform(the introduction of universal military service) was accompanied by other innovations. In particular, Alexander II decided to completely change the system of officer education. Military educational establishments lived according to the old bone orders. Under the new conditions of universal conscription, they became inefficient and costly.

Therefore, these institutions began their own serious reform. Its main conductor was Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich (younger brother of the tsar). The main changes can be noted in several theses. First, special military education was finally separated from the general one. Secondly, access to it was facilitated for men who did not belong to the nobility.

New military educational institutions

In 1862, new military gymnasiums appeared in Russia - secondary educational institutions that were analogues of civilian real schools. After another 14 years, all class qualifications for admission to such institutions were finally abolished.

In St. Petersburg, the Alexander Academy was founded, which specialized in the release of army and legal personnel. By 1880, the number of military educational institutions throughout Russia had increased markedly compared to the figures at the beginning of the reign of the liberator tsar. There were 6 academies, the same number of schools, 16 gymnasiums, 16 schools for cadets, etc.

A person who recognizes war not only as inevitable, but useful, and therefore desirable - these people are terrible, terrible in their hatred and perversion.

L.N. Tolstoy

The period of the reign of Alexander II is a grandiose reform in the history of the Russian Empire. Carrying out these reforms, the emperor tried to overcome the backlog of Russia from the advanced countries of the world. One of the most ambitious, both in terms of time and results, was the military reform of Alexander 2, which was prepared by Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin. This article offers an overview of the key areas of military reform, as well as its main results.

In 1853-1856, Russia participated in the Crimean War against the Ottoman Empire and its European allies (England, France). The war was lost and main reason was the backwardness of the Russian Empire, both militarily and economically.

Alexander 2 understood the urgent need for reforms to ensure the future of the empire. In 1861, Dmitry Milyutin, a participant in the war in the Caucasus, who took part in the transformation of the troops in this region, was appointed Minister of War. In 1862, the minister, together with his subordinates, prepared a report for the emperor (it was from this report that the military reform under the control of Alexander 2 actually began), in which the following problems of the Russian army were mentioned:

  • The need to normalize the costs of the army, since Russia spends a lot of money on an army that is not combat-ready enough.
  • The presence of recruitment kits, because of which the quality of the military of the Russian army suffers.
  • The following problem follows from the previous paragraph: reserve officers were supposed to train recruits, because of which there was no normal division of troops into “active” and “reserve”.
  • The lack of military education institutions, as a result, about 70 percent of the officers did not have a military education!
  • Underdevelopment of the network public institutions who control conscription, equipping the army, etc.
  • A large number of army, some of which is inactive. It is necessary to increase the reserve troops, thereby decreasing the regular ones. In case of war, it will be possible to call on the reserve as soon as possible.

The essence of military reform

Despite the fact that in most textbooks the beginning of the military reform of Alexander 2 and Milyutin is recorded in 1861, this is a formality. This year Russia began preparing for the reform, and the first changes took place only in 1862 and continued until the early 1880s. Most of the changes were implemented before 1874. This reform affected all aspects of the life of the military: from the very essence of the army (from recruitment to universal duty) to a new charter and uniform.

To understand the essence of Milyutin's military reform, it is necessary to consider in detail the main changes in the army based on the classification of the reform proposed by modern historians.

Organizational changes

Back in 1862 to create unified system control of the armed forces of the Empire on the territory of the First Army (western provinces), three military districts were created: Warsaw, Kiev and Vilna. Until 1874, 15 military districts were created throughout the Empire. According to the regulations on the districts of 1864, the commander of the military district was considered a full-fledged and unified manager of military affairs in the region, thereby creating a single centralized leadership of military units (the principle of one-man command). At the same time, the minister of war reformed the ministry itself, reducing the headquarters by 327 officers, thereby helping to combat bureaucratization.

Further, from 1864 to 1869, military units were reduced and some of the officers and soldiers were transferred to the reserve. Thus, the leaders of the reforms planned to reduce the cost of the army in Peaceful time, and in the event of a war, have a large reserve of trained military personnel. It took up to 50 days to mobilize it, while at the beginning of the century it could take more than a year.

One of the main changes in the course of the military reform of Alexander 2 occurred in 1874, when the recruitment system was finally abolished, and universal military duty for men was introduced instead. All men aged 20 were required to do military service, which was 6 years in the Army and 7 years in the Navy. The following were not subject to the call: the clergy, sectarians, foreigners of Central Asia, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, as well as the only sons and breadwinners in the family. In 1888, the draft age was changed to 21. After the subjects passed military service, most of them replenished the supply. The reserve period was also clearly regulated: 9 years for the ground forces and 3 years for the fleet.

In addition, the Military Court and the Military Prosecutor's Office were established.

Technological innovations

The military reform of Alexander 2 affected not only changes in management and the recruitment system. The army of the Russian Empire was technically seriously lagging behind the leading countries of Europe. That is why Milyutin suggested that Alexander 2 carry out a major technical upgrade:

  • Smoothbore weapons have been replaced with rifled ones. So, back in 1865, the army was armed with a 1856 capsule rifle. In 1868, the Berdan rifle (smaller caliber) was adopted. As a result, already in the war of 1877-1878 with the Turks Russian army was fully armed with modern, at that time, firearms.
  • In the years 1860-1870, the artillery was completely re-equipped: lighter guns with better speed and range of fire were adopted, for example, the Baranovsky gun or the Gatling shotgun.
  • In 1869, the first battleship in the history of Russia, Peter the Great, was launched. Thus, the replacement of sailboats, which were a symbol of backwardness, began. Russian fleet, on steam ships.

According to historians, one small gap was made in this area: the dragoon regiments never received firearms, although the European counterparts of these units had pistols. In addition, the artillery troops existed separately from the infantry, which could have a negative impact on their joint actions.

Military Education Reform

Milyutin paid great attention to education in the military reform. The education system for the military was radically reformed:

  • A system of cadet schools and military academies was created.
  • Professional gymnasiums with a military bias were created, the graduates of which could continue their education in cadet schools.

Thus, the military in Russia became a full-fledged profession, which was trained before being used for military purposes. In addition, through training officers had the opportunity to be educated in theory rather than directly in practice.

Introduction of the new uniform

From 1862 to 1874, 62 orders were signed that concerned changes in the uniform, in particular, this concerned the color, length and shape of individual elements of uniforms. These actions caused great criticism, both by the public and by the military themselves, since it was said about the weak significance of these events for the army itself. In general, a fun fact, but any military reform in Russia comes down, among other things, to a change in uniforms (suffice it to recall the events that took place in modern Russia few years ago).

Reform results


In general, despite some inaccuracies, the results that the military reform of Alexander 2 implemented had a huge effect on the transformation of the army of the Russian Empire. The active army of Russia was reduced by 40%, which significantly reduced the cost of its maintenance. The headquarters of the ministry was also reduced, which contributed to the fight against bureaucracy. The military district system helped make the army more organized and mobile. Mass conscription contributed to the elimination of weak and inefficient recruiting.

At the end of the material, I want to note that it was the military reform of Alexander 2, which was supervised by Milyutin, that laid the foundation for the modern army. I am talking now about the principles of formation of units, mobilization work, organization of ministries and departments, and so on. For the first time, Russia received an army that could be globally controlled independently and collectively, without waiting for a genius (Suvorov, Kutuzov) to appear at a critical moment and help straighten out the situation in the army. So, for example, it was in the war of 1812, when Alexander 1 and his advisers did nothing but prevent the army from fighting, and the disgraced General Kutuzov saved the country. Now the structure of the army has changed. Changed in better side. That is why historians say that the military reform of Milyutin in 1874 is one of the most important transformations in Russia by Alexander 2.

On January 1 (13), 1874, the “Manifesto on the introduction of universal military service” was published, according to which military service was imposed on all classes of the Russian Empire. On the same day, the “Charter on military service” was approved, in which the protection of the throne and the Fatherland was declared the sacred duty of all Russian subjects. According to the Charter, the entire male population of the country "without distinction of status" was subject to military service. Thus the foundations of the army were laid. modern type capable of performing not only military tasks, but also peacekeeping functions (an example of this is the victorious Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878).

Beginning with Peter I, all estates in Russia were recruited to serve in the army. The nobles had to do military service themselves, and the taxable estates had to provide the army with recruits. When Catherine II freed the "noble nobility" from compulsory service, recruitment turned out to be the lot of the poorest sections of society. The fact is that before the adoption of the Charter on military service, recruitment service did not have the character of a personal obligation to perform military service. In a number of cases, it was allowed to replace the supply of a recruit in kind, with a monetary contribution, or by hiring a hunter - a person who agreed to serve instead of a drafted recruit.
Reforms in the military field were stimulated by the disappointing results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Already at the end of the 1850s, the institution of military cantonists was abolished and the service life of lower ranks was reduced to 10 years. New coil reforms was associated with the appointment in 1861 to the post of Minister of War Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin. Military transformations unfolded in several directions at once, including: the introduction of new military regulations, the reduction of army personnel, the training of trained reserves and officers, the rearmament of the army and the reorganization of the quartermaster service. From 1864 to 1867 the size of the armed forces was reduced from 1132 thousand to 742 thousand people, without reducing the real military potential.
At the forefront of the military reform was the principle of decentralization of military command through the creation of military districts, the commanders of which were to unite in their hands the highest command of the troops and control over the military administration. On August 6, 1864, the “Regulations on Military District Directorates” were adopted, according to which 9 military districts were first created, and on August 6, 1865, another 4 military districts. At the same time, the Ministry of War was reorganized. In 1865, the General Staff was established - the highest body of operational-strategic and combat command and control of troops, subordinate to the Minister of War. In turn, the General Staff, created back in 1827, became a structural subdivision of the General Staff. The main goal of these reforms was to reduce the army in peacetime and at the same time ensure the possibility of its deployment in time of war.
Since 1865, a military judicial reform began, which was based on the introduction of the principles of publicity, competitiveness of the parties and the rejection of corporal punishment. Three judicial instances were established: regimental, military district and main military court. In the 1860s, at the initiative of the military department, the construction of strategic railways began, and in 1870 special railway troops were formed. The reorganization of the army was accompanied by a radical restructuring of old weapons factories and the construction of new ones, thanks to which the rearmament of the army was completed in the 1870s. rifled weapons.
The terms of the Paris Peace Treaty significantly limited development opportunities navy. Prior to 1864, the primary focus was on coastal defense. This is confirmed by the construction at Russian shipyards, primarily of gunboats intended for coastal defense. At the same time, the Russian Society of Shipping and Trade, founded in 1856 and under the highest patronage, was entrusted with the task of creating schools for the training of marine personnel. In practice, these measures were the implementation of a plan to create a reserve of the navy, capable of partly compensating for the absence of such. In the second half of the 1860s. Russian government begins to build tower frigates designed for ocean cruising operations.
The reform of military educational institutions provided for the creation of military and cadet schools, in which, from 1876, people of all classes began to be admitted. From 66 cadet corps only two were preserved - Page and Finland, and the rest were reorganized into military gymnasiums or military schools. In 1877, the Military Law Academy was established and the Academy of the General Staff founded by Nicholas I was expanded.
Also, questions of the prestige of military service and the corporatism of the military class were put at the head of the military reform. These goals were served by the creation of military libraries and military clubs, first for officers, and in 1869 the first soldiers' meeting was created, with a buffet and a library. An integral part of the reform was the improvement of the financial situation of officers: from 1859 to 1872, at least 1/3 (and for many categories 1.5 - 2 times) were increased payments and salaries. Table money for officers ranged from 400 to 2 thousand rubles. per year, while lunch in the officers' club cost only 35 kopecks. Since 1859, cash desks for officers and other ranks began to be created to pay pensions, etc. Moreover, for all ranks, loans were given at a uniform 6% per annum.
However, all these innovations failed to eliminate class structure army, based on a system of recruiting, primarily among the peasants and the monopoly of the nobles on employment officer positions. Therefore, in 1870, a special commission was formed to develop the issue of military service. Four years later, the Commission submitted to the emperor the Charter of universal all-class military service, which was approved by the highest in January 1874. The rescript of Alexander II of January 11 (23) of the same year instructed the minister to enforce the law "in the same spirit in which he compiled."
According to the Charter, military service by lot, which was done once in a lifetime, was called upon to reach 20 years of age. Those who, according to the number of the drawn lot, were not subject to admission to the permanent troops, were enrolled in the militia. The charter determined the general term of military service in ground forces 15 years, in the Navy - 10 years, of which active military service was equal to 6 years on land and 7 years in the Navy. The rest of the time was spent in reserve service (9 years in the ground forces and 3 in the navy). That is, upon entering the reserve, a soldier could from time to time be called up for training fees, which did not interfere with his private studies or peasant labor.
The charter also provided for educational benefits and deferrals for marital status. So, the only sons of their parents, the only breadwinners in the family with young brothers and sisters, were subject to release from service. Priests of all Christian denominations, some members of the Muslim clergy, full-time university professors and holders of academic degrees were exempted from military service due to social status. On a national basis, non-Russian native residents of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, some districts of Siberia, Astrakhan, Turgai, Ural, Akmola, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk and Transcaspian regions, Arkhangelsk province were subject to release. Under special conditions, the population was involved in the service North Caucasus and Transcaucasia of non-Christian denominations: for them, serving military service was replaced by the payment of a special monetary fee. Reduced terms of service were established for graduates of higher, secondary and lower educational institutions. According to the charter of 1874, for the first, the term was determined at half a year, for the second - at one and a half years, and for the third - at three years. Subsequently, these terms were extended to two, three and four years, respectively. The practice of deferrals for students of higher and secondary educational institutions was also envisaged.
For the performance of military service in each province, provincial conscription presences were established, which were under the jurisdiction of the Department for Military Service of the General Staff of the Military Ministry. The charter on military service with amendments and additions was valid until January 1918.

Zemstvo and city reforms

An integral part of the reforms that began were the reforms of local self-government, during which the state tried to involve the emerging entrepreneurial strata of the nobility, peasantry, and townspeople in the management of the local economy, in the development of the local economy.

Zemstvo and city reforms partially revived Catherine's dilapidated self-government and transformed it, expanding the range of its economic powers. Zemstvo reform (“Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” of January 1, 1864 d.) created a system of representative bodies in the provinces and districts - county and provincial zemstvo assemblies. Their members were called "vowels" and were elected for 3 years in a two-stage election, in which the entire local population participated, divided into three electoral curia: landowners(they included land owners from 200–800 dessiatines in different counties), city ​​owners(owners of enterprises or houses valued at 500-3 thousand rubles in different cities), representatives of peasant societies, put forward previously at volost gatherings.

These curias elected electors, and the electors at their meetings elected deputies (vowels) to county assemblies (from 10 to 96). Members of the provincial assembly were elected at district assemblies (from 15 to 100). The deputies of the zemstvo assemblies could be men no younger than 25 years old, not defamed by the court.

Zemstvo assemblies, both in the county and in the province, met once a year (a kind of session), sat for several days, solving pressing problems. In between they acted councils(Chairman and 2-6 members), elected from among the vowels. Members of the councils worked constantly and received salaries from zemstvo dues, the size of which was determined by the meeting. The leader of the nobility was ex officio the chairman of the zemstvo assembly.

Zemstvo bodies were created "to assist the government in the conduct of local economic affairs." Zemstvos were engaged in the economy, education, medical care, road construction, agronomic and zootechnical assistance, public charity, etc. The competence of the zemstvo bodies also included the distribution of state and approval of local taxes. Schools and hospitals, almshouses and overnight homes, nursing homes and orphans were built on zemstvo fees established for all categories of the population. Zemstvo bodies worked under direct control and in close contact with state bodies. County police officers helped them to make collections and implement decisions, their most important decisions required the sanction of the governor, who also approved the elections of county zemstvo councils. The chairmen of provincial councils were approved by the Minister of the Interior.



Without being involved in politics, the zemstvos made a huge contribution to the development of the national economy and culture. They paved the way for the introduction of universal primary education in the country. Work in the zemstvo bodies contributed to the formation of civic consciousness, the Russian intelligentsia, coming from different segments of the population. In 1865-1867, for example, the nobles made up 46% of the vowels, over 34% of the peasants, 10.2 % merchants, the rest was divided between the clergy and representatives of other classes.

Zemstvo reform was carried out in 34 out of 59 Russian provinces. Its provisions were not valid on the territory of Poland, Finland, the Baltic States, where there was a special national administration. They did not extend to Siberia, some vast northern and southern provinces (Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan), in which there were no nobility and landownership.

urban reform was carried out according to the principle of the Zemstvo (“City Regulations” approved in 1870). In the cities, non-estate city dumas were created - administrative bodies - and city councils as their permanent executive body. The functions and accountability of these bodies were similar to those of the Zemstvo. They were built on a purely bourgeois, qualifying basis, without regard to class affiliation. All payers of city taxes participated in the elections, starting from the age of 25, divided into 3 categories. Each category consisted of owners who paid 1/3 total amount taxes: large, medium, small. Each category gave 1/3 of the members of the Duma. Naturally, the representation of the first two categories of owners (property owners) was large. The property qualification limited the number of voters participating in the elections.



City councils and councils operated for 4 years. From 30 to 72 deputies worked in the Duma (in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 250). mayor, who headed the council, and its members were elected by the Duma and received a salary. The competence of the city government included landscaping, care for the development of trade, the construction of hospitals, schools, fire protection measures and city taxation. By the end of the century, city self-government had been introduced in 621 out of 707 cities.

Suffrage, introduced in Russia by reforms, was not yet direct, universal and equal. It rested on the division of voters according to sex, property (for owners) and age qualifications, and plurality (for peasants). And yet it has become more democratic than before. The peasants, in whom the tsarist government saw the support of its power, had the right to vote. Women, having not received an active right, had a passive suffrage. Their property qualification could be used by their husbands and sons by proxy.

Military reform

Internal (the backwardness of the Russian army from the armies of the Western countries, which was revealed in the Crimean War) and external (the appearance of a new, militarized Bismarckian Germany in the neighborhood of Russia) forced the government of Alexander II to carry out military reform. It was carried out for 12 years under the leadership of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin and included a number of important measures, including reorganization of the military department(creation of military districts and centralization of military administration), strengthening the combat capability of troops(re-equipment of the army, including the replacement of flintlock guns with military weapons), improving the system of training military personnel, introducing a new military charter, conducting military judicial reform. In the course of these transformations, military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year term of study were created, in which people of all classes were admitted. The new charters focused on combat and physical training soldier. The period of active military service was reduced.

But the central element of the military reform was the change in the feudal-class structure of the army and the principles of manning the armed forces. The charter "On military service" of January 1, 1874 in Russia instead of recruitment sets was introduced all-class military service. The law extended military service to males of all classes who have reached the age of 21. New order unconditional conscription into the army allowed Russia, while reducing the term of active military service, to create large trained reserves. This greatly facilitated the maintenance of the army and made it possible to mobilize a significant trained military force in case of war.

The introduction of universal military service did not mean, however, that all mps who had reached the age of 21 were subject to conscription into the army. Only a part of those liable for military service were called up for active service. There were numerous privileges, related to marital status, exempting from service (the only sons, breadwinners of elderly parents, etc.) The fate of the rest was determined by a draw. Separate peoples of the Far North were also exempted from military service (according to physiological reasons), the peoples of Central Asia, Kazakhstan and partially the Caucasus (due to lifestyle and other reasons, including unwillingness to hand weapons to the latter). Cult ministers were exempted from military service, although a significant part of them were in the army, some sectarians, who, according to the laws of their faith, were not able to carry weapons. So, for the Mennonites, part of the German colonists, was introduced alternative service in forest teams (in peacetime) and sanitary units (during wartime).

The service life was determined at 6 years, followed by enrollment in the reserve for 9 years in the ground forces and at 7 and 3 years in the navy. The duration of service, however, is directly depended on the level of education. Those who graduated from a higher educational institution had to serve only 6 months, a gymnasium - 1.5 years, a city school - 3 years, and an elementary school - 4 years. This was a serious incentive for young people to get an education. Its implementation was ensured by the reformed system of public education. In Russia, in addition to state and parochial schools, zemstvo and Sunday schools began to operate, the purpose of which was recognized as "the dissemination of initial useful knowledge." In the gymnasium and pro-gymnasium, children of persons of all classes and religions were accepted.

Thus, the Russian state system acquired a new quality, absolute monarchy transformed into neoabsolutism, with its inherent features of the bourgeois system. Particularly noticeable changes have taken place in the Russian judiciary and legal proceedings. They were the result of the judicial reform of 1864, which introduced in Russia a bourgeois court with all its attributes.

Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Degrading corporal punishment was abolished.

Was drawn Special attention to raise the level of general education of army officers through the reform of military educational institutions. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year term of study were created. They included persons of all classes.

In January 1874, all-class military service was proclaimed. In the Supreme Manifesto on this occasion, it was said: “Protection of the throne and the Fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject ....”. Under the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 21 are called up, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and draws only this number from the recruits (usually no more than 20-25% of recruits were called up for service). The call was not subject to the only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the older brother of the recruit is serving or has served his service. Those enlisted in the service are listed in it: in the ground forces 15 years: 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in the reserve. For those who have received primary education, the term of active service is reduced to 4 years, those who graduated from a city school - up to 3 years, a gymnasium - up to one and a half years, and who had higher education- up to six months.

Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war.

The system of military command and control has undergone fundamental changes in order to strengthen control over the locations of troops. The result of this revision was approved on August 6, 1864 "Regulations on military district administrations." On the basis of this “Regulations”, nine military districts were initially organized, and then (August 6, 1865) four more. In each district, a chief commander was appointed, appointed at the direct highest discretion, bearing the title of commander of the troops of the military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant to the commander of the troops is also appointed.

TO late XIX century, the number of the Russian army was (per 130 million population): officers, doctors and officials - 47 thousand, lower ranks - 1 million 100 thousand. Then these figures declined and reached 742,000 people, while the military potential was maintained.

In the 60s, at the insistence of the Ministry of War, were built railways to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870 railway troops appeared. During the 70s, the technical re-equipment of the army was basically completed.

Caring for the defenders of the Motherland was manifested in everything, even in small things. For example, for more than a hundred years (until the 80s of the XIX century), boots were sewn without distinction between the right and left legs. It was believed that during a combat alarm, a soldier had no time to think about which boot to wear, on which leg.

Special treatment was given to the prisoners. Soldiers who were taken prisoner and were not in the service of the enemy, upon returning home, received a salary from the state for the entire time they were in captivity. The prisoner was considered a victim. And those who distinguished themselves in battles were waiting for military awards. Orders of Russia were especially highly valued. They gave such privileges that they even changed the position of a person in society.

Reorganization of the staffing of the army

Milyutin managed to prove to Alexander 2 the whole injustice of class military service and the need to abolish it. After all, military service was previously carried out only by the subject class, i.e. peasants and townspeople. However, to convince the king to introduce universal military service, it took a lot of time. First, on the initiative of Milyutin, in 1862 a special commission was created to revise the recruiting charter, chaired by the State Council N. I. Bakhtin. This commission included a number of representatives of the War Ministry, headed by General F. L. Heiden. The commission's work progressed very slowly.

The idea of ​​equality of all classes for carrying out this gravest military service has found irreconcilable opponents among those strata of society to which it has not yet extended. The feudal lords with all their might resisted all-class military service, which would force the “noble” nobility to serve it on an equal footing “with the peasants”.

Field Marshal A. I. Baratinsky, chief of gendarmes P. A. Shuvalov, “all-round conservative” D. A. Tolstoy, military writer and publicist General R. A. Fadeev were especially zealous. Having resorted to the support of M.I. Katkov and K.P. Pobedonostsev, they encouraged opponents of military reforms to appear in the press, misinterpreting and condemning the upcoming innovations.

The intention to liquidate the obsolete recruiting system for the army was subjected to the strongest attacks.

Reactionary figures and publicists, referring to the manifesto on the freedom of the nobility, defended their class immunity. Shuvalov, for example, suggested keeping educated youth in the army "separately from the army."

Even the merchants were indignant at the fact that it would be impossible to pay off recruitment with money. As a result, the reform conceived in 1862 by Milyutin, who was supported by the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, was carried out only in 1874. Franco-Prussian War 1870 Prussia, the name of greater conscription, a better organized army, more developed soldiers, defeated France.

On November 7, 1870, the Minister of War presented a note “On the main grounds for personal military service”, approved by the emperor. After 10 days, two commissions were created by “highest command” to develop the proposed measures: one on the charter on military service, the other on the issue of reserve, local, reserve troops and state militia. General Heiden, Chief of the General Staff, was appointed Chairman of both commissions. The general management of their work was headed by D.A. Milyutin. The conscription commission was selected from representatives of various ministries and departments. Representatives of not only the highest bureaucracy, but also representatives of various classes and individual groups of the population were invited to its meetings.

For more qualified preparation of various chapters of the charter, the commission was divided into 4 departments. The first department worked out the issue of terms of service and benefits for serving military service, the second - on the return of those called up for service, the third - on conscription expenses, the fourth - on volunteers and military replacement.

Another, the so-called Organizing Commission, began work at the beginning of January 1871. It consisted mainly of the military and was divided into 9 departments: 1) on the organization of infantry units serving as cadres for the formation in war time reserve and reserve troops; 2) about artillery and engineering units; 3) about the personnel of the guards units; 4) about the personnel of the cavalry; 5) on the procedure for counting and calling up reserve ranks; 6) on commissary and artillery stocks and convoys; 7) about the Cossack troops; 8) about irregular militia; 9) about the state militia. In 1872, the Organizing Commission was significantly strengthened by the introduction of several commanders of military districts into its composition.

Of particular interest are the problems discussed at the meeting of this commission, connected with the possibility of applying the territorial system in Russia. As a rule, M. N. Osipova rightly notes in her study that these issues are again becoming relevant in connection with the reforms being carried out in the army.

Recall that the territorial recruitment system provides for the replenishment of troops with personnel at the expense of draft contingents arriving near the places of deployment military units.

Such a system facilitates the dispatch of conscripts to their units, reduces the costs associated with this, makes it possible to attract conscripts for military training with a minimum interruption from productive work and to carry out the mobilization of troops in the shortest possible time. At the same time, this system, given the shortage of conscripts in the areas where military units are deployed, makes it difficult to equip them with the necessary specialists. There are other flaws as well.

The organizing commission, recognizing the impossibility of the full application of the territorial system in Russia, unanimously came to the conclusion: “In the organization of the army, apply from the principles of the territorial system only what, according to the conditions of our fatherland, can be usefully applied, while maintaining the possibility of moving and concentrating troops, but allowing constant , from certain areas, recruiting each part of the army in peacetime and replenishing it to military strength, when brought to martial law ... "

Based on this, it was decided, according to the project of the General Staff, to divide the whole of European Russia into recruitment areas (on the territory of one or several counties). Each section was supposed to provide at least one infantry regiment, one separate battalion, two artillery batteries, one cavalry squadron.

Upon completion of the work of the commission on military service, D. A. Milyutin on January 19, 1873 submitted an extensive note to the State Council, similarly covering the course of its activities. As an annex to the note, drafts of the Charter on military service and the Regulations on the state militia were presented. When discussing the project of all-class military service on the State Council, a fierce and irreconcilable struggle unfolded. Some of the council members considered this reform premature, others demanded privileges for the nobility.

Finally, on January 1, 1874, the law on military service was approved by Alexander 2. According to the adopted provision, all males aged 21-40 were subject to military service without exception.

In the "general principles" it is said that "defence of the fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian citizen."

It was forbidden to hire hunters or pay off with money. All who have reached the age of 20 are required to be assigned to their conscription station and draw lots. Persons who took out a number leading to enlistment entered the ranks of the troops, while others were exempted once and for all from the obligation to enter the service, but until the age of 40 they were enlisted in the state militia.

The establishment of compulsory military service, firstly, elevated the rank of warrior, and secondly, attracted to the army a significant number of persons belonging to the upper classes and generally educated, whereas, according to the laws in force, such persons were previously exempted from recruitment duty.

“Milyutin turned the cause of defending the motherland,” wrote A.F. Koni, “from a severe burden for many into a high duty for all and from a single misfortune into a common duty.”

The total service life under the new law was set at 15 years, of which 6 years in active service and 9 years in reserve, in the Navy - 10 years, of which 7 were in active service and 3 years in reserve. Persons who graduated from educational institutions could act as volunteers for reduced terms of service. For those with higher education, the term of service was set at 6 months (14 years in reserve), for conscripts with primary education– 4 years (11 years in reserve). Postponements were allowed until the end of education and a reduction in the term of active service.

In 1876, the term of active service was reduced to 5 years, later it changed several times - sometimes it was reduced (up to 3-4 years), then it increased (up to 5 years).

Only persons with physical disabilities were exempted from military service. Benefits were also established according to marital status: the only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were not called. According to the charter, replacement and hiring were prohibited.

In principle, the training of soldiers provided that the strength of the state is not in the number of troops alone, but also in the moral and mental qualities of this army.

In the army, they began to develop soldiers, to train, to elevate morally. Corporal punishment and fisticuffs were limited. New law had great importance and to improve public education.

In the rescript of Alexander 2, which assessed the merits of D.A. Milyutin, it was said: “Imbued with ardent concern for the benefit of the army and the general good of the state, you did not resign yourself to the project you submitted to the State Council to increase not only the material, but mainly the moral strength of the army, and at the same time did not lose sight of the need to protect others important interests: family life, industry, trade and art, and especially education in all its degrees.

The new law also influenced the composition of the army, making it younger, due to the reduction in active service, and homogeneous, according to the age of the lower ranks.

The introduction of all-class conscription made it possible to increase the size of the army, create a trained reserve of up to 550 thousand people, necessary for the deployment of the army in wartime, and also contributed to the transformation of the Russian armed forces into a modern mass army.

Persons who had not completed military service at all, as well as those who had served the prescribed number of lei (active service and reserve), were to be enrolled in the state militia. The age limit for being in the militia was set at 40 years. Later it was increased to 40 years.

However, the law was not completely consistent. A significant part of the "foreign" population was eliminated from military service (natives of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, some peoples of the Far North). Persons of the clergy, Mennonites, separate groups of colonists, figures of science and art were exempted from conscription.

Data, conscription rates during the first seven years after the adoption of the law on all-class military service, are presented in the table.

It can be seen from the above data that the percentage of conscripts who received benefits due to marital status averaged 51.5%.

Persons released from service on credit receipts did not even account for 0.01%. It should be noted that credit receipts were sold by the government according to the number of hunters who joined the army, and were also issued to both individual families and societies: 1) for warriors who remained in military service or died while in the militia; 2) for recruits in excess of recruitment, etc.

It is characteristic that every year the number of persons who were granted deferrals for education increased.

The statute of military service

From the statute:

1. Protection of the throne and fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject. The male population, without distinction of condition, is subject to military service.

2. Monetary redemption from military service and replacement by a hunter is not allowed.

10. Admission to the service by conscription is decided by lot, which is taken out once for a lifetime. Persons who, according to the number of the lot drawn by them, are not subject to admission to the permanent troops, are enrolled in the militia.

11. Every year, only the age of the population is called to the lot, namely, young people who have passed 21 years since October 1 of the year when the selection is made.

17. The total term of service in the ground forces for those entering by lot is determined at 15 years, of which 6 years of active service and 9 years in the reserve ...

18. The total service life in the fleet is defined as 10 years, of which 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve.

36. The state militia is made up of all the male population, not included in the permanent troops, but capable of carrying weapons, from the age of conscription to 43 years of age inclusive. Persons under this age and persons dismissed from the reserve of the army and navy are not exempted from conscription.