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    A branch of semiotics and logic that studies the relation of linguistic expressions to designated objects and expressed content. Semantic issues were discussed in antiquity, but only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. in the writings of C. Pierce, F. de Saussure, C. ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

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    Semantics- (from the Greek σημαντικός meaning) 1) all content, information transmitted by the language or any of its units (word, grammatical form of the word, phrase, sentence); 2) a section of linguistics that studies this content, information; … Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary

    Text linguistics- - the direction of linguistics, within which the problems of the text are formulated and solved (see text). Text linguistics is a direction of linguistic research, the object of which is the rules for constructing a coherent text and its semantic ... ... Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language

Questions clarified:

  1. Meaning and meaning. 2 aspects of content.
  2. 2 concepts of semantics: narrow, wide.
  3. Formation of semantics as an independent branch of linguistics.
  4. The place of semantics in the circle of traditional linguistic disciplines.
  5. The main directions and schools of modern linguistic semantics.
  6. General properties linguistic sign.
  7. On the nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier.
  8. semantic triangle.
  9. Actual, virtual value.
  10. denotative meaning.
  11. Significant value.
  12. pragmatic meaning.
  13. connotative meaning.

13. Connotative meaning.

Ex. plural def. connotations. Usually K. called. add. elements of a certain type of meaning - expressive, stylistic, evaluative. The concept of connotation is close to the concept of a stereotype of representations associated with a given word.

K. yavl. a useful tool for describing the use of words and the mechanism for the formation of new meanings. Existence To. can be not connected in any way with osn. value. Yes, the word ass And donkey denoting 1 and the same animal have different K. For donkey- this is "the readiness to work meekly for the benefit of another", and for donkey is "stubbornness" and "stupidity". These K. allow us to explain the formation of different figurative meanings in these words. K. and acc. them, secondary figurative meanings are generally characteristic of names. animals (wolf, bear, elephant, etc.).

K. is also due to linguistic and cultural specifics. For example, the Russian word has very bright K. mother-in-law.

There are three types of such primary connections:

- referential, establishing relations of reference for the objects indicated in the text, as well as between the objects of the text and the entities available in the knowledge base;

Temporary;

situational connections.

We distinguish between the terms " referential relation" And " referential connection". The referential relation fixes the connection between the word in the text (name) and the extralinguistic entity designated by this word (referent, denotation). We consider that two names are referentially connected if these names in the text are associated with a common denotation (the names are coreferential), or if the denotations , associated with these names, are connected in the text by relations of the type “class-subclass”, “class-individual”, “class or individual-property, or state, or role.” Identification of referential relations and referential links is the fundamental task of discursive text analysis.

In the text, the referential relation can be given:

· "objectively", when the interpretation (lexical meaning) of the name coincides with the meaning of the name in the text;

pronoun or local word (anaphora);

· Metonomic shift, when the designated "participant" of the situation is given by the name of some other participant in this situation;

a metaphor.

1. Meaning and meaning. 2 hypostases of content

Semantics (S.), like any scientific discipline, has its own subject. But defining this subject is not as simple as it might seem. Although it can be said that S. studies the meaning of linguistic expressions, the question of what should be understood by the meaning is not noun. generally accepted answer. Due to the different understanding of the subject, the boundaries between S. and other lingua are drawn differently. disciplines. To avoid the ambiguous term "meaning", you can use the neutral term "content", and say that S. is a section of yz-knowledge, studied. the content of language units and those speech products, cat. from these units are built. Now note that in many natures. sciences to designate the content of linguistic expressions noun. not one word, but (at least) 2: word And meaning in Russian jaz-e, sense And meaning in english etc. Hence the disagreement in the understanding of meaning as a subject of S. And if the content of language expressions has both min. 2 hypostases, then the subject of S. can be declared any of them.

The duality of the subject of S. can be shown by identifying the concepts embodied in words meaning And meaning Russian yaz-a, cat. we often use in everyday life life. This requires context (informative), in the cat. used these words. An example is the possibility of replacing these words with descriptive expressions (“The meaning of this inscription is not clear” can be replaced by “It is not clear what this inscription means.” And in the sentence “The significance of this event is enormous” cannot be replaced by “That which means this event is huge.") Synonym. and sense. Dictionaries treat these words as synonyms. However, the meaning is defined as “that which is given. the phenomenon denotes”, and the meaning as “meaning, ext. content something that can be comprehended by the mind.

Compatibility meaning And values with different types of content media shows that the concept values in everyday consciousness is associated with the proof of the existence of a sign system, the element or text of which is the bearer of meaning. concept meaning has no such proof. At least 1 of the analyzed words can act as a content carrier: 1) the name of the signs par excellence (word, speech, poetry, element of the coat of arms, etc.), 2) name. objects of natural origin and spontaneous processes (face, nature, sleep, turmoil, etc.), 3) name. arts. objects and controlled processes, for a cat. the sign function acts as a complement. to their heads. functions.

If the type of information carrier is 1 and the same, then the way they are interpreted, the difference between meaning And value even easier to identify. For example, when talking about meaning words, mean, among other things, its dictionary interpretation. When talking about sense of the word, then, as a rule, they mean the set of those entities, cat. may be designated dan. word; or representations associated with it in the minds of speakers, both factual and evaluative. Odef to meaning extremely rare. Meaning but it has a branched system of definitions, formed by thematic groups corresponding to the three hypostases of meaning discussed above in connection with the methods of interpretation content.

Because the meaning- this is a content stably fixed to the sign, then it can be install and then know, at that time How meaning- something changeable, unregulated, - one has to search, trap, unravel and so on.

Conclusion: meaning And meaning in the minds of yaz-a speakers - 2 close, but not identical concepts, cat. you can define the following:

MeaningHa- this is infa associated with X, according to the generally accepted rules for using X as a transfer of information. MeaningX-a forY-a in T is infa associated with X in consciousness Y-a during the period of time T, when Y produces or perceives X as a means of transmitting information.

2. Two concepts of semantics: narrow, wide

The content of linguistic expressions has 2 incarnations, embodied in ordinary words of the Russian language meaning And meaning. Each of these 2 concepts can rightly be called the subject of semantics. Scholars who study S. understand its subject in different ways. But with all the possible differences in approaches to the description of the content side of the language, many directions of modern. S-ki can be reduced to 2 opposing each other concepts, noun-e cat-x is due to the duality of the subject C-ki. These 2 concepts can be roughly called narrow And wide. narrow K. makes his subject meaning of language units and language expressions constructed from them. At wide K. its subject, moreover, yavl. And meaning of language expressions under the specific conditions of their use. With a narrow interpretation of S., creatures are superimposed on the object of study. restrictions. Linguists who take this position refuse to analyze the content side of speech works and are interested only in that part of the content that is encoded by the units of the language that make up the dan. speech segment. They proceed from the fact that in order to transmit and understand such information, people. uses only his knowledge of the language and does not refer to any information about the author, nor to the details of a particular situation. This approach simplifies the matter, as it allows one to operate with sentences isolated from the context of their use. However reverse side such simplification is to reduce the completeness of understanding the meaning of the statement. In accordance with this K., only complete and ideally correct sentences can be interpreted, since the interpretation of incomplete sentences (such as “When did you come to Chita?” or “Where is Vasya Ivanov?” - “He fell ill?”) requires an appeal to situations of communication and knowledge about the world.

11. Significant value

language expression (or just significat) is infa about the way in which an object or situation of the world (discourse) is reflected in the mind of the speaker. The significat are those properties on the basis of which these objects / sitzations are combined into a dan. class and are opposed to members of other classes. C. resp. "naive" concept of the entities referred to by the given expression.

The concept of a significat can be shown by the example of "Mom is sleeping." S. name Mother includes in its composition the signs of "human being", "female", "parent of some X-a". C. verb sleep includes such properties of situations given. class, as “the physical state of a living being”, “a form of relaxation”, “with the maximum possible shutdown of the systems of the latter without harm to the body”. The difference between m / y denotatum and significatum was especially clearly manifested. in that one and the same actual denotation can be denoted by linguistic expressions with different significations. So, the woman indicated in the sentence. by the name of mother, in other cases it can be called Elena Sergeevna, the wife of my boss, a neighbor on the floor, the minister of culture, etc. With the similarity of the denotation, these linguistic expressions differ in their significative meaning, because carry information about different properties referent ( given name does not report any properties other than gender and probable nationality).

3. Formation of semantics as self. section of linguistics

At the first stage of S.'s transformation into a science, the conscious narrowing of the object of study was justified. However, over time, with the development of science itself, it had to be overcome. And it was. When a number of researchers came to the conclusion that the subject of S. should be interpreted more broadly. Kibrik proposed to formulate this requirement as one of the postulates of the modern. lingu-ki - the postulate about the boundaries of S.: "To the area S. (in a broad sense) rel-Xia all infa, which the speaker has in mind when deploying the utterance and which must be restored to the listener for the correct interpretation of this utterance.

It is impossible to say exactly when it began, as well as about many other sciences. Reflections on the meaning and function of language are characteristic of any philosophical trend that is generally interested in language. Therefore, the origins of semantics are often found in other Greek. philosophy (Plato, Aristotle). S.'s beginning as self. disciplines associated with the appearance of the works of English. philosopher J. Locke and belong to the middle. 19th century The name of the discipline was proposed in 1883 by the French. linguist M. Breal (in his Essay on S., 1897). As a synonym in the works of Rus. and German scientists use the term semasiology.

One of the chapter reasons forcing people to pay attention to the language, yavl. misunderstanding of the interlocutor. Therefore, in the study of language, the interpretation of individual signs or entire texts, one of the main activities in the field of writing, has long occupied an important place. At first, scientists and philosophers discussed the connection of signs (and words consisting of them) with things (objects). The problems of grammar were further developed in the (15th century) works of the philosophers and grammarians of the Renaissance. A general theory of language as a sign system was formulated. In the 17-18 centuries. the doctrine of meaning was further developed. At this time, the idea of ​​​​creating an artificial “ideal” language (“the alphabet of human thoughts”) became popular - Leibniz. In the same period, scientists go beyond the study of the relationship between the word and the subject and turn to the relationship between the sentence of the language and the thought expressed with its help. There are universal grammars that laid the foundations for the analysis of C-ki statements of any language from the point of view of the thought expressed by it, which has a definition. logical shape. At 19 - ser. 20th century C ideas were not developed. And only since the 60s. 20th century these ideas got a 2nd life. Conducted special research-I, to summarize all the information previously studied in this area. In the 19th century there was a decisive turn in the history of linguistics - the comparative historical was established. point of view on language. During this period, the meanings of words were considered in terms of the changes they underwent in the course of history. In addition, new coverage was given to the problem of the relationship between human thinking and language.

Linguistic S. at 19 and early. 20th century was an exclusively diachronic science. Its main task was to study the change and development of the meaning of individual words. Modern lingua kaya S. (since the 1st half of the 20th century) is a science that is almost exclusively synchronous. In the United States, since the 1960s, S. has been recognized as a necessary component of a full-fledged description of a language. In general, the current era of the development of linguistics is the era of S. (because language is a medium of communication).

4. The place of semantics in the circle of traditional linguistic disciplines

Semantics(from the Greek semantikos - meaning, meaning) - the science of meaning, a section of linguistics that studies the content of language units and those speech works that are built from these units. Semiotics is the science of signs. It is divided into 3 bases. areas: syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Semantics studies the relationship between the signifier and the signified. Such an understanding of S. is not entirely appropriate. definition and tasks of linguistic semantics. Linguistic S. studies, among other things, the relationship between different signifieds, but also includes pragmatic tasks and some. etc. Linguistic meaning in the traditional sense is precisely the signified of the sign, that which is communicated during verbal communication.

S. problems and S. concepts are discussed within different sciences. S. yavl. an integral part of not only linguistics, but also philosophy, logic and semiotics. Moreover, the term "S." is understood differently within different sciences, partly because the concept of "s." and related concepts (“meaning”, “S. structures”, etc.) are used in other sciences, in particular. in psychology and cultural studies. The solution of private linguistic problems is possible without resorting to philosophical, logical ones. and other problems of S-ki. However, it is hardly possible to understand the development and prospects of the linguistic S-ki as a whole without knowledge of adjacent areas. Suffice it to say that such sections and branches of the linguistic S-ki as the theory of reference and the theory of speech acts arose directly. the influence of philosophical and logical C-ki, where the discussion of these problems began much earlier than in lingu-ke.

A huge role for the development of modern. Semiotics played a role in S-ki and its realization as a separate and important science. It was within the framework of semiotics that the basics were first comprehended and defined. goals, objectives and scope of the synchronous C-th research.

In the most general terms, we can say that the philosophical S. yavl. methodology of S-ki lingu-coy, and logical S. develops formal metalanguages ​​for linguists and, in general, a formal apparatus for research and description. In valid. the ideological ties of "different S-tic" are sometimes so strong that it is impossible. Exactly the qualification of this or that research. as belonging only to philosophy, only to linguistics, etc.

10. Denotative meaning.

In semiotics, the following are distinguished. dimensions of semiosis: semantics (denotative and significative meaning), syntactics (syntactic meaning) and pragmatics (pragmatic meaning).

Denot. meaning linguistic expression (aka denotation) is the infa transmitted by him about extralinguistic reality, about the real or imaginary world that we are talking about. D. value appears in the language in 2 bases. modifications - actual and virtual. The actual denotation of a language expression (referent) is the object or situation that the speaker has in mind when using this expression in speech. Virtual denotation yavl. a set of objects of the world of discourse (objects, properties, situations, etc.) that can be called by this expression.

For example, the denotation of the sentence "Mom is sleeping" will be a subset of all sleep situations that take place at the moment of speech, the subjects of which are someone's mothers.

12. Pragmatic meaning

of a linguistic expression is the information contained in it about the conditions of its use - the diverse aspects of the communicative situation in which it is used. These aspects include the attitude of the speaker to the denotation of the linguistic expression (in terms of various evaluative characteristics such as “good / bad”, “many / few”, “own / alien”, etc.), and the relationship between the speaker and the addressee ( e.g., the degree of closeness), and the atmosphere of communication (e.g., official / informal) and the goal that the speaker wants to achieve with his statement, and many others. other parameters, one way or another connected with the "I" of the subject of speech.

5. Main directions and schools of modern linguistic semantics

In present temp. in linguo S-ke noun. a number of schools, for all their originality can be reduced to 2 main. direction, name (according to W. Quine) strong (external) And weak (internal) C-coy. Both directions. consider the subject of S-ki to be the meaning of units of language and language expressions, but the meaning is understood in different ways.

Strong S.- a variant of logical C-ki - a section of logic that considers the interpretation of languages ​​​​of logical calculus on a particular model of the world. In linguistics, the ideas and apparatus of formal logic are used to interpret the expressions of natures. language. Representatives of this direction believe that describe the value. language expression means to formulate a rule, according to the cat. it can be established that resp. this excerpt is valid. the world. The most influential school of the “strong” C-ki is the formal C., osn. the object of study is the cat. yavl. the meaning of the sentence.

Weak S. considers the value of language expressions mental entities belonging not to the descriptive world, but to human consciousness. Language meanings are not fragments of the world, but a way of representation, reflection in consciousness. In order to understand this mode of representation, which is inaccessible to direct observation, there is no need to refer to the world itself or its model. It is enough to investigate the relations between linguistic expressions within the language itself, established by the speakers of this language without regard to correspondence with the real or imaginary world. In short, it is enough to study intralinguistic relations and restrictions and, on this basis, compare the language expressions with their C representations. Thus, with this approach, language expressions are not related to the world, but to other expressions in the same or another language, they are translated into C-language, broadcasting in expressions in this language.

At the core cognitive C-ki lie some. key ideas of cognitive psychology - a section of psychology that studies the processes associated with human cognition of the world: the processes of obtaining, storing and processing information. Ch. the difference between this approach and other yavl. the desire to "reconcile" one's explanations of human language with what is known about the mind and brain, both from other disciplines and from linguistics.

6. General properties of a linguistic sign

Properties of natures. yaz-and are due to those goals for the cat. they are Spanish. And isp-Xia they are in the main. to perform a communicative function, i.e. to ensure communication between people. YaZ, like any sign, is two-sided: it is a material-ideal unit. According to tradition, the material side of the sign is called. signifier, and the ideal signified. Consequence communicative function language yavl. such property of a sign as the presence stable relationship between signifier and signified. If the same signifiers did not always correspond to the same signifieds, if this connection were not fixed by social tradition, then people would not understand each other.

Dr. important sv-in the signs of nature. yaz-a is a well-known the complexity of their structure, decomposable into smaller elements. This holy language was introduced by Andre Martinet and called him articulation. The property of the dismemberment of linguistic signs is dictated by the need to convey with their assistance. a huge number of different messages relating to all conceivable sides of the human. life and work (eg traffic light). For a limited number of messages, it is convenient to use global, undivided signals. But if the language consisted only of global signs, people would need a science fiction writer. memory to remember all messages.

These 2 provisions are about the properties of the signs of natures. language can be called axioms of the linguistic sign ( axiom of the stability of the connection of the signified and the signifier in the sign, And sign structure axiom).

Another 1 position can also be considered an axiom: half about the asymmetry of the expression plan and the plan of the content of the linguistic sign. We are talking about the absence of a one-to-one correspondence between signifiers and signifieds: that the same signifier in different occasions its use can serve to convey different signifieds and vice versa. For example, prefix behind- can mean. start action ( behind sing) and location ( Behind Volga). Coincidence of meanings in the meanings, cat. are not recognized as interconnected, called. homonymy(get out of the forest, get out of the people, get out of a difficult situation). Identity of meanings with a difference in meanings. synonymy(behemoth - hippopotamus; bosom - sworn designation. high degree of intensity).

The word, as is known, can be separately subjected to two aspects of consideration - synchronous and diachronic.

Let's explain with an example. IN Soviet years word appeared concrete worker, which is fixed in the language and during a certain historical time actually lives in the form of multiple acts of its reproduction at different times. This - diachronic aspect. On the other hand, the same word concrete worker in each this moment of his direct verbal communication in the linguistic consciousness of a native speaker is associated as a derivative word derived from the word concrete. At the same time, in essence, it does not matter how this word was actually formed at its first appearance (The latter circumstance explains the presence of facts of re-decomposition, decorrelation, etc., in which there is precisely a discrepancy between the historically true nature of the formation of a word and its synchronous word-formation qualification). The main thing here is how this word is associated and presented to native speakers now, at the moment of speech. This - synchronic aspect.

7. On the nature of the connection between the signified and the signifier

A linguistic sign, like any sign, is two-sided: it is a material-ideal unit. According to the tradition coming from F. de Saussure, the material side of the name sign. signifier(significant), and ideal - signified(signify). The thesis formulated by him about the arbitrariness of the connection between the ozn-my and the ozn-sch was called the principle of arbitrariness of the sign. One of the ways to prove the conditionality or arbitrariness of the connection between the meaning and the meaning in a linguistic sign is an indication that the same meaning in different languages, respectively. Meanings that are completely different from each other, and vice versa, that the same sequence of sounds in different languages ​​serves as a plane of expression for completely different similar friend on a friend of a sign (for example, a sign in Russian. lang-e corresponds to a sign-my "pit", and in Japanese - "mountain"). However, in addition to the relationship between sound composition and the meaning of the word noun. other types of connection between ozn-my and ozn-shchim in the language.

C. Pierce built a classification of signs, DOS. on differences in mutual m / y sign-my and sign-sign, identified 3 types of signs

1) Iconic character marks actual likeness ozn-mogo and ozn-shchego. For example, gestures in the "Apple" dance, imitating rope climbing, realistic images: dog's muzzle on the gate, sign. dog in the yard. Or diagrams in the usual sense (geom. figures, designations of certain quantities).

2) Indices- these are signs, osn. in relation adjacency between the meaning and the meaning in real reality. So, smoke is an index of fire, heat is an index of disease.

3) Symbols- signs, in a cat. the connection between the sign and the sign is established randomly, by agreement. For example, traffic lights or some. icons, math. symbols (square root).

Iconic signs. and indexes in total. Sometimes called. natural or natural. The symbols are named. conditional, conventional.

The sign belongs to one of the indicated. Classes are not absolute character. A sign can simultaneously contain features of iconicity and features of indexality.

In modern Linguistics own iconicity is associated not so much with individual signs, but with the structure of the language as a whole and decomp. aspects. Iconicity is understood as the correspondence of the structure of the language to that conceptual structure. peace, cat. was formed in the mind of a person on the basis of experience data. Within this general concept its varieties such as isomorphism and iconic motivation are distinguished.

isomorphism- these are the corresponding parts of the cognizant and the cognizant. I. The language and model of the world are reduced to the principle of "one form - one meaning." THEM- this is the correspondence of relations between parts of the linguistic structure and parts of the conceptual structure that reflects reality.

Conclusion: in the relation between the signifier and the signifier, only the relation between the sound composition of the simple non-derivative word or morphemes and his/her signifiers, and even then only in a synchronous aspect and without taking into account onomatopoeic signs. As for the meaning of complex signs (derivatives and compound words, phrases and prepositions), then such a parameter as structure (morphological, syntactic) turns out to be not random, not arbitrarily associated with the structure of the sign, being an iconic reflection of the latter.

8. Semantic triangle

As a rule, a sign contains 4 different types of information: about some fragment of the world; about the form in which this fragment of the world is reflected in the human mind; about the conditions under which this sign was burnt in use; about how it is connected with other signs.

Philosophers and linguists who pondered the phenomenon of the sign often used geomes to represent its structure. figures. These figures can be raasm. like a kind graphic sign models.

The first to receive widespread graphic the model of the sign was the so-called. " S-th triangle"or" triangle. relatedness” by Ogden and Richards (1923):

concept

meaning referent (subject)

It displays a well-known position: the form of the language expression of the designation. "thing" through a "concept" associated with form in the minds of 1 language speakers. This simplified scheme ignores a number of important semiotic factors, allowing us to consider a narrow understanding of "meaning". One of them is called substantial- in it, meaning acts as a material or ideal substance. Other - relational, meaning is treated as a relation (between substances).

At substance understanding the value is identified with one of the vertices of the triangle representing the info conveyed by the sign. This variant of S-whom cocked hat in relation to the word was proposed by G. Stern.

meaning

expresses yavl.subjective

understanding

word refer-t (subject)

J. Lyons offers a very similar figure, with the difference that word taken out of the triangle, which more accurately reflects the nature of the word as a sign (two-sided entity).

meaning (concept)

referent form

G. Frege called value to each other, the top of the triangle, relating to extralinguistic reality, and not to its reflection in the mind of the speaker - the top, which in modern. lingu. C-ke designation. the term "denotation":

Sinn (= meaning)

(=value)

So, it became clear that with the help of graphical models of the sign, it is possible to demonstrate the use of the term “meaning” found in works on semantics to denote one or another of the aspects of the information contained in a linguistic sign.

9. Actual, virtual value.

Value types distinguished by degree of generalization

Dan. the aspect of the typology of meanings is associated with the opposition of 2 hypostases of language - language as a system and language as an activity. Let us first consider how types of meanings, different in degree of generalization, can be distinguished from a word. Eg. word fire. If the speaker pronounces this word without any context, the listener learns very little. Informative value of such message och. small, but the listener still learned something. What he knows is the same as the meaning of the word fire in the language system, cat. called virtual value. But listen. does not yet know what kind of fire we are talking about (fire, candle flame, artillery fuse or metaphorical “fire boils in the blood”). That. Wirth. value. stretched in its volume, abstractly, yavl. the most inconsistent. However, VZ socially. Knowing only him, native speakers have little, but this is a little yavl. common to all people belonging to one linguistic community.

When a linguistic expression (word or sentence) is considered in speech, its meaning is concrete, because every speaker or listener. invests quite opred. content in what he says or perceives. So, if in nature. situation word fire will be used as part of a holistic communication. ed-tsy - a sentence (narp., Put out the fire), which appears in the definition. linguistic and situational context, then the infa transmitted by them will be much more certain And concrete. This actual value. AZ is associated with a minimum (up to zero) degree of generalization of the information transmitted to them, and Wirth. value - with max. AZ and OT of a linguistic sign are dialectically interconnected. The OT serves as the semantic basis for actual meanings.

The meanings of the preposition are the same as the meanings. units lower levels- words and morphemes - have 2 modifications - virtual and actual. Oh Wirth. zn. suggestion-I say when it is considered. out of context.


Previously, linguists used the term "semasiology", today it has been recognized as obsolete, and more and more often they use the concept of "semantics", which was introduced by the French philologist Michel Breal. What is semantics is the study of the meanings of individual words, or the science that studies the meaning of linguistic units.

Initially, the term "semasiology", which was introduced by Karl Reisig, was used to refer to this branch of linguistics. In his Lectures on Latin» there are the first attempts to describe this direction and some words. The scientist was interested historical development words.

In the second half of the 19th century, the first linguistic concepts appeared in this area: the concept of Geiman Steinthal, Wilhelm Wundt. In the twentieth century, linguists paid attention to the meaning of morphemes, phraseological units, sentences.

There are three stages in the development of semasiological science:

  1. Psychological, or evolutionary. Culture is considered as a product of evolution, language semantics is compared with the mentality of the people. The studies of this period were influenced by the works of A. Potebnya, who studied the connection between thought and speech and developed the doctrine of the internal form of the word. The scientist argued that each word has two forms: external and internal, which were formed under the influence psychological features native speaker people.
  2. Comparative-historical. Gradually, semasiology emerged as a separate branch of linguistics. Scientists are trying to formulate general semantic laws. M. Pokrovsky systematized and unified the theory of semasiology: he described its object, subject, goals.
  3. Integration stage. In the 1920s, semantic science became close to logic and philosophy. The basic unit of semantics was recognized as a sentence, as a statement about the facts that make up the world.
  4. In the 70s, an integrated approach to phenomena in the semantic field was fixed in the linguistic studies of Yu. Karaulov, A. Ufimtseva. They apply the methods of opposition, comparison, analysis, explore the intralinguistic connections of speech units. Words, phrases and sentences are not considered in isolation, but in the context of speech, taking into account culture and pragmatics, the communicative situation.

Modern theorists - A. Bondarko, T. Bulygina - work with grammatical semantics, expand the theoretical apparatus of science.

New tasks and goals open before them: automation of semantic analysis, its synchronization with search engine algorithms.

Concepts

Those who study semantic science define its goals in different ways. Based on this, two main concepts are distinguished - narrow and wide. The narrow concept considers the meaning of words in isolation, and the broad one deduces these meanings from the context, based on the conditions of their use.

For example, in a narrow concept, the meaning of the word "music" can be given in a dictionary. But in a broad concept, one must see the sentence or phrase in which this word is used.

If we take these examples of sentences:

  1. The music of his fragile soul was melodic and quiet.
  2. Unfamiliar music played loudly in the dark room.

The meaning of the word is different in both cases. The narrow concept is limited to a literal understanding of the word, while the broad one expands the semantic boundaries, allows you to understand the potential of each word, use it not only in literally but also in the form of metaphor, comparison, analogy. The same word has different meanings in different sentences.

Broad concept of semantics

Aims of science

Researchers set themselves the following goals:

  • describe language tools, their meanings depending on the context and conditions of use;
  • synthesize knowledge about unit values different levels. Science is looking for an answer to the question of how elements of a higher level are formed from elements of one level;
  • determine how information is deciphered, which is transmitted by one person to another, how people relate the words they use to reality, how they understand more than was originally embedded in language units;
  • explore how structures of a higher level are formed from sentences-statements;
  • develop a theory of semantics: collect, systematize and describe concepts, terms that can be used to describe different aspects of the meanings of language units;
  • explore the semantic analysis of text, develop automated programs that analyze texts.

To achieve these goals in science, different methods are used: semantic analysis, verification of the results obtained, description, comparison, comparison.

Programs that analyze texts.

Main directions

The object of semantic research can vary, and the study can focus on a certain aspect of speech.

Depending on this, the following sections of semantics are distinguished:

  • cognitive - a section that studies the relationship between the elements of speech and the cultural mentality of its carrier. Researchers in this field are trying to understand the very meaning of the concept of "meaning" for different categories: words, phrases, sentences and its connection with consciousness;
  • lexical engaged in-depth study meanings, dividing them into two types - connotation (what the word means) and denotation (what they mean). Within this section, the classification of words, their analysis are studied, general and distinctive features in the lexical structures of different languages;
  • the formal interprets languages, describing them with the help of mathematical formulas;
  • generative (generative) - an unpopular direction, the purpose of which is to build a language model using two schemes: from meaning to text, and vice versa;
  • morphological describes morphological meanings and their role in the construction of speech units;
  • historical explores the meaning of historical vocabulary in the context of cultural and social development. Explores the formation and transformation of the meaning of individual words, idioms, phraseological units, their modifications and origin.

All these types are also united under one term "linguistic semantics".

The actual direction is artificial semantics, which is used to promote websites and information resources. This is a semantic core (a complex of lexemes that characterize the main thematic load of a certain resource), which is artificially formed with the help of special programs. They study real texts and, based on the results, formulate probable search queries.

The main task is to predict as accurately as possible the structure of keywords in a particular topic, using basic indicators: city, month, product or service name.

This method is used in the following areas:

  • to work with contextual advertising (compiling a list of keywords, negative keywords and forecasting queries);
  • for organic traffic.

Artificial semantics has its advantages and disadvantages. It saves money on content, promotion, helps to secure the site in the TOP for a long period. But sometimes statistical information is not enough to understand the algorithms of search engines, it is difficult to predict the reaction of users to generated queries. This method is based on probability.

But the use of artificial semantics helps to promote commercial and non-commercial projects, to form the content of resources in accordance with requests. target audience(potential readers/buyers/customers). And further research and improvement of methods for the formation of the semantic core will make it possible to use the possibilities of IS more effectively in the future.

Useful video: general semantics

Text analysis

This is a description of the information contained in the text. The semantics of the text considers the text as a set of sign elements that closely interact with each other. The task of such an analysis is to explore these elements and the relationships between them, to collect and present statistical information about them.

For this, semantic text analysis is used - a method for evaluating various text indicators, which includes:

  • count total characters with and without spaces;
  • counting the number of words, sentences;
  • determining the frequency of words as a percentage;
  • counting the number of errors (lexical, spelling, punctuation);
  • definition of the semantic core - a complex of words that form the thematic "center" of the text ( keywords and requests)
  • determination of the level of "classic nausea". This parameter indicates the number of repetitions of the same words. This coefficient is calculated to accelerate the promotion of a resource on the Internet;
  • determination of the level of "academic nausea". The higher this figure, the more words are repeated in the text.

Semantic text analysis

Interesting information! Many text exchanges have their own "online semantics" services that analyze the text for all of the above indicators.

Modern promotion includes understanding the behavior of the target audience. With what words (concepts, notions) does she associate a particular product or service? What words does she use to search? What vocabulary should be entered into the texts in order to definitely get into the target audience? What does this mean for promotion? Modern semantics is looking for answers to these questions too.

Useful video: semantics - the science of the meaning of words

Conclusion

Semantic text analysis is in demand in the field of copywriting, advertising and marketing. It helps to create high-quality texts that are interesting for readers and adapt them for search engines. Such analysis is done automatically by many programs and online resources.

Theoretical linguistics Descriptive linguistics Applied Linguistics Other Portal:Linguistics

Semantic analysis is used as a study tool. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, semantics was also often referred to as semasiology(from other Greek. σημασία "sign; indication"). Semantics are still commonly referred to as semasiologists. Also, "semantics" can mean the very range of meanings of a certain class of linguistic units (for example, "semantics of verbs of motion").

History of semantics

Semantic problems were raised and discussed by philosophical thought already in ancient times. Such are the disputes about the origin of the meanings of words and their relation to being and thinking, which were conducted by analogists and anomalists in antiquity and nominalists, realists, conceptualists in the Middle Ages; such is the doctrine of suppositions, that is, of changes in the meaning of a word depending on the context and the specific situation, developed by medieval scholasticism; such are the problems of the adequacy of the linguistic expression of thinking and the origin of the contradictions between them, the problems of the development of thinking and language, put forward by the philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. But all these problems were discussed outside of the development of linguistic disciplines proper, for example, grammar. In terms of proper linguistics, until the 19th century, inclusive, only one discipline - etymology - touched upon the problems of semantics, since, explaining the formation of some words from others, it was forced to both register and explain changes in the meanings of words. Only in the second half of the 19th century, in connection with the increased interest not only in the sound, but also in the “psychological” side of the language, the question arose of the need to single out semantics as the doctrine of changes in meaning, at first only words (see Semantic property). The term "semantics" itself was introduced by the French linguist Breal. One of the applied tasks in the study of the semantics of the language appeared with the need to adequately search for information on the Internet at the request of the user (see: Relevance). The theory of semantic analysis is aimed at solving problems related to the possibility of understanding the meaning of a phrase and submitting a request to a search engine in the required form.

Late XIX - early XX centuries

Further development of semantics in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century was carried out almost exclusively by representatives of various psychological trends in linguistics, who tried to find in the patterns that occur in the individual consciousness of "mental processes", the basis for the patterns of semantic changes (extended constructions by Wundt, Rozvadovsky, Martinak, Jaberg, etc.). In the 1910s and 1920s, semantics attracted much more attention.

Linguists of the 19th and 20th centuries almost do not touch upon the question of determining the very meaning of a word, leaving the solution of this question to philosophers and psychologists and being satisfied with the identification of the meaning of a word or with the object called by it, or with the reproduction of this object in the mind of the speaker - with the representation; the latter definition of the meaning of a word, which was then repeated both in popular introductions to linguistics and in special works on semantics (Erdmann, Nyurop), was especially common. Only one side of the meaning of a word is subject to a more detailed discussion in the linguistics of the 19th - early 20th centuries - this is its so-called etymological meaning, that is, the meaning revealed in the word by its etymological analysis, establishing its connection with other words of the same or closest to it languages. The problem of this ratio etymological meaning or, in short, the etymon to the entire content of the word is discussed in 19th-century linguistics, beginning with Humboldt; the definition of this ratio proposed by Humboldt as an internal form of the word, expressing the view on the object given in the corresponding language, was interpreted by psychologists as an expression in the language of the figurative representation of the object (Steinthal) or the dominant feature of the representation (Wundt), and their opponents - as a structure not related to the content of the word his forms (Marty).

see also

Notes

Literature

  • Kobozeva I. M. Linguistic Semantics. - M. : Editorial URSS, 2000. - 352 p. - ISBN 5-8360-0165-0.
  • Vasiliev L. M. Modern Linguistic Semantics. - M.: Higher school, 1990. - 176 p. - ISBN 978-5-397-00829-7.
  • Lyons J. Linguistic semantics. Introduction / John Lyons; Per. from English.

SEMANTICS, -i, f. 1. The same as semasiology. 2. In linguistics: meaning, meaning (of a language unit). S. words. C. suggestions. || adj. semantic, th, th.


Watch value SEMANTICS in other dictionaries

Semantics- semantics, pl. no, w. (from Greek semantikos - denoting) (lingu.). 1. The same as semasiology. 2. Meaning (words, turns of speech, etc.).
Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Semantics J.- 1. Meaning, meaning of a language unit (morphemes, words, phrases, etc.). 2. A section of linguistics that studies the semantic side of the language. 3. A branch of semiotics that studies sign ........
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova

Semantics- -And; and. [from Greek. sēmantikos - denoting] Lingu.
1. Meaning, meaning (words, figure of speech, grammatical form). C. the word "creation" is connected with the verb to create.
2. = Semasiology.........
Explanatory Dictionary of Kuznetsov

Semantics- - the study of the way words are used and the meanings they convey.
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Boolean Semantics- a theory that studies the interpretation of logarithmic calculus: the relationship between the language of calculus and the reality it describes - a model of the theory, conditions of existence ........

Semantics- (from Greek semantikos - denoting) -1) the meaning of language units. 2) The same as semasiology, a section of linguistics that studies the meaning of language units, primarily words. 3) One of the main sections of semiotics.
Big encyclopedic dictionary

Constructive Semantics- - a set of ways of understanding judgments in constructive mathematics. The need for special semantics is caused by the difference general principles underlying the traditional ........
Mathematical Encyclopedia

Semantics- in mathematical logic - the study of interpretations of the logical calculus, formal axiomatic. theories; study of the meaning and meaning of formalized constructions ........
Mathematical Encyclopedia

General Semantics- - a method developed by Alfred Kortsibsky (1933), with the aim of overcoming the Aristotelian binary system of thinking (the object exists or does not exist = the third fundamentally ........
Psychological Encyclopedia

Generative Semantics— See semantics generating.
Psychological Encyclopedia

Semantics- (from the Greek semantikos - denoting). There are several types of C.1. Linguistic S. - a section of linguistics that studies lexical meanings words and expressions, changing their meanings ........
Psychological Encyclopedia

Semantics, Generative— An approach to language learning that focuses on the development of a grammar that generates the basic meanings of sentences and transforms the meanings into real sentences.
Psychological Encyclopedia

Semantics- (from the Greek. semantikos - denoting, sign) - English. semantics; German semantics. 1. Section of linguistics and logic, exploring problems related to meaning, meaning and interpretation ........
sociological dictionary

Cultural Semantics- - specific. problem area of ​​the science of culture, dealing with the study of cultural objects with v.sp. the meaning they express. Cultural objects of any kind
Philosophical Dictionary

Boolean Semantics- - a department of logic that studies the meaning of language expressions; in a more precise sense, a branch of metalogics. studying interpretations (Interpretation and model) of logical calculus ........
Philosophical Dictionary