1. Basic legal forms cooperation of states in the fight against crime.

2. The main areas of international cooperation between states.

3. Legal assistance in criminal cases. Extradition of criminals.

1. Under international fight against crime refers to the cooperation of states in the fight against certain types of crimes committed by individuals. This collaboration has gone through a long evolution.

The first form of such cooperation was cooperation in the extradition of criminals. Even in the agreement between the Hittite king Hattusil III and the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II in 1296 BC. it was said: "If someone escapes from Egypt and goes to the country of the Hittites, then the Hittite king will not detain him, but will return him to the country of Ramses."

Later, it became necessary to exchange information, and the volume of this information was constantly expanding. At a certain stage there was a need to exchange experiences. And recently, a prominent place in relations between states has been occupied by the issue of providing professional and technical assistance. Of particular importance are joint actions or their coordination, without which the law enforcement agencies of various states cannot successfully combat certain types of crimes, primarily organized crime.

To date, cooperation between states is developing at three levels:

1. Bilateral cooperation. Here, bilateral agreements on such issues as the provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, the extradition of criminals, the transfer of convicted persons to serve their sentences in the country of which they are citizens are most widely used. Interstate and intergovernmental agreements, as a rule, are accompanied by interdepartmental agreements, which specify the cooperation of individual departments.

2. Cooperation at the regional level due to the coincidence of interests and the nature of relations between the countries of a particular region. For example, in 1971, 14 member states of the OAS signed in Washington the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Acts of Terrorism. Within the framework of the CIS, such cooperation is developing very rapidly: in January 1993, in Minsk, the Commonwealth countries (except Azerbaijan) signed the Convention on Legal Assistance in Civil, Family and Criminal Matters.

3. Collaboration at the universal level began in the framework of the League of Nations, and continued in the UN. At present, a whole system of multilateral universal treaties in the field of international criminal law has been created:

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948;

Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 1949;



Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 1956;

International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, 1973;

Tokyo Convention on Crimes and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, 1963;

Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 1970;

Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 1971;

Convention on Narcotic Substances 1961;

Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971;

Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988;

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, 1973;

International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, 1979;

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1980;

Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984;

Convention against the recruitment, use, financing and training of mercenaries, etc.

The international cooperation in the fight against crime involves the solution by states of several interrelated tasks:

a) harmonization of the classification of crimes that pose a danger to several or all states;

b) coordination of measures to prevent and suppress such crimes;

c) establishing jurisdiction over crimes and criminals;

d) ensuring the inevitability of punishment;

e) provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, including the extradition of criminals.

2. With the development of trade, navigation and relations between states, the scope of cooperation in the fight against specific types of crimes relating to common interests has also expanded.

Since ancient times, the fight against maritime piracy, which has been recognized by states as an international crime, has become widespread, and pirates have been declared enemies of mankind. Prior to the adoption of the High Seas Convention in 1958, anti-piracy issues were regulated by customary rules; today, anti-piracy provisions are also contained in the UN Convention on maritime law 1982

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the first act was adopted to prohibit the trade in slaves, but more clearly the provisions for combating the slave trade were enshrined in the Slavery Convention of 1926. institutions and practices similar to slavery.

Later, states began to cooperate in the fight against pornography. In 1910, the Convention for the Suppression of the Distribution of Pornographic Publications was adopted, and in 1923, the Convention for the Suppression of the Distribution of and Trade in Pornographic Publications.

Also of interest is the International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeiting Money of 1929. Its adoption was the result of the threat faced by states in connection with the spread of this dangerous phenomenon.

Increasing frequency of hijackings in the 1960s led to the adoption in 1963 in Tokyo of the Convention on Crimes and Other Terrorist Acts Committed on Board Aircraft. In 1970, the Hague Convention for the Prevention of Unlawful Seizures of Aircraft was adopted, in 1971 - the Montreal Convention for the Prevention of Unlawful Acts Endangering the Safety of Civil Aviation, in 1988 the Protocol Concerning Unlawful Acts of Violence at International Airports.

International cooperation in the fight against the illegal distribution of drugs began at the beginning of the 20th century. The first international agreement was concluded in The Hague in 1912. In 1961, the Single Convention on Narcotic Substances was adopted, in 1971 the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and in 1988 the Convention for the Suppression of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Substances and Psychotropic Substances was adopted. International cooperation of states in the fight against terrorism began during the existence of the League of Nations. In 1937, the Convention for the Prevention and Suppression of Terrorism was adopted in Geneva.

Later, the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Acts of Terrorism of 1971 was adopted; in 1973 - the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, and in 1976 the European Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism was adopted.

With the development of nuclear technology and nuclear production was the question of combating the theft of nuclear material. In March 1980, a special Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material was adopted, which, taking into account the special danger of theft and proliferation of this material, clearly defined the corpus delicti, the procedure for bringing violators to justice and their extradition.

3. Criminal procedural actions of the state authorities are limited to its territory, while for the normal administration of justice in criminal cases, it is sometimes necessary to conduct procedural actions on the territory of another state. Since the principle of state sovereignty excludes direct actions of the authorities of one state on the territory of another, the request for assistance remains the only way to carry out the necessary procedural actions. Cooperation between states in providing legal assistance in criminal cases is developing at the level of bilateral relations and regional agreements, certain issues of such cooperation are included in multilateral international treaties. Ukraine has agreements on legal assistance in civil, family and criminal cases with many states.

The agreements provide for such types of legal assistance in criminal cases as the delivery and forwarding of documents, the provision of information about the current law and judicial practice, interrogation of the accused, defendants, witnesses, experts, examinations, transfer of physical evidence, criminal prosecution extradition of persons who committed crimes.

The institute of extradition of criminals (extradition) is widely used in practice international relations. As relations between states develop, so does the institution of extradition.

extradition- is the transfer of a person by the state in whose territory the person is located, to another state in order to bring him to criminal responsibility or to enforce the sentence.

Extradition is possible if the act committed is provided for by the extradition treaty and the act is punishable in accordance with the criminal laws of both states with imprisonment for more than a year. At the same time, the death penalty cannot be applied to the extradited person if it is not provided for by the law of the issuing state.

Own citizens or persons who have been granted asylum are not subject to extradition. Also, persons in respect of whom a sentence has been passed that has entered into force in the same case or the proceedings in the case have been terminated shall not be extradited; in cases of private prosecution or political offences, as well as if the statute of limitations has expired under the law of the state to which the extradition is requested, and if extradition is prohibited by the law of the state to which the extradition is requested.

An extradited person may be prosecuted and punished only for the crimes that led to his extradition.

Issues of extradition are regulated both by the internal law of states and by international treaties. Basically, these are bilateral agreements. Sometimes such agreements are concluded by several states. In 1984, an extradition agreement was signed by Ghana, Benin, Nigeria and Togo. Among the multilateral treaties in this area, noteworthy are, in particular, the European (Paris) Convention on the Extradition of Criminals of 1957, signed by the member states of the Council of Europe (more than 20 states participate), as well as the Convention on Legal Assistance and Legal Relations in Civil, Family and Criminal Cases of 1993 (signed by 10 CIS countries), section IV of which is devoted to the problem of extradition of criminals.

The provisions of these conventions, with few exceptions, are approximately the same. The parties undertake to extradite to each other persons who are on their territory in order to bring them to criminal responsibility or to carry out the sentence. In addition, they regulate in more or less detail the procedure that the contracting parties intend to follow when deciding practical issues issuance-related.

Over the past decades, a number of multilateral conventions aimed at combating crimes of an international character have been adopted, which contain an obligation to extradite alleged criminals. Under the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, 1949, the offenses therein are treated as extraditable offenses and are subject to any extradition treaty that has been or will be concluded between any of the parties to that Convention. In later agreements on cooperation in the fight against various types crimes, the provisions on extradition are formulated in more detail, but their essence has not changed. In none of the treaties is the institution of extradition unconditional. The meaning of the provisions in this case is that the perpetrators should not go unpunished. It is recommended to follow the path of concluding an extradition treaty if, without such an treaty, the state, in accordance with its legislation, cannot extradite the alleged criminals. For example, the 1979 Hostage Convention goes a little further. It provides that if a State Party making extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty receives a request for extradition from another State Party with which it does not have an extradition treaty, the requested State may consider this Convention as the legal basis for extradition. The same provision is contained in the 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation and a number of other agreements. In many conventions, especially those relating to the fight against terrorist acts, there is a provision, the essence of which is reduced to the principle of "punish or extradite".

At the same time, a simplified extradition system operates within the European Union, the introduction of which in relation to the European space proceeded in stages.

Thus, Art. 31(1)(b) of the Treaty on European Union established that actions taken jointly in the field of judicial cooperation in criminal matters are designed, among other things, to facilitate extradition between Member States. All this should serve the fundamental purposes of the European Union: to preserve and develop the Union as a space of freedom, security and justice, within which the free movement of persons is ensured, in conjunction with appropriate measures in the field of control of external borders, asylum, immigration, as well as the prevention of crime and combating this phenomenon (Article 2 of the Treaty on the European Union).

In the same vein of simplifying the procedure, two other agreements adopted by the Council of Ministers of Justice and the Interior of the European Union have been developed. These were, in fact, the first serious attempts to create an extradition system within the European Union. The first agreement of 10 March 1995, concerning a simplified extradition procedure between the members of the European Union, establishes that, in the event of an agreement between the respondent State and the person to be extradited, the extradition of the latter is carried out upon a formal request for extradition. Thus, the principles of the Schengen Agreement are confirmed.

The second agreement of 27 September 1996 removed the rule on requesting extradition through diplomatic channels. Each state designates a central authority charged with transmitting and receiving extradition requests and the accompanying documents. This Agreement also contained other, largely revolutionary, provisions. First, it softened the conditions regarding the qualification of a crime. First of all, it concerns the double charge rule. The respondent State is now unable to reject the request, arguing that there is no qualification of this type of crime in its legislation. The said agreement also changed the minimum term of punishment for a crime for which a person is subject to extradition. Now it has become sufficient to impose a possible sentence of imprisonment for a term of 12 months under the laws of the country requiring the extradition of the offender, and from 6 months under the laws of the respondent state. In addition, the respondent State can no longer refuse extradition on the grounds that the statute of limitations for criminal prosecution or punishment under its law has expired. Secondly, the 1996 Agreement allows the respondent state to extradite its nationals, which is also an innovation, clearly demonstrating "European citizenship" and emphasizing that EU countries enjoy the same rights and obligations.

The introduction of a unified European order was provided for by the Framework Decision of the Council of the European Union “On the European Arrest Warrant and Procedures for the Transfer of Persons between Member States”, adopted on June 3, 2002 as a result of work carried out following the results of the Extraordinary Summit of the European Union in Tampere (Finland) 15 - October 16, 1999, which adopted the concept of mutual recognition of judicial decisions by the Member States of the European Union.

A European Arrest Warrant is a judgment issued by a Member State of the European Union for the purpose of detaining and handing over to another Member State of a wanted person for criminal prosecution or for the execution of a sentence or security measure related to deprivation of liberty.

The European Arrest Warrant, like its counterparts in domestic law, serves as a legal basis for the detention of a suspect, accused or criminal (if the person has already been convicted and is in effect). At the same time, unlike national warrants, in this case we are talking about the detention of a “wanted person” in the territory of other member states of the European Union, where he may be (or hide) after committing a crime. Also, on the basis of the principle of mutual recognition and in accordance with the provisions of the Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European arrest warrant and procedures for the transfer of persons between Member States, Member States will execute any European arrest warrant.

A European Arrest Warrant may be issued for acts for which the law of the issuing Member State provides for a penalty or security measure involving deprivation of liberty with an upper limit of at least twelve months, or - where a penalty has already been imposed or a security measure has already been imposed - in relation to convictions that provide for a sentence of imprisonment of at least four months.

If the offenses listed below, as defined in the law of the Member State issuing the warrant, are punishable in that State by a penalty or security measure involving deprivation of liberty with an upper limit of at least three years, then, for those offenses, transfer of a person on the basis of a European arrest warrant under the terms of the Framework Decision must be carried out without conducting a test for dual criminality of the act: participation in a criminal organization; terrorism; human trafficking; sexual exploitation of children and child pornography; illegal trade in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; illegal trade in weapons, ammunition and explosives; corruption; fraudulent activities, including fraudulent activities damaging the financial interests of the European Communities within the meaning of the Convention of 26 July 1995 for the Protection of the Financial Interests of the European Communities; laundering of proceeds from crime; counterfeiting, including counterfeiting the euro; cybercrime; crimes against the environment, including the illegal trade in endangered species of animals and the illegal trade in endangered plant varieties and tree species; assistance to illegal entry and stay; premeditated murder, infliction of grievous bodily harm; illegal trade in human organs and tissues; kidnapping, unlawful imprisonment and hostage-taking; racism and xenophobia; theft committed in an organized manner or with the use of weapons; illegal trade in cultural property, including antiques and works of art; fraud; racketeering and extortion of money; production of counterfeit and pirated products; production of false administrative documents and trade in them; counterfeit means of payment; illegal trade in hormones and other growth stimulants; illegal trade in nuclear and radioactive materials; trade in stolen vehicles; rape; arson; crimes under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court; aircraft/ship hijacking; sabotage.

If the location of the “wanted person” is unknown, then the Schengen information system as well as Interpol. Subsequently, the “wanted person” is subject to transfer to the judicial authority that issued the warrant for him.

When a person is detained on the basis of a European Arrest Warrant, the executing judicial authority decides whether the person must be detained in accordance with the law of the executing Member State. A temporary release of a person from custody is permitted at any time, in accordance with the internal law of the executing Member State, provided that the competent authority of that Member State takes all measures deemed necessary by it to prevent the escape of the wanted person.

If the detainee declares consent to his transfer, then given consent and, where appropriate, an express declaration waiving the use of the specificity rule shall be given by it to the judicial authority executing the warrant, in accordance with the internal law of the executing Member State.

The internationalization and globalization of modern life has not only positive but also negative consequences. Among them is crime and the spread of its typical patterns, trends and forms to various regions and countries. And this requires joining efforts to combat crime, since it is practically impossible to counteract its transnational component at the level of individual states.

International cooperation in the fight against crime, in turn, needs legal, organizational and scientific support.

After the Second World War, when both national and transnational crime began to grow rapidly, the criminological situation in the world, and especially in the North American and European regions, required urgent coordinated measures. The expansion of international cooperation in this area has become inevitable. And it can be carried out only if there are coordinating international organizations. This function was assumed by the UN, Interpol, non-governmental international organizations.

United Nations It was established in October 1945. According to the Charter, it is responsible for international cooperation between states on all topical problems. One of the main bodies of the UN, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), is directly involved in the issues of cooperation between countries in the fight against crime. In 1971, it was transformed into the Committee for the Prevention and Control of Crime, in 1993 - - into a higher status body - Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice.

The commission (committee) submits to ECOSOC recommendations and proposals aimed at a more effective fight against crime and humane treatment of offenders. The General Assembly, in addition, entrusted to this body the functions of preparing once every 5 years United Nations congresses on the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders.



The UN Congresses play a major role in the development of international rules, standards and recommendations for crime prevention and criminal justice. By now it has been

10 congresses were held, the decisions of which significantly advanced the issues of international cooperation on a reliable scientific and legal basis.

The UN Congresses were held:

The first - - in Geneva in 1955; Second at the invitation of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland- in London in 1960; The third, at the invitation of the Swedish government, was in Stockholm in 1965; Fourth, at the invitation of the Japanese government - - in Kyoto in 1970; The fifth took place at the Palais des Nations in Geneva in 1975; the sixth, at the invitation of the government of Venezuela - - in Caracas in 1980; the seventh, at the invitation of the Italian government, in Milan in 1985; the eighth, at the invitation of the government of Cuba, in Havana in 1990; the ninth, at the invitation of the Egyptian government, in Cairo in 1995; The tenth took place at the Vienna International Center in Vienna in 2000.

The first congresses allowed the UN to play a key role in the development, adoption and implementation of important international legal documents summarizing the application of the norms and standards of criminal justice.

From the huge list of such documents, we will name only a few:

Accepted First Congress Standard Minimum Rules of Address
with the prisoners that were developed in the General Assembly resolution
in 1990 and in the appendix to it, where the main principles were formulated
the treatment of prisoners;

Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, which
considered at the Fifth Congress and after appropriate revision in 1973.
was adopted by the General Assembly;

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
degrading treatment and punishment, which was discussed
at the Fifth Congress and on its recommendation in 1975, General
noah Assembly.

The Sixth - - Ninth Congresses were especially productive.

The Sixth Congress adopted the Caracas Declaration, which stated that the success of the criminal justice system and crime prevention strategies, especially in the context of the spread of new and unusual shapes criminal behavior depends primarily on progress in improving social conditions and improving the quality of life, therefore, it is necessary to reconsider anti-crime strategies based solely on legal criteria. From this Congress, criminological problems begin to expand consistently.

At the Sixth Congress, about 20 resolutions and other decisions were adopted regarding crime prevention strategies,

prevention of abuse of power, minimum standards for fairness and juvenile justice, guidelines for the independence of judges, legal awareness and dissemination of legal knowledge, etc.

At the Seventh Congress, the Plan of Action of Milan was adopted, which stated that crime was a serious problem on a national and international scale. It hinders the political, economic, social and cultural development of peoples and endangers human rights, fundamental freedoms, as well as peace, stability and security.

IN adopted documents governments were recommended to give priority to crime prevention, intensify cooperation between themselves on a bilateral and multilateral basis, develop criminological research, pay special attention to the fight against terrorism, drug trafficking, organized crime, and ensure broad public participation in crime prevention.

Congress adopted over 25 resolutions, including: the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (the "Beijing Rules"); Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power; Basic principles regarding independence judiciary, and etc.

The following topics were discussed at the Eighth Congress:

Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice;

Criminal justice policy;

Effective national and international action against organized
bathroom crime and terrorist criminal activity;

Youth crime prevention, juvenile justice and youth protection;

UN norms and guidelines in the field of crime prevention

and criminal justice.

This Congress adopted the largest number of resolutions - 35. To name just a few of them: international cooperation in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice; the United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (“Riyadh Principles”); crime prevention in the urban environment; organized crime prevention; combating terrorist activities, corruption in public administration; basic principles for the treatment of prisoners; international and interregional cooperation in the field of prison management.

The Ninth Congress discussed four topics:

- international cooperation in the field crime prevention and criminal justice;

Measures to combat national and transnational economic and organizational
called crime;

Management and improvement of the work of the police and other legal
wounding bodies, prosecutor's office, courts, correctional institutions;

Strategies in the field of crime prevention.

The Congress adopted 11 resolutions, including: recommendations for the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders; proposals for a convention to combat organized crime; about children as victims and perpetrators of crimes; about violence against women; on regulation of turnover firearms in order to prevent crime and ensure public safety.

Due to a lack of funding at the UN, the Congress was short. It was decided that the main work to improve the documents proposed and discussed at the Congress will be carried out by the UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, ECOSOC and the General Assembly formed before the Congress. Because of this, the decisions of the Congress were more of a consultative nature.

Tenth Congress discussed four themes: strengthening the rule of law and strengthening the criminal justice system; international cooperation in the fight against transnational crime: new challenges in the 21st century; effective crime prevention: in step with the latest developments; offenders and victims: accountability and fairness in the justice process. Congress adopted the Vienna Declaration on Crime and Justice: Responses to the Challenges of the 21st Century 1 .

The most concise and selective list of issues that were discussed at past congresses shows how important they were in developing optimal and effective approaches for international cooperation and improving national ways to combat and prevent crime. The congresses repeatedly addressed some difficult questions, each time coordinating new decisions with the real criminological situation in the world.

In the UN, as part of ECOSOC, there is also a Commission on Narcotic Drugs and a subcommittee on the illicit drug trade -

1 See: Luneev V.V. Tenth UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Its Place in the History of Congresses // State and Law. 2000. No. 9. S. 95-100.

mi, the Special Committee on International Terrorism, the International Narcotics Control Council, formed on the basis of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1961. All of them, in parallel with other UN entities, solve the problem of cooperation between states in combating certain types of transnational crime. A lot of research work is carried out by UN institutions or those associated with the UN: UNICRI (International Crime and Justice Research Institute, Rome, Italy), HEUNI (European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, associated with the UN, Helsinki, Finland), UNAFRI (United Nations African Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Kampala, Uganda), UNAFEI (Asian and Pacific United Nations Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Tokyo, Japan), ILANUD (United Nations Latin American Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders , San José, Costa Rica) and others 1 .

Traditional forms of international cooperation are combined with broad international conferences and other events on complex and topical issues.

Let's turn to one of them - - to the problem organized crime. It has been consistently solved for more than twenty years. It was first discussed at the Fifth Congress, where it was recognized that crime in the form of international business is a more serious problem than traditional forms of criminal behavior. Then she was approached by the Sixth Congress, who expressed concern about organized criminals who were outside the reach of the law. The Seventh Congress discussed the issue of exploitation by organized crime of gaps in the legislation of various countries. The Eighth Congress adopted guidelines for the prevention and control of organized crime. They were supported by the General Assembly in a resolution on international cooperation in the fight against organized crime.

Various aspects of this problem were discussed by experts from the UN, Interpol and non-governmental organizations at a meeting in Czechoslovakia (Smolenich, May 1991), at an international seminar in Russia (Suzdal, October 1991) and at the international conference "Mafia, what to do?" in Italy (Palermo, 1992).

1 See: A World Directory of Criminological Institutes. 6th ed. UNICRI. Rome, 1995 / P. 1-51.

Of particular importance was the World Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime (Naples, 1994), where questions were discussed about the danger of organized crime in various regions of the world and the adequacy of the legislation on the basis of which the fight against it is carried out in various countries; about effective forms of cooperation in the fight against organized crime; on the principles for the prevention of organized crime and the advisability of adopting a convention to combat it.

These materials were presented to the Ninth Congress, which discussed the possible adoption of a UN convention and its specific content. Deliberations are integrated into the Commissions on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice and other UN bodies.

Similar work is being carried out on international cooperation in the fight against the illicit distribution of drugs, weapons, international corruption and other transnational types of crime, as well as on cooperation in the field of environmental safety 1 .

Among the subjects of important and hard work for the cooperation under consideration, it is necessary to highlight non-governmental organizations in consultative status with the United Nations. These are the International Criminal Law Association (IACL), the International Criminological Society (ISC), the International Society for Social Security (ISSP), and the International Criminal and Penitentiary Fund (ICPF).

Their work is coordinated by an International Coordinating Committee (ICC), commonly referred to as the "Committee of Four". It synthesizes all major research and works in contact with the United Nations Vienna Centre. It has been in effect since 1960, and legally since 1982.

The joint actions of four international organizations have a serious impact on international politics United Nations in the field of combating crime. The activities of the "Committee of Four" are connected primarily with the plan for the functioning of the international community in preparation for the UN congresses. It has consultative status with ECOSOC, and also prepares colloquia, coordinates the work of associations, together with UN centers invites other international organizations to cooperate, advises the UN Fund to Combat Abusive

1 See: Compilation of United Nations Standards and Norms in Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice. UN. New York, 1992; Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. UN. New York, 1990; Report of the Ninth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. A/CONF. 169/16.1995.12 May; Criminal justice: problems of international cooperation. M, 1995; and etc.

drug use, collaborates with the World Society of Victimology and the World Federation of Mental Health.

Many new aspects of the fight against crime and the treatment of offenders, before reaching the level of global international cooperation, were discussed and tested in the ICC and the organizations coordinated by it: IAPM, ICE, MOSP, MUPF.

The International Association of Criminal Law was founded in 1924. It studies crime, its causes and means of combating it, engages in comparative criminal law research, organizes (once every 5 years) international congresses on criminal law, advises the UN, UNESCO and other international organizations.

The Association publishes the journal "International Review of Criminal Law", which publishes current research on national and international criminal law. The Higher International Institute of Criminal Law Sciences operates under the auspices of the association.

The International Criminological Society was founded in 1934 and is directly involved in ensuring cooperation in the fight against crime. It brings together national institutions and specialists in criminology. The ICE has consultative status with ECOSOC, the United Nations and UNESCO. It cooperates with other international organizations.

The MCO studies the causes of crime in international level, organizes criminological congresses, seminars, colloquia, publishes their materials, assists national criminological institutes, establishes and assigns scholarships and awards to stimulate criminological science.

The ICE has held 11 international congresses: the 1st congress - - in Rome in 1938; 2nd - - in Paris in 1950, where criminology was recognized as a scientific discipline; 3rd - - in London in 1955, where the problems of recidivism were discussed; 4th - - in The Hague in 1960, which was devoted to the problems of psychopathology of criminal behavior; 5th - - in Montreal in 1965, where it was held comparative analysis sociological and biological branches of criminological science; 6th - - in Madrid in 1970, investigating the problems of methodology in criminology; 7th - - in Belgrade in 1973, which examined the main criminological trends; 8th - - in Lisbon in 1978, whose program was free; 9th - - in Vienna in 1983, focusing on the relationship of criminology, political science and sociology and on the relationship between clinical and sociological trends in criminology; 10th - - in Hamburg in 1988, where the perspectives of criminology, the state of crime and the strategy of

gyi fight it; 11th - - in Budapest in 1993, examining socio-political changes and crime in Eastern and Central Europe.

The ICE organizes international criminological courses in various countries of the world. The first courses were organized in Paris in 1952. Now there are about 50 of them and they are organized in all regions of the world.

Similar work in their profile is carried out by the MOSP and MUPF.

A special place in international cooperation is occupied by International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), which was created in 1923 in Vienna at first as international commission criminal police. It was revived after the Second World War in 1946 in Paris, and since 1989 it has been based in Lyon.

From a non-governmental organization, Interpol has turned into an intergovernmental organization and currently unites more than 170 states, second only to the United Nations, whose members are about 180 states.

The supreme body of Interpol is the General Assembly, whose sessions are held once a year. The Executive Committee of Interpol is formed from representatives of the regions. The permanent apparatus is the secretariat. For the scientific study of documents, there is an institute of advisers.

Unlike other international organizations, Interpol has a National Central Bureau (NCB) in every country.

According to the statute, Interpol ensures and develops mutual cooperation between criminal police bodies within the framework of the laws in force in their countries, creates and develops institutions that can contribute to the prevention of criminal crime. His main job is to organize cooperation in specific criminal cases by receiving, analyzing and transmitting information from and for the NCB.

Each NCB maintains permanent links with its law enforcement, and at the international level - with the NCBs of other countries and with the General Secretariat of Interpol.

Interpol deals mainly with international crime. His main focus is on crimes under international conventions, drug trafficking, organized transnational crime. But any crime committed by "guest performers" can fall into the category of international ones.

The General Secretariat keeps records of international criminals, their documents, statistical and research work, developed

makes proposals for improving international and national legislation.

An example is the cooperation of Interpol with the UN and the International Civil Aviation Organization to develop security measures in case of hijacking and seizure of aircraft by criminals. As a result of this work, the Hague (1970) and Montreal (1971) conventions on the safety of civil aviation were adopted. They provided a system preventive measures on the ground and in the air. After the entry into force of these conventions, the number of aircraft hijackings has almost halved.

The UN and other international intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations are making serious efforts to organize and implement the best ways for effective international cooperation to prevent and combat crime. They own colossal databanks, normative materials, data from criminological and criminal-legal, criminal-political studies, which can be used by each country in order to more effectively combat national and transnational crime.

IN THE USSR Positive experience capitalist countries, as a rule, was rejected on ideological grounds. Now nothing prevents us from using rich world experience and international opportunities. In this regard, a number of activities are carried out - - seminars, translations of books, exchange of trainees, preparation of reference materials for the legislator, etc.

However, the use of experience is not a one-way street. A number of "finds" of domestic science and practice in the field of combating juvenile delinquency, forms and methods of crime prevention, interaction between the population and law enforcement agencies, etc. reflected in the international documents mentioned above, adopted by the practice of combating crime in a number of countries.

Control questions:

1. History of comparative study and analysis of crime.

2. World trends in crime and the fight against it.

3. Biological and biosocial theories of the causes of crime.

4. Sociological theories of the causes of crime.

5. International cooperation in the fight against crime (through
UN, Interpol and non-governmental international organizations
tions).

CRIMINAL LAW AND CRIMINOLOGY; CRIMINAL AND EXECUTIVE LAW

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF STATES IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CRIME Elyazov O.A.

Elyazov Orkhan Arzu - undergraduate, Faculty of Law, Russian State Social University, Moscow

Annotation: this article discusses the legal and organizational foundations for international cooperation of states in the fight against crime, and also concludes that the Russian Federation, in the framework of the fight against international crime, needs to continue improving national legislation in the field of combating crime, taking into account the rule-making work United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Key words: struggle, states, international crime, cooperation.

International cooperation in the fight against crime is understood as the unification of the efforts of states and other participants in international relations in order to increase the effectiveness of crime prevention, combating them and correcting offenders. The need to expand and deepen international cooperation in the fight against crime is due to both qualitative and quantitative changes in crime itself, the growth of "foreign investments" in the total mass of crimes of individual states.

Organizationally, international cooperation in the fight against crime is headed by the UN. It follows from the content of Article 1 of the UN Charter1 that, among other tasks, this organization is called upon to ensure international cooperation between states. The implementation of this task in accordance with Chapter 10 of the UN Charter is entrusted to the UN Economic and Social Council. Among the subjects of work on cooperation in the fight against crime are also non-governmental organizations that have consultative status with the UN, as well as Interpol.

Currently, the UN and other international intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations are making great efforts to organize and implement effective international cooperation to prevent and combat crime. They own colossal databanks, normative materials, data from criminological and criminal-legal, criminal-political studies, which can be used by each country in order to more effectively combat national and transnational crime.

However, the activities of these organizations are very strictly regulated by numerous regulations regulating the international fight against crime2.

Since the approval and ratification of these normative acts, in most cases, is the sovereign affair of a particular state, it can be assumed that

1 Charter of the United Nations Adopted in San Francisco on June 26, 1945 // Collection of existing treaties, agreements and conventions concluded by the USSR with foreign countries. Issue. XII. M., 1956. S. 14-47.

2 See for example: Charter of the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) (as amended on 01.01.1986) // National Central Bureau of Interpol in the Russian Federation. M., 1994. S. 17-30.

that all these organizations are still very limited in their capabilities and means, and can not always act effectively. In addition, these organizations may be dependent on specific states - due to the participation of states in their financing, or due to the factor of their location on the territory of a particular state.

To date, international cooperation in the field of combating crime and protecting law and order, ensuring the protection of human rights and freedoms takes place at three levels1:

1) Cooperation at the bilateral level. This makes it possible to more fully take into account the nature of relations between the two states, their interests on each issue. At this level, the most widespread is the provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, the extradition of criminals, the transfer of convicted persons to serve their sentences in the state of which they are citizens.

2) Cooperation of states at the regional level. This is due to the interests and nature of relations between these countries (for example, among countries - members of the Council of Europe, APEC, the CIS, etc.).

3) Cooperation of states within the framework of multilateral agreements (treaties). The main content of multilateral agreements (treaties) on the joint struggle against certain crimes is the recognition by the parties of these acts on their territory as criminal and ensuring the inevitability of their punishment.

The international fight against crime is one of the many areas of cooperation between states. Like all cooperation, it develops on a single basis of the basic or general principles of their communication historically established in international law. These principles are specified normatively in two large groups documents:

1) International pacts, agreements and conventions that form the general principles and vectors of international cooperation in the field of combating crime. A special place in the environment belongs to the documents adopted by the UN.

2) Treaties that shape the policy and practice of states in their joint fight against crime.

Most multilateral crime conventions provide that the offenses they contain fall within the jurisdiction of the State in whose territory they are committed, or if they are committed on board a ship or aircraft registered in that State, or if the alleged offender is a national of that State. states. Also, many conventions provide for the jurisdiction of the state in whose territory the alleged offender happened to be.

At the same time, it cannot be said at present that the practice of combating international crime has developed completely - on the contrary, it is developing under the influence of a number of economic, social and political trends.

The problem of improving international cooperation in the field of combating crime is currently one of the most relevant in the activities of law enforcement agencies in the developed countries of the world. Modern crime has acquired qualitatively new forms, its mercenary orientation has intensified, the number of crimes with international ties has increased significantly, everything is revealed. large quantity international criminal groups.

It can be assumed that large international organizations, primarily the UN, have the greatest potential in combating modern crime. This is due to both regulatory and legal, as well as social factors.

1 Borodin S.V. International cooperation in the fight against criminal crime. M.: Legal literature, 2003. S. 201.

It can be argued that, in fact, from the moment of its creation, a system of bodies to combat crime has been formed in the UN. In general, the main UN bodies in the fight against crime are the UN congresses, CCCP, UNODC, CTC, which, in their totality, promptly resolve the tasks assigned to them1.

The most important role in coordinating the international fight against crime is played by the UN Office on Drugs and Crime. The areas of activity of this organization are as follows:

1) organized crime and illegal trade;

2) corruption;

3) crime prevention and criminal justice reform;

4) drug abuse prevention and health;

5) prevention of terrorism.

In addition, UNODC analyzes emerging trends in crime and justice, develops databases, produces global surveys, collects and disseminates information, and conducts country-specific needs assessments and early warning measures such as the escalation of terrorism, and plays a critical role in the context of UN lawmaking2.

Currently, the documents developed by the UN on crime prevention and criminal justice are based on the Charter of the United Nations as a fundamental source of international law and are the most important result of the priority direction of the UN statutory activities to promote the conditions for social progress and development, to promote universal respect and observance of human rights.

Most of the materials are approved by the resolutions of the main UN bodies and are advisory in nature. At the same time, certain wordings of the materials of the PLO congresses are included in international treaties or become part of the body of customary international law, that is, they contribute to its unification3.

Russian law, in the noted process of unification, is no exception. The facts of signing and ratification by Russia of the UN conventions aimed at combating terrorism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking, corruption, and the subsequent transformation of the national legislation of the Russian Federation testify to the unconditional influence of the acts of the UN congresses on the legislation of Russia in the field of criminal justice4.

In addition, the acts of the UN congresses are reflected in the criminal, criminal procedure, criminal executive legislation of the Russian Federation, as well as in practical criminology.

At the same time, it can be noted that the state of legal regulation in the field of criminal justice cannot be considered perfect. It is necessary to continue the unification of national legislation in the field of combating crime, primarily in accordance with the universal standards of the UN. In this regard, it is necessary to take into account the experience of the United Nations in the prevention of crime, as well as current trends international cooperation of the state in the field of combating crime, indicate that the most important condition for the successful fight against crimes of an international character is the implementation

1 Bastrykin A.M. Forms and directions of cooperation between states in the fight against crime // Bulletin of Moscow State University, 2007. Ser. 6. Right. No. 3. S. 52-53.

2 Naumov A.V., Kibalnik A.G. International Criminal Law 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. M.: Yurayt, 2013. S. 120.

3 Kvashis V. Crime as global threat// Legal world, 2011. No. 10. P. 21.

4 Kayumova A.R. Problems of the theory of international criminal law. Kazan: Center for Innovative Technologies, 2012, p. 202.

legal assistance in criminal cases, including the extradition of persons who have committed a crime (extradition).

Extradition becomes effective tool the fight against crime only when it is regulated by domestic law. In this regard, we recommend developing and adopting a federal law "On extradition (extradition) of a person for criminal prosecution or execution of a sentence, or a person sentenced to imprisonment to serve a sentence in the country of which he is a citizen." This law should provide for universal principles, procedures and grounds for extradition.

Completing this article, we note that the modern cooperation of states in the fight against crime is the most important component of international relations, without which the existence of the modern world order is impossible.

Bibliography

1. Charter of the United Nations Adopted in San Francisco on June 26, 1945 // Collection of existing treaties, agreements and conventions concluded by the USSR with foreign states. Issue. XII. M., 1956. S. 14-47.

2. Charter of the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) (as amended on 01.01.1986) // National Central Bureau of Interpol in the Russian Federation. M., 1994. S. 17-30.

3. Bastrykin A.M. Forms and directions of cooperation between states in the fight against crime // Bulletin of Moscow State University, 2007. Ser. 6. Right. No. 3. S. 52-56.

4. Borodin S.V. International cooperation in the fight against criminal crime. M.: Legal literature, 2003. 308 p.

5. Kayumova A.R. Problems of the theory of international criminal law. Kazan: Center for Innovative Technologies, 2012. 278 p.

6. Kvashis V. Crime as a global threat // Legal World, 2011. No. 10. P. 20-27.

7. Naumov A.V., Kibalnik A.G. International Criminal Law 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Moscow: Yurayt, 2013. 320 p.

OBJECT OF CRIME AGAINST THE ORDER OF MANAGEMENT IN CRIMINAL LAW OF RUSSIA Kovalev A.A.

Kovalev Andrey Anatolievich - student, Law Institute, South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk

Annotation: the article is devoted to the study of the object of crimes against the order of management. The study substantiates the need to single out in the criminal law such a category as "interests of governing bodies". Key words: order of management, object of management, interests of governing bodies, crimes against state power, criminal law policy, nature and degree of public danger, representative of authority.

In the theory of criminal law, crimes against the order of government belong to the least studied group of socially dangerous acts. To some extent, the less active interest of scientists in this group of crimes can be explained by the role

International cooperation in crime prevention.

Transnational (international) crime - a set of committed crimes that harm the development of human society. Transnational crimes: crimes against peace, including planning, preparation, initiation or waging of war in violation of international treaties, agreements (genocide, ecocide); crimes against humanity, including murders and other atrocities committed against the civilian population before or during the war (biocide, mercenarism); war crimes involving violation of the laws or customs of warfare.

Major crimes of an international (transnational) character. Crimes that damage peaceful cooperation and the normal conduct of interstate relations (terrorism, hijacking, hostage-taking, theft of a nuclear weapon, illegal broadcasting); crimes that damage the economic and socio-cultural development of states and peoples (illicit trafficking in drugs and psychotropic substances; counterfeiting, smuggling, illegal immigration, criminal encroachments on environment, criminal encroachments on the national cultural heritage)

Activities of the United Nations Committee for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. United Nations International Congresses on the Prevention and Treatment of Offenders. International organizations that have consultative status with the UN. International Association of Criminal Law; International Criminological Society; International Society for Social Security; International Penitentiary Society.

International Criminal Police Organization Interpol. Goals, objectives, functions, structure of Interpol. Interpol in international wanted list and extradition of criminals. Interpol in social and legal control over: organized and economic crime; terrorist activities; drug trafficking; theft of objects of cultural value; counterfeiting and forgery of documents; high-tech crime; motor vehicle crimes, etc.

Forms of international cooperation in the fight against crime. Under the international fight against crime is understood the cooperation of states in the fight against certain types of crimes committed by individuals. This collaboration has gone through a long evolution. The first form of such cooperation was cooperation in the extradition of criminals. At a certain stage, there is a need to exchange experience. With the development of scientific and technological progress, cooperation in this area is also changing and playing an increasingly significant role in relations between states. The same thing happens with the provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, including the search for criminals, the service of documents, the interrogation of witnesses, the collection of material evidence and other investigative actions.

Recently, a prominent place in relations between states has been occupied by the issue of providing professional and technical assistance. Many states are in dire need of equipping their law enforcement agencies with the latest technical means needed to fight crime. For example, to detect explosives in the luggage of air passengers, very complex and expensive equipment is required, which not all states are able to acquire.

Cooperation between states develops on three levels.

1. Bilateral cooperation. Here, bilateral agreements on such issues as the provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, the extradition of criminals, the transfer of convicted persons to serve their sentences in the country of which they are citizens are most widely used. Interstate and intergovernmental agreements, as a rule, are accompanied by interdepartmental agreements, which specify the cooperation of individual departments.

2. Cooperation at the regional level is due to the coincidence of interests and nature of relations between the countries of a certain region. For example, in 1971, 14 member states of the OAS signed in Washington the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Acts of Terrorism. Within the framework of the CIS, such cooperation is developing very rapidly: in January 1993, in Minsk, the Commonwealth countries (except Azerbaijan) signed the Convention on Legal Assistance in Civil/Family and Criminal Matters.

3. Cooperation at the universal level began as early as within the framework of the League of Nations, and continued in the UN. At present, a whole system of multilateral universal treaties in the field of international criminal law has been created.

International cooperation in the fight against crime involves the solution of several interrelated tasks by states:

a) harmonization of the classification of crimes that pose a danger to several or all states;

b) coordination of measures to prevent and suppress such crimes;

c) establishing jurisdiction over crimes and criminals;

d) ensuring the inevitability of punishment;

e) provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, including the extradition of criminals.

Forms of international cooperation in the socio-legal control of crime: international consultations; development of cooperation programs in the field of crime prevention; exchange of law enforcement experience; transfer of persons sentenced to deprivation of liberty to serve their sentence in the state of their citizenship or permanent residence. Transfer to the authorities of another state of supervision of conditionally convicted or paroled offenders, extradition of criminals to another state or an international body for criminal prosecution, training, provision of expert services, supply of special scientific and technical means and provision of logistical assistance to other states.


Similar information.



Crime as social phenomenon is largely of an interethnic nature and equally causes damage to various states and societies, regardless of their socio-political structure.

The fight against national crime is currently significantly complicated due to the growth of such crimes, which pose a danger not only to individual states, but to all mankind. Therefore, joint efforts and daily cooperation of states are required.

The greater the mutual understanding between states and the awareness of the existence of crimes affecting the interests of the international community, the more efforts should be made by all states together and individually to protect the international legal order. Consequently, the coordination of the efforts of various states to combat ordinary crimes and crimes that damage the peaceful existence of various states contributes to mutual understanding, strengthening peaceful relations and cooperation between countries and peoples.

The need to expand and deepen international cooperation in the fight against crime is also due to the qualitative and quantitative changes in crime itself, the growth of "foreign investments" in the total mass of crimes of individual states.

International cooperation in the fight against crime is the unification of the efforts of states and other participants in international relations in order to increase the effectiveness of crime prevention, combating them and correcting offenders.

However, the international fight against crime cannot be seen as a literally, since crimes are committed in the territory of a certain state and fall under its jurisdiction. With this in mind, the principle (jurisdiction) of a certain state applies to a crime committed or being prepared, and, therefore, international struggle should be understood as cooperation between states in the fight against certain types of crime or crimes committed by individuals.

The concepts of certain types of crime or crimes belonging to the category of international ones, in fact, do not have an unambiguous definition. There are many definitions of international crime: “international crimes are infringements on the freedom of the peoples of the world or as infringements on the interests of all progressive mankind”, “international crimes are infringements on the fundamental foundations of international communication, on the rights and interests of all states”, “international crimes are crimes encroaching on the independence of each people and peaceful relations between peoples”, “international crimes are an encroachment on the very existence of the state and nation”, etc., etc.

This shows the diversity of international crime, which is primarily a reflection of the inconsistency of social relations in a particular state.

In theory, there is a generally recognized distinction between crimes affecting the interests of states and the entire international community, into several groups.

The first group is international crimes proper: crimes against peace, including the planning, preparation, initiation or waging of war in violation of international treaties and agreements, and crimes against humanity (including murders) committed against the civilian population before or during the war:

  • genocide (destruction of the clan) - extermination individual groups population on racial, national or regional grounds;
  • apartheid - extreme form racial discrimination and segregation (the policy of separating the "colored" population from the white), carried out in relation to certain national and racial groups of the population, expressed in the deprivation or significant restriction of political, socio-economic and civil rights, territorial isolation, etc.;
  • ecocide - destruction human environment natural environment, violation of ecological balance;
  • biocide (destruction of life);
  • slavery;
  • terrorism is a policy of intimidation, suppression of political opponents by violent measures;
  • mercenary.

The second group of crimes are crimes of an international nature. Some can be defined in international agreements, others cannot, but are considered by states as crimes that harm international communication. Of course, these crimes are ambiguous both in nature and in the degree of danger. They can be divided into the following subgroups:

Crimes damaging peaceful cooperation and the normal conduct of interstate relations. Just among them can be reckoned (but this has not yet been done) terrorism and compositions close to this crime: hijacking, hostage-taking, theft nuclear weapons, encroachments on diplomatic representatives, as well as illegal broadcasting.

Crimes damaging the economic and socio-cultural development of states and peoples. These are criminal encroachments on the environment, crimes against the national and cultural heritage of peoples (theft of works of art, destruction and looting of excavations, etc.), smuggling itself, illegal operations with narcotic and psychotropic substances, counterfeiting, illegal immigration.

Crimes that damage the individual, personal (private), state property and moral values. These include: human trafficking, piracy, distribution of pornography, torture.

Other crimes of an international character. This includes: crimes committed on board an aircraft, rupture and damage of a submarine cable, collision of ships, failure to provide assistance at sea, pollution of the sea with harmful substances, crimes on the sea shelf, violation of the rules of marine fisheries.

International crime is a specific type general crime one state or another. In general, there is reason to talk about its increased danger. First of all, we are talking about the so-called index (the most dangerous, serious) crimes, which include terrorism, drug trafficking, money laundering, hijacking, etc.

The most common among international criminal offenses are illicit transactions with narcotic drugs. All attempts by states alone to fight this type of crime ended in failure. In this regard, in 1909, the first international organization to combat drug addiction, the Shanghai Commission, was established. This organization was called upon to coordinate the cooperation of states in the fight against drug trafficking, recognizing this species crimes an international criminal offence.

It should be noted that the drug business brings huge profits to international criminals. In the US, it accounts for 275% of net income. In addition, drug dealers are increasingly interfering in the internal politics of states. Judicial and investigative practice in such cases testifies to the high degree of organization of criminal communities, discipline, and the strength of international relations in this area. Strict discipline is ensured by the cruelty of leaders, intimidation, torture, and executions of representatives of rival groups and "our own troublemakers."

The 1912 Hague International Opium Convention is the first multilateral drug control agreement. It introduced three main categories of narcotic substances as the subject of regulation: raw opium; cooked opium; medical opium.

Over the next twenty years, within the framework of the League of Nations, a number of international legal acts were developed and adopted, supplementing the provisions of the Hague Conference: the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961, as amended by the Protocol of 1972 amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961; the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances; Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988.

The overall purpose of these conventions is to ensure access to narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances for medical and scientific purposes, limit their use to those purposes, and combat their illicit traffic, demand and consumption.

The main purpose of the Single Convention of 1961, which entered into force in 1964, was to confirm, codify, simplify, update and supplement the previously concluded treaties on this subject. It restricts the production, manufacture, trade, import, export, distribution and use of narcotic drugs solely to medical and scientific purposes and is aimed at combating drug addiction.

The 1971 Convention places obligations on States Parties to implement national and international control over psychotropic substances that are abused or may be abused in the future. This convention provides for four different categories of psychotropic substances depending on the risk and likelihood of their abuse, establishes different requirements for production volumes, record keeping, distribution restrictions and export notification.

Main provisions of the 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Illicit Drug Traffic:

  • the creation of a relatively uniform classification of offenses and sanctions for acts related to drug trafficking, as well as the establishment of jurisdiction over them;
  • taking measures to identify, identify, freeze, seize or confiscate proceeds of drug trafficking;
  • providing mutual legal assistance in the investigation, trial and prosecution of certain types of offenses related to drug trafficking;
  • international cooperation between law enforcement agencies;
  • measures to eradicate illicit drug crop cultivation and drug production.

This convention refers to the number of offenses; distribution of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; conversion or transfer of property, if it is known that such property is obtained as a result of trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; participation, involvement or entry into a criminal conspiracy to commit any offense, etc.

It should be noted that Russia, as the legal successor of the former USSR, is a party to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.

Active work is underway to establish bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the fight against illicit drug trafficking and abuse.

International cooperation of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia in this area is carried out in three areas:

  • within the framework of the conclusion of intergovernmental agreements;
  • participation of our representatives in the work of international organizations;
  • direct establishment of interdepartmental contacts with special units of other countries.

It should be said about that part of international crime, which in Russia is now commonly called transnational or international, i.e., going beyond national boundaries. The most difficult is the situation on the borders with the CIS and Baltic countries. No operational data is needed to ascertain the expansion of Russian territories, especially in the Far East, the illegal export of fish and seafood, timber and lumber, the large-scale export of raw materials and materials from Russia.

Comparative crime trends in the states formed on the territory of the former USSR are of particular criminological significance.

The level of crime in the former Soviet republics has always varied significantly, despite the fact that they were in a single state with the same type of economic, social and political system, rigidly unified criminal and criminal procedure legislation, a single centralized record of crimes, a centralized system of criminal justice, etc. d.

The intensive growth of crime in most post-Soviet countries is mainly due to an increase in acquisitive and mercenary-violent crimes, thefts, robberies, and robberies. The proportion of thefts in countries with high crime reaches 80% or more, and with low crime - up to 40-45%. And the difference between the theft rates calculated for the population reaches 18 times.

Residents of Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Moldova and Chechnya are distinguished by high criminal activity. According to the structure of out-of-town crime, they account for every second robbery, extortion, a crime related to drug trafficking, a third of robberies, a fifth of premeditated murders and rapes. As a rule, crimes are committed with the use of weapons and are characterized by audacity and cruelty.

The so-called shuttle flights for contract killings, fraud, racketeering in other countries are typical for criminal activity.

Smuggling of weapons, ammunition and explosives is especially characteristic of the northwestern borders of the Russian Federation (Pskov and Leningrad regions). Weapons of foreign brands "pop up" then throughout the country.

Filed by Interpol, illegal operations in Russia line up in the following sequence: the drug and weapons business, and then the illegal trade in antiques. IN Western Europe more than 40 criminal groups engaged in this business are registered. Between 1996 and 2000, these crimes increased 30 times!

It is worth mentioning the criminality of migration processes, especially illegal ones. Representatives of the countries of the Transcaucasus, China, Vietnam and Mongolia "differ" here (in three years, the growth in crime has grown 3-5 times). "Guests" from Vietnam, Iran, Afghanistan, Somalia, Sri Lanka, who have experience in military operations, including those of a guerrilla-sabotage nature, unite on our territory into ethnic and religious groups. The actions of such formations are of great concern to both law enforcement agencies and law-abiding citizens.

Economic, political and social processes the rapprochement of highly developed countries in the 90s did not lead to a significant leveling of the level of crime in these states. The contribution of each of the G7 countries to the so-called global crime rate is not the same. Thus, the number of crimes committed annually in the United States is greater than in Germany, England, France, and Japan combined.

The annual growth or decrease in crime in highly developed countries, as a rule, does not exceed 2-4%. Western criminologists regard this indicator positively, since slight fluctuations in the level of crime make it possible to systematically implement long-term and current preventive programs without taking any kind of emergency measures.

In each country, crime differs in level, structure, dynamics and other criminological characteristics. For example, the crime rate in Japan per 100,000 population is almost an order of magnitude lower than in the United States (if we take all crime) or in Sweden. And registered crime in prosperous Sweden, where there have been no wars or revolutions for two hundred years, per population is 7-8 times higher than recorded crime in crisis Russia.

From the last comparison, one cannot conclude that the rule of law in Russia, where actual crime has reached an alarming level, is much higher than in Sweden. In this Scandinavian country, there is indeed a high recorded crime, but the scope of criminal law is wider, less latent crime, more objective accounting of acts, the police work more efficiently, and recorded crime is structurally shifted to less dangerous crimes, while in Russia - to serious ones.

In Sweden, for example, in recent years, 8 premeditated murders per 100,000 population have been registered, and in Russia - about 22, i.e., almost 3 times more. The share of these acts in the structure of recorded crime in Sweden is 0.06%, and in Russia - 1.2, i.e. 20 times higher. Many illegal acts in our country are considered administrative offenses, and in Sweden - crimes.

A similar disparity is observed between most countries. In France, all criminal acts are divided into crimes, misdemeanors and violations. In other countries - on crimes and offenses.

Thirdly, as, for example, in Russia, crimes and administrative offenses are different categories of illegal activity. Incompatibility also exists in the number of index (publicly tracked) types of crimes. There are 8 of them in the USA, 22 in France, 24 in Germany, 70 in England and Wales, etc. Therefore, comparative studies should proceed not only from quantitative, but also from qualitative characteristics, legislative, organizational and others.

General criminological characteristics of crime in different countries and the world as a whole:

  • crime exists in all states;
  • its dominant motivation is the same everywhere;
  • its level in the world and in the vast majority of countries is steadily increasing;
  • its growth rate, as a rule, is several times higher than the population growth rate;
  • its structure is dominated by encroachments on property, the growth of which is more intense than encroachments on cash;
  • the main subjects of crimes are men, especially young ones (at the same time, the process of feminization of crime has been observed for a long time);
  • the economic development of countries is not accompanied, as expected, by a decrease in crime;
  • the criminal-legal fight against crime is going through a deep crisis;
  • the prison practically does not re-educate;
  • the death penalty does not curb the growth of crime, etc.

If, on the basis of these common problems for all, we again return to the criminological comparison of Sweden and Russia, then it is clear that over the past 40 years, crime in these countries, differing in level by almost an order of magnitude, has increased almost equally - 6 times.

At present time is running the process of unification, transnationalization and internationalization of crime. This is facilitated by both the positive processes of expanding international relations, improving international relations, the intensification of population migration, the growth of international trade and financial transactions, the unhindered dissemination of information, the increase in the exchange of cultural values, and the negative processes of the exchange of "anti-values" (drugs, alcohol, weapons, pornography, prostitution, etc.).

Despite all the significant discrepancies in the level of crime in, different countries the first and defining trend in the world is its absolute and relative growth compared to population growth, economic and cultural development, etc. This does not mean that crime in any country is always only growing.

There are countries where it decreases or stabilizes in some periods. For example, in the United States, a slight decrease in crime was observed in 1982-1984, in France - in 1985-1988, in Germany - in 1984-1988, in the USSR - in 1986-1987. Each decline has its own reasons.

The crime rate per 100,000 inhabitants in 1995 exceeded 8,000 in developed countries and 1,500 in developing countries. Such a ratio seems illogical. But this fact is determined by many reasons, including legal, statistical, organizational, socio-economic, etc.

The economic, social, democratic development of countries not only does not lead to an automatic decrease in crime, but is usually accompanied by opposite processes, associated, in particular, with the loss of centuries-old traditional forms of social control. At the same time, there is a slow process of a specific "humanization" of crime, that is, a shift from serious crimes against a person to attacks on property.

In this regard, the American criminologist G. Newman believes that developed and rich countries, despite the clearly higher number of property crimes, in practice can feel the impact of these acts much weaker than poor countries, where the struggle for limited means of subsistence comes to the extermination of people .

He gives an original comparison: if you drop a brick (low crime) into a small puddle (weak economy), then it will all splash out, but if you throw a few bricks into a large pond (developed economy) (high property crime), then the impact of such throws will hardly be noticeably.

Most high level crime and relatively high rates of its growth are registered in the most developed democratic countries. In the 60-90s, crime in the United States increased by more than 7 times, in England and Wales - by 6, in France - by 5, in the USSR - by 3.7, in Germany - by 3, and only in Japan - by 1.5 times. The number of crimes per 100 thousand of the population in the United States for eight types of index crime was 6 thousand acts, and for the whole - about 15 thousand, in the UK, France, Germany - 8-10 thousand and in Japan 1.5 thousand.

The Japanese criminological phenomenon is exceptional. Japan not only managed to move to democracy and intensive industrial development without destroying traditional culture, reliable family, communal and industrial social control, but also improved and modernized it.

Relatively low crime is recorded in countries with strict social control.

The American criminologist F. Adler, based on the data of the First UN Survey, chose 10 countries, different in terms of economic and democratic development, but with a relatively low crime rate (Algeria, Bulgaria, East Germany, Ireland, Costa Rica, Nepal, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland , Japan). They had only one thing in common - strict social control over illegal behavior: party, police, religious, clan, communal, industrial, family.

The lowest crime is observed in countries with totalitarian (fascist, religious-fundamentalist, communist and other authoritarian) regimes, where the fight against crime is often carried out by its own methods. But such "effective" control is nothing more than a violation of human rights or an uncriminalized abuse of power against its people. Victims of such abuses are treated as victims of crimes under international instruments.

Their presence repeatedly compensates for the low level of criminality.

Optimal is the strict legal democratic control of crime, implemented with strict observance of human rights.

The general unfavorable dynamics of crime in the world is traditionally affected by different trends in the main groups of crimes - violent and mercenary.

The share of violent crimes in the structure of all crime in the world and in individual countries is small. In different countries, it varies between 5-10% or more. At the same time, one must keep in mind the great incompatibility of data on violent acts. In the United States, four types of violent crimes are considered: intentional murder, rape, assault, and robbery (robbery). The latter is not a purely violent act, but a mercenary-violent act. In Russia, about 50 types of violent crimes are taken into account.

But even such an “ancient” act as premeditated murder is statistically understood differently: in the United States it is counted by victims, while in Russia and in some other countries it is counted by events. In Russia, murders are counted with assassination attempts, while in the US, assassination attempts are classified as an ordinary assault. Both in these countries and in others there are many other features that should be taken into account in comparative studies. But with all the differences, violent, as well as other types of criminal behavior, have common patterns.

Dynamics violent crime are usually "conservative". It slowly and weakly reacts to situational changes in life, its growth rates are small, and in some countries, especially developed ones, there are tendencies towards stabilization and even decrease.

High homicide rates in both developed and developing countries are found in large cities.

In developed countries, acquisitive or property crimes dominate. Their share in the structure of crime reaches 95% or more. It is these acts that determine the main trend of the intensive growth of crime in general, and especially in developed countries. The growth rate of acquisitive crime, as a rule, is 2-3 times higher than that of violent crime.

In addition to mercenary deeds, juvenile and youth crime is also included among the components of the overall increase in crime in the world; an increase in the public danger of the acts committed and the damage caused; intellectualization of criminal activity, increasing its organization, technical equipment, armament and self-defense of criminals from detention and exposure.

Another major trend in the field of crime is the gradual lag of social control of crime. The reasons can be negative (weakening of the fight against crime) and positive (humanization, democratization and legitimation of this fight).

In the system of "crime - the fight against it" crime is primary. The fight against it is just the response of society and the state to its challenge. The answer is not always timely, adequate, purposeful and effective.

Crime is active, enterprising, it has a market "character". It instantly fills all emerging and accessible niches that are uncontrolled or poorly controlled by society, constantly inventing new sophisticated ways to commit crimes and does not bind itself with any rules.

Law enforcement activities are developed collectively, within the framework of democratic and humanistic institutions and principles, formalized in notary-legal, managerial, operational and procedural decisions, and only then put into practice.

Individual prevention is permissible only within the framework of social, material, psychological and pedagogical assistance to a subject who needs it. But it is unacceptable in terms of any responsibility. Responsibility can be a legitimized reaction of the state to a specific unlawful behavior of the subject. But because of this, society's control over crime objectively lags behind the pace and scale of its growth.

A comparative assessment of the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of crime, its causes and means of prevention in different countries shows that there is much in common. All this suggests that the prevention of crime, the elimination of the causes and conditions that give rise to it, is becoming a common, international problem.

In such a situation, it is advisable in all respects, including economic ones, to unite the efforts of criminologists, to practice the international division of labor more widely in preventive activities, in researching criminological problems that are equally significant within the international community.

The solution of joint preventive programs is being implemented in stages. Among the factors that are taken into account when determining the order of development of certain aspects of this complex problem, one should name quantitative and qualitative indicators. They characterize the state, structure, dynamics of certain types of crimes in cooperating countries; circumstances contributing to these crimes; signs of similarities and differences in national prevention systems; economic feasibility and the possibility of joint preventive measures.

Of interest is the mechanism of international cooperation in the fight against crime (its directions and forms), which is reflected in the comprehensive strategy created in America to combat international crime. Although this is the first time such a strategy has been formulated, it builds on already existing documents such as the national anti-drug strategy and presidential directives on combating the smuggling of aliens, combating terrorism and improving the safety and security of the storage of nuclear materials.

The new strategy is an important initiative, including from the point of view of enhancing the capabilities of US law enforcement officers in effective cooperation with their foreign counterparts, in particular, in investigating crimes of an international nature and bringing their organizers and perpetrators to justice.

New international agreements on the establishment of an effective system for the rapid detection, arrest and extradition of wanted international criminals and the adoption of tougher immigration laws.

The American leadership promises to reconsider its attitude to the fight against international financial crimes. Namely: to prevent the legalization of illegally obtained funds; increase the level of bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the fight against all types of financial crimes; identify offshore centers of international fraud, counterfeit money making, computer network hacking and other financial crimes.

New in the activities of law enforcement agencies will be the prevention of exploitation by criminal elements of the international trade system. Special attention will be given to the interception of illegally exported technologies, the protection of intellectual property rights, the fight against economic espionage, the establishment of restrictions on the import of certain harmful substances, dangerous organisms, as well as plants and animals protected by the Red Book.

The flexibility of the system for combating international syndicates will be ensured through active responses to new, unforeseen threats on their part. This will require: strengthening intelligence activities in relation to criminal enterprises and organizations; stepping up measures against crimes related to high technologies and computers; continued analytical work to identify and address vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure and high-level emerging technologies.

In addition to direct cooperation with representatives of law enforcement agencies abroad, American program aims to intensify the joint activities of various states in confronting international criminals. Common norms, goals and objectives need to be established to combat them and actively work to ensure their implementation and enforcement.

The positive aspects of the crime prevention system in economically developed countries are, firstly, their active participation in international anti-criminal cooperation, secondly, the development of national (state) and local crime prevention programs, thirdly, effective forms of involving the population in the fight against crime .

A generalization of the experience of cooperation between law enforcement agencies and scientific institutions of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the USA, Japan in the fight against crime allows us to name the following forms of cooperation as the most effective and practically implemented in modern conditions: mutual consultations with the aim of developing in each of the cooperating countries a national and international crime prevention strategies; planning joint programs to combat the most dangerous types of crimes of an international nature; development of current and long-term cooperation programs in the field of crime prevention; exchange of experience in the organization and implementation of preventive measures.

Here, as practice shows, the most achievable forms of exchange can be: exchange of specialized literature; exchange of information on the methods of committing, concealing and detecting offenses; exchange of information on the means of neutralizing the circumstances conducive to offenses; exchange of scientific research results; exchange of delegations of practical and scientific workers, holding international congresses, seminars, symposiums, colloquia, etc.

The exchange of experience is facilitated by such practiced measures as: expansion of international specialization and cooperation in the development of measures aimed at eliminating the causes and conditions conducive to offenses; development of direct links between law enforcement agencies, scientific organizations; development of existing and creation of new international legal, economic and other organizations that solve problems of general and special prevention of crimes; exchange of specialists; joint preparation of textbooks, monographs, teaching aids, collections of scientific papers, etc.; joint preparation of information, proposals, draft legislative acts; mutual assistance in personnel training; coordination of current and long-term plans fight against crimes; joint scientific research and their implementation in practice.

International cooperation in the field of combating crime and law enforcement, ensuring the protection of human rights and freedoms currently occurs at three levels.

Cooperation at the bilateral level. This makes it possible to more fully take into account the nature of relations between the two states, their interests on each issue. At this level, the most widespread is the provision of legal assistance in criminal cases, the extradition of criminals, the transfer of convicted persons to serve their sentences in the state of which they are citizens.

Cooperation of states at the regional level. This is due to the interests and nature of relations between these countries (for example, among the member countries of the Council of Europe, the CIS).

Cooperation of states within the framework of multilateral agreements (treaties). The main content of multilateral agreements (treaties) on the joint struggle against certain crimes is the recognition by the parties of these acts on their territory as criminal and ensuring the inevitability of their punishment.

The main directions of international cooperation in the fight against crime:

  • conclusion and implementation of agreements on combating crimes of international danger;
  • providing legal assistance in criminal cases, including extradition;
  • development international norms and standards that ensure the protection of human rights in the field of law enforcement;
  • regulation of issues of national and international jurisdiction
  • recognition and use of decisions of foreign authorities in administrative and criminal cases;
  • interaction in the prevention, detection, suppression and disclosure of crimes.

This is primarily about:

  • violent crimes against the life, health, freedom and dignity of the individual, as well as against property;
  • terrorist acts;
  • corruption and organized crime activities;
  • illegal circulation of weapons, ammunition, explosive and poisonous substances, as well as radioactive materials;
  • illegal production and circulation of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, as well as substances used in the process of their manufacture;
  • economic crimes, including the legalization of proceeds from criminal activity;
  • production and sale of counterfeit banknotes, documents, securities and non-cash payments;
  • criminal attacks on cultural and historical values;
  • transport crimes;
  • protection of public order;
  • logistical support for the activities of the parties;
  • training and advanced training of personnel.

Implementation of the main provisions of international cooperation

in the fight against crime occurs in the following forms:

  • exchange of information about planned or committed crimes and persons involved in them;
  • execution of requests for conducting operational-search measures and investigative actions;
  • search for persons hiding from criminal prosecution or execution of a sentence, as well as missing persons;
  • exchange of information on new types of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances that have appeared in illicit circulation, on the technologies for their manufacture and the substances used in this, as well as on new methods of research and identification of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances;
  • exchange of work experience, including conducting internships, consultations and seminars;
  • exchange of legislative and other normative-legal acts;
  • exchange on a mutually beneficial basis of scientific and technical literature and information on the activities of the parties.

The same Council coordinates the cooperation of states in the prevention of crime. The problems of combating crime have been repeatedly discussed at sessions of the UN General Assembly, at meetings of the UN Economic and Social Council, and in the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control. UN member states annually submit reports to the Secretary General on the state of crime in their countries, on the system for combating certain types of crime.

In turn, the UN publishes special statistical collections on the state, structure, dynamics of crime in the world, criminal policy, and features of national legislation. The UN General Assembly is the initiator of the development of international and national programs to combat the most dangerous and widespread types of crime.

In her field of vision, in particular, there were issues of combating juvenile and youth crime, economic crime, the problems of drug trafficking, money laundering, acquired by criminal means, etc.

The commission (committee) submits to ECOSOC recommendations and proposals aimed at a more effective fight against crime and humane treatment of offenders. The General Assembly, in addition, assigned to this body the functions of preparing once every 5 years the UN congresses on the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders.

The UN Congresses play a major role in the development of international rules, standards and recommendations for crime prevention and criminal justice. To date, 9 congresses have been held, the decisions of which have significantly advanced the issues of international cooperation on a reliable scientific and legal basis.

In 1971, the Committee (including 27 experts) for the Prevention and Control of Crime was created and is still operating.

He is a member of the UN Economic and Social Council. The functions of the Committee include: development of UN policy in the field of crime control, development of target programs, provision of advisory assistance to the Secretary General and UN bodies, preparation of international congresses and regional meetings, development of information materials and draft resolutions on crime prevention.

The Committee interacts with voluntary societies, non-governmental organizations for the prevention of crime of the United Nations, periodically publishes reviews on trends in the field of crime and measures to prevent crime. In order to avoid the distorting effect on statistics of differences in national criminal legislation, such types of crimes as intentional homicide, reckless homicide, assault, kidnapping, drug-related crimes, bribery and corruption are distinguished.

Among the subjects of work on cooperation in the fight against crime, non-governmental organizations that have consultative status with the UN stand out: the International Criminal Law Association (IACP), the International Criminological Society (ICE), the International Society for Social Protection (ISSP) and the International Criminal and Penitentiary Fund (ICPF ).

Their work is coordinated by the International Committee for Coordination (ICC). It is usually called the "Committee of Four" and synthesizes all major studies and works in contact with the United Nations Vienna Centre. In fact, it has been operating since 1960, and legally since 1982.

The joint actions of four international organizations seriously influence the international policy of the United Nations in the field of combating crime. The activities of the "Committee of Four" are connected primarily with the functioning of the international community in preparation for the UN congresses. It has consultative status with ECOSOC, and also prepares colloquia, coordinates the work of associations, invites other international organizations to cooperate with UN centers, advises the UN Drug Abuse Control Fund, cooperates with the World Society of Victimology and the World Federation of Mental Health.

One of the most influential international organizations involved in ensuring cooperation in the fight against crime is the ICO. It is an association of national institutions and specialists. The main goal of the ICO, according to the Charter of the organization, is to promote the study of crime at the international level, uniting the efforts of scientists and practitioners in the field of criminology, forensic science, psychology, sociology and other disciplines.

As part of its activities, the ICE organizes international congresses, seminars, colloquia, publishes their materials; assists in scientific exchange between national scientific and educational centers; organizes international criminological advanced training courses for scientific personnel; organizes, together with other international organizations and national scientific institutions, regional international criminological centers; establishes and appoints scholarships and awards to stimulate the development of criminological science.

A special place in international cooperation is occupied by the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol). It was created in 1923 in Vienna at first as an international commission of the criminal police. It was revived after the Second World War, in 1946, in Paris, and since 1989 Lyon has been its seat.

From a non-governmental organization, Interpol has turned into an intergovernmental organization and currently unites more than 170 states (including Russia), yielding in representativeness only to the UN, whose members are about 180 states.

Unlike other international organizations, Interpol has a National Central Bureau (NCB) in every country. According to the charter, Interpol ensures and develops mutual cooperation between criminal police bodies within the framework of the laws in force in their countries, creates and develops institutions that can contribute to the prevention of criminal crime. His main job is organizing cooperation in specific criminal cases, i.e. receiving, analyzing and transmitting information from and for the NCB.

The main activity of Interpol is the fight against:

  • organized crime;
  • international terrorism;
  • theft of property;
  • serious crimes against a person;
  • counterfeiting and forgery;
  • drug business.

The exchange of information, experience, assistance in the search and detention of criminals, the development and implementation of Interpol's preventive programs are becoming increasingly important as crime internationalizes. The creation of a united Europe, the opening of borders and visa-free travel within the European community will require additional efforts by international units to combat crime. Within the framework of Interpol, a Europol department was created to combat hostage-taking, counterfeiting, buying stolen goods, sending gold, selling weapons and bank checks.

The UN and other international intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations are making great efforts to organize and implement effective international cooperation to prevent and combat crime.

They own colossal databanks, normative materials, data from criminological and criminal-legal, criminal-political studies, which can be used by each country in order to more effectively combat national and transnational crime.