American ferret, also known as black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)- small predatory mammal from the marten family (Mustelidae). In the last century american ferret virtually disappeared from the wild North America, but thanks to the hard work of research centers for artificial breeding, the population of these animals is gradually reviving.

Description

The black-footed ferret has a long body and yellowish-brown fur. On the back, the coat color is dark. The end of the tail and legs are black. There is a black mask around the eyes. The ferret has large, rounded ears; the muzzle, forehead and neck are white, while the nose is black. The neck is elongated; legs are short and thick. The fingers have pointed, slightly arched claws. The weight of females varies between 645 - 850 grams, and males - 915 - 1.125 grams. The body length of black-footed ferrets is 380 - 600 mm. Females are usually 10% smaller than males.

area

Historically, the range of the American ferret included areas of North America, from southern Canada to northern Mexico. It is the only ferret species native to North America. Today, they can be found in three places: northeastern Montana, western South Dakota, and southeastern Wyoming. All three sites are sites where the black-footed ferret has been re-populated after it was eradicated. This subspecies can also be found in seven zoos and animal breeding centers.

Habitat

Black-footed ferrets can be found in the steppes and hills of North America. They live in abandoned burrows prairie dogs and use these complex underground tunnels for shelter and hunting. Each ferret, as a rule, requires about 40-48 hectares of space in which animals forage. To survive, a female with cubs needs from 55 hectares of territory. The ranges of males may overlap with the territories of several females.

reproduction

Females acquire puberty at the age of one. Breeding usually occurs in March and April. When a male and a female meet each other during estrus, he sniffs her genitals, but does not take active action for several hours, which is different from the aggressive manner of the European ferret. When mating, the male grabs the female by the back of her head. The duration of copulation is 1.5-3 hours. The gestation period ranges from 35 to 45 days. 1-6 cubs are born in a litter. The young remain in the burrow for approximately 42 days. IN summer months, the females stay with the young, and separate in autumn when the young ferrets reach their independence. During the mating season, females actively harass males.

Lifespan

Captive, average duration The life span of an American ferret is 12 years.

Nutrition

Black-footed ferrets feed primarily on prairie dogs. However, they occasionally eat mice, ground squirrels, and other small animals. Typically, a ferret consumes 50-70 grams of meat per day. It has been observed that American ferrets do not store killed prey in caches.

Behavior

This species prefers a nocturnal lifestyle, activity begins with the onset of dusk. IN winter time, ferrets reduce activity and sometimes stay in burrows for up to a week. Black-footed ferrets are subterranean animals that use prairie dog burrows for locomotion and shelter. They are solitary animals except during the breeding season. Males take absolutely no part in raising offspring. Black-footed ferrets are territorial animals and actively defend their territory against other same-sex competitors. Ferrets are considered alert, agile and curious mammals, and are known to have a keen sense of smell, sight, and hearing. They rely on olfactory communication (urination, defecation) to maintain their dominance and find their way during their night journey. American ferrets are noisy mammals that chirp and hiss in wild nature when they are afraid of something or scare someone.

Economic value to humans: Positive

Black-footed ferrets help control the population of prairie dogs, which are sometimes seen as pests due to their burrowing habits and can carry zoonotic infections such as bubonic plague.

Economic value to humans: Negative

American ferrets are often considered pests by ranchers. Tunnel systems used by ferrets and prairie dogs cause injury to animals.

conservation status

The view is considered the rarest mammal in North America. The ferret population has suffered greatly due to the extermination of prairie dogs. Pastoralists were engaged in baiting prairie dogs in connection with the destruction of pastures (tunneling and gathering). In 1985, the rodent population numbered 31 individuals, and by 1987 - 18. It was decided to place the remaining ferrets in zoos and start breeding them in captivity through artificial insemination. This is one of the first examples of assisted reproduction to help save endangered species in .

As of 2013, about 1,200 ferrets live in the wild. Today, the population is growing, but is still under threat and, according to the International Red Book, is listed as an endangered species.

Black-footed ferret, Black-footed Ferret: Mustela nigripes Audubon & Bachman, 1851. Other names: American black-footed ferret

Range: The original range of the black-footed weasel occupied the eastern and southern regions of the Rocky Mountains, the territory of the Great Plains from Albert and Saskatchewan, to Texas and Arizona (USA).

The American black-footed ferret has long neck and a slender, sinewy body, with very short legs.

Color: The smooth fur of the black-footed ferret has a yellowish color; there are black spots on its muzzle, the tip of the tail and its legs are also black.

The American [black-footed] ferret is 46 - 60 cm long, including 13 - 15 cm bushy tail. Weight: It weighs 0.7 - 1.1 kg, with males weighing slightly more than females.

Lifespan: Ferrets typically live for about 3 - 4 years in the wild (the oldest lived at least 8 years) and 8 - 9 years in captivity (the oldest individual was at least 11 years old).

Voice: The American black-footed ferret is a very vocal animal. He screams loudly when disturbed, frightened or excited. In such a situation, he lets out several loud cries, interrupted by low hissing notes. Male black-footed ferrets "chuckle" when contacting a female during the rutting season, and the cubs make very quiet squeaky sounds.

Habitat: The American black-footed ferret is commonly found in prairie, low to medium height grassland, forming an association with prairie dogs.

Like other weasels and ferrets, the black-footed ferret easily moves around the territory in search of its prey, climbing through treeless spaces even high into the mountains. Individual individuals were found at an altitude of 3000 m above sea level, and another animal was found drowned in Lake Morena, Colorado [USA], located at an altitude of 3125 m.

The North American Prairie is one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth - perhaps even more endangered than the South American rainforest or the old forests of the American Northwest. The prairie plains of North America began to form about 20 million years ago, but in some areas, up to 99 percent of the prairie has been destroyed in just the past 125 to 150 years.

The area known as the Great Plains was once the largest field on earth and covered most of the continental US along with parts of southern Canada and northern Mexico. The prairie stretched from the Rocky Mountains in an eastward direction for over 800 miles, and extended over 3,000 miles from north to south. The plains were created from sedimentary rocks washed out of the Rocky Mountains over millions of years, which were formed from silt, sand and clay. The Rocky Mountains also blocked the flow of moist air from Pacific Ocean, creating a drier climate on the continent that favored the development of grasses over trees.

Enemies: Habitat loss is the main reason why black-footed ferrets have been on the brink of near extinction and why it remains a major threat to the species today. Conversion of fields and grasslands to agricultural use and a widespread prairie dog eradication program have reduced the black-footed ferret's habitat to less than 2 percent of what it used to be. Remaining habitats are now fragmented, associated with prairie dog colonies, separated by large expanses of cropland and human structures. Diseases, including plague (affecting both black-footed ferrets and their prey, prairie dogs), as well as poisoning and shooting, also remain potential threats.

The American Black-footed Ferret is commonly found in prairie dog colonies, which make up the absolute majority of their diet. In nature, prairie dogs make up 90% of the black-footed ferret's diet.

The black-footed ferret also eats gophers, other small rodents, American rabbits and birds.

A ferret typically eats over 100 prairie dogs in one year, and on this basis, scientists have calculated that over 250 prairie dogs are needed to support one family of black-footed ferrets for one year.

It has been estimated that about 40 - 60 ha of prairie dog colonies are needed to support a single black ferret. The black-footed ferret usually surveys an area of ​​up to 100 ha during a 3 to 8 day period in winter.

The black-footed ferret is a secretive animal, leading primarily a nocturnal lifestyle. It has well developed external bodies senses: acute hearing, sensitive sense of smell and good vision.

The American black-footed ferret is extremely dependent on the prairie dog. Due to feeding mainly on prairie dogs, the black-footed ferret spends most of its life in its colonies. It spends up to 99% of its time in prairie dog burrows, usually being only a few minutes each day. earth's surface. In burrows he sleeps, gets his food, avoids predators and bad weather, and here he brings out his young. For rest and sleep, the black-footed ferret takes underground hole made by a prairie dog.

Its long, slender body allows it to easily enter burrows to find prey while prairie dogs are sleeping. This reduces the risk of damage to the ferret, as it attacks prey of the same size as itself.

Males are more active than females. The black-footed ferret does not sleep in winter, but the amount of time of activity decreases significantly, as does the area of ​​the surveyed territory. In winter, in the cold snowy weather the black-footed ferret can remain dormant for long periods, up to 6 nights and days, remaining in a burrow in which it subsists on previously stored food.

When the black-footed ferret travels across the surface of the earth, it moves in a series of leaps or a slow gallop. He can normally move at a speed of 8 - 11 km / h. Biologists tracked a black-footed ferret that traveled 10 km in one night, during which time it examined more than 100 prairie dog holes. The distance covered by males is almost twice that of females.

social structure: The black-footed ferret leads a solitary life, except for the mating season, and at the same time, males apparently do not help raise and feed the young.

The black-footed ferret uses scent marks to communicate with its compatriots, using the secretion of the anal glands for this purpose. It marks its territory by applying the odorous secretion of the gland to rocks, soil and vegetation.

The population of black-footed ferrets consists of approximately 67% of young animals, and 33% are adults.

A study of the wild population has shown that the average ferret density in favorable habitats is approximately 1 animal per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies. The average distance between two prairie dog towns occupied by the black-footed ferret was 5.4 km. Adult ferrets occupy an area with a diameter of approximately 1 - 2 km.

Reproduction: The young emerge from the burrow in July. In late summer, females increasingly leave their offspring alone in the burrow during the day, and gather them together at night to hunt together. Young ferrets begin to hunt on their own only from September or October, when they leave their mother and become independent and solitary.

Young males settle over greater distances, generally up to 10 - 15 km, while young females often remain close to the mother's territory.

Season/Breeding Period: Mating usually takes place in March and April.

Puberty: Both males and females become sexually mature in the first year of life. The peak reproductive period for males and females is around three to four years of age.

Pregnancy: 41 - 45 days (about 7 weeks)

Offspring: the female brings an average of 3 - 4 young, sometimes in a litter with artificial maintenance, there are up to 9-10 puppies. In nature, litter size in South Dakota averaged 3.5 (varied: 1 - 5); in Wyoming averaged 3.3 babies.

The black-footed ferret is a naturally effective prairie dog population regulator.

The black-footed ferret is listed in Appendix of the Sites Convention as a species endangered and in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade(list of species prohibited from commercial trade).

Antipathy towards prairie dogs is pronounced among some populations, including ranchers and many workers. Agriculture. Therefore, from the 1920s to the 1960s, the US government sponsored intensive programs to eradicate the prairie dog from the Great Plains states using poison and plowing prairie dog settlements (in order to prevent damage to agriculture and occupation). cattle animal husbandry). For example, the area occupied by prairie dog cities in Kansas was reduced by 98.6%, the black-footed ferret was apparently an unintentional victim of the prairie dog eradication campaign. Even in the 1990s, federal agencies authorized and subsidized the annual eradication of 80,000 hectares of prairie dog colonies.

Thus, the black-footed ferret experienced a dramatic decline in numbers during the first half of the 20th century. She hasn't dated since 1937. In the late 1970s, he was thought to have disappeared from both countries. However, in 1981, a black-footed ferret colony was found in Wyoming, USA.

The first group of captured ferrets all died because a number of them were infected in nature with the causative agent of rabies. This led to the discovery that canine rabies was responsible for the rapid decline in the ferret population in Meeteetse. At this point, all 18 remaining ferrets were captured, vaccinated, quarantined, and sent to a breeding center. As a result of the black-footed ferret breeding program, by 1991 the captive population increased to 311 animals and 49 animals were released back into the wild. They now live in seven sites where the species has been reintroduced, including sites in Montana, Wyoming, Arizona, South Dakota and along the Colorado-Utah border, as well as in Chihuahua, Mexico.

In 1998, the number of offspring of the black-footed ferret, bred in six zoos and one government breeding center for this species, gave results that surpassed all previous ones with a total of 425 born of which 321 survived to the age of the end of mother's milk feeding.

Status and Trends: 1960s - 1994: endangered species; 1996 - 2004: extinct in nature (IUCN 2004). Currently, the black-footed ferret is found in Canada and the United States.

Population Estimates: 1920s: There may have been approximately 800,000 individuals. 1984 - 128 individuals, in 1996 and it now manages 240 (90 males and females), 2005 - about 500 individuals. There are currently approximately 1,000 black-footed ferrets in captivity.

Order - Carnivora / Suborder - Dog-like / Family - Mustelids / Subfamily - Mustelids

History of study

American ferret, or black-footed ferret (lat. Mustela nigripes) is a small North American predator, close relative Russian steppe ferret and other members of the weasel family. By 1937, the black-footed ferret was completely exterminated in Canada, and since 1967 it has been included in the Red Book of North America as an endangered species. In the mid-1980s, the last known wild population of ferrets was captured and transported to a research base for artificial breeding. Now the release of black-footed ferrets into their former habitat in the US is being called an "amazing return."


Spreading

The habitat of the American ferret is the eastern and southern regions of the Rocky Mountains, the territory of the Great Plains from Albert and Saskatchewan, to Texas and Arizona (USA).



Appearance

The black-footed ferret is approximately 45 cm long, with a bushy 15 cm tail, and weighs over 1 kg. Like most members of this family, Mustela nigripes have a squat, elongated body with very short legs. Their fur, which is white at the base, becomes darker at the ends of the hairline and gives the overall yellowish-brown color to the animal. The legs and end of the tail are black, and the black-footed ferret also has a mask characteristic of many ferrets. black face". This color scheme helps ferrets to be invisible in their habitat.



Lifestyle

The habitat of the American black-footed ferret is prairie (low to medium grass cover). It rises through treeless spaces high into the mountains (up to 3000 m above sea level).

Leads a nocturnal lifestyle. Hearing, sight and smell are well developed. The species is highly dependent on prairie dogs. Almost all the time (up to 99%) he spends in their holes. In the area of ​​these colonies, he rests and sleeps, immediately gets his own food, avoids predators, bad weather and feeds offspring.

Males are more active than females. In winter, the activity of black-footed ferrets decreases, as does the area of ​​the surveyed territory. On cold and snowy days it remains in the hole, feeding on its reserves.
On the ground it moves in jumps or at a slow gallop (up to 8-11 km/h). In one night you can walk up to 10 km. Males cover more distance (almost twice) than females.

In addition to the breeding season, it leads a solitary lifestyle. Uses scent tags to communicate with relatives. He marks the boundaries of his site with a secret from the prianal glands. In favorable years, the population density is one ferret per 50 ha of prairie dog colonies. The territory of adult ferrets is (in diameter) 1-2 km.



reproduction

The male does not participate in the rearing of offspring. The breeding season is March-April. Puberty occurs in the first year of life. Reproductive age up to 3-4 years. Pregnancy lasts 41-45 days. Young males settle from their native nest for considerable distances (10-15 km), while females remain close to their mother.

The female gives birth to 3-4 puppies (on average). As the cubs grow older, the female leaves them alone during the day in the nest, while she hunts. Young people begin to hunt on their own in September-October.



Nutrition

Black-footed ferrets can be found on prairie dog colonies, which make up the bulk of their diet (up to 90%). If possible, it eats gophers, rabbits of the American rabbit and birds. In a year, one individual eats more than 100 prairie dogs, and more than 250 dogs are needed for one ferret family.



population

U.S. federal and state agencies are working with private landowners to conserve the black-footed ferret in the wild through the release of captive-bred, zoos, and animal science centers ferrets into their natural environment a habitat. Places of issue were the States of Montana, South Dakota, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Chiufua Mexico.

In 1981, a small settlement of 130 animals was discovered near Meeteetse, Wyoming. Immediately after the discovery of this ferret settlement, more than half of the ferrets died due to the disease. It was decided to save the fate of black-footed ferrets to catch 18 individuals of different sexes and place them in the territories of the scientific and zoological center.

According to the status of the black-footed ferret in 2007, its number exceeds 600 units in the United States. Although it is still considered endangered according to the old 1996 assessment, since at that time ferrets lived only in captivity with a group of specialists.

The plan to repopulate the ferret in its native environment considers the establishment of 10 or more separate, self-sustaining wild populations as its ultimate goal. Biologists hope to have 1,500 black-footed ferrets in the wild by 2010, with at least 30 breeding adults per community.

The American, or otherwise it is called the black-footed ferret, belongs to the predatory representatives of the weasel family. One of the features in which he differs from his other ferret relatives is his short body length and low weight. That is, with a weight of one kilogram, or even less, this individual rarely exceeds 45 cm in length.

Appearance description

The coat color is usually yellow-brown and darker on the back, while the tip of the tail and paws are black. Interesting fact that by 1937 of the last century, this subspecies of ferrets was almost completely destroyed in Canada. But, starting in 1980, its numbers began to be gradually restored through artificial breeding. After that, bred in specially created conditions, individuals were gradually returned to their former habitat. Despite the fact that today the number of trochees has increased significantly, since 1967 it has continued to be listed in the Red Book of North America as an endangered species.

Habitat

The homeland of the American ferret is North America, where they live on the great plains. The ferret is awake and hunts only in the dark. But, the lack of light does not prevent him from getting his own food, because the ferrets have well-developed organs of hearing and smell. And the miniature size helps to easily penetrate even the narrowest holes to catch small rodents. But ferrets sleep in a “dead” sleep in order to recover from the excitement and stress that the animal usually experiences during the hunt. This is where the expression “sleep like a ferret” came from. Besides, interesting feature American ferrets is that after penetrating into the hole to their prey and catching it, the first ones leave this hole behind them for permanent or temporary residence.

Females are less active than males. And in winter, their activity is completely reduced, compared with summer period. They begin to hunt less due to the difficulty of moving through the snow cover, and more often prefer to remain in burrows, feeding exclusively on their reserves.

Ferrets are loners. They lead an isolated way of life, they practically do not contact their relatives, except, probably, only for the “marriage” period.

What do they eat

Typically, on average, a ferret consumes 50 to 70 grams of meat per day. At the same time, most often the diet of American ferrets is made up of rodents, less often - small birds and insects. But their main delicacy is ground squirrels, or as they are called in those parts - steppe dogs. To get enough, one ferret needs to eat about 250 ground squirrels a year. The very same typical colony of prairie dogs lives on an area equal to about 50 hectares of steppe terrain.

In the middle of the last century, mass poisoning and extermination of dogs began in the United States in connection with the development of land by local farmers. Which was the main reason for the active extinction of ferrets. After all, the latter were actually left without food.

Conditions of life and reproduction

In early spring, individuals of this species, as a rule, begin the breeding season. After that, after about 1.5 months, cubs are born, the number of which rarely exceeds 5 pieces. This feature is unique to American ferrets, in contrast to their forest and steppe relatives, whose litter can exceed 8 puppies.

In the wild, animals do not live long - up to about 4 years. What can not be said about their relatives raised in captivity - their life expectancy can reach as much as 9 years. Whereas they reach puberty by the age of one year.

Appearance

The American ferret, like most of the weasel family, has an elongated body on thin, short legs, and an elongated muzzle. And a 15 cm fluffy tail. They have an intricate color: yellowish-brown at the ends, closer to the roots it becomes white, and the paws and the tip of the tail are black. Also, black fur frames the eyes, resembling “glasses”, which act as an additional disguise. Males are larger than females. Like skunks, ferrets are capable of emitting a foul odor to protect themselves, though it is not as strong as a skunk's.

Measures for protection and reproduction

Helping the black-footed ferret not to disappear from the face of the earth Federal and state agencies of the USA together with private farmers. They carry out all possible actions for their breeding and introduction into the wild.

This set of activities began to be carried out in the 80s of the last century, with the advent of the threat of the complete disappearance of American ferrets in nature. It was then that zoologists decided to increase their population by breeding in captivity and further accustoming them to life in vivo, and after that - returning them back to the wild. This experiment paid off, and by 2007 the number of individuals exceeded 600 units, while only 18 units of animals of different sexes were taken for their breeding in the conditions of the scientific and zoological center. As of 2013, approximately 1,200 individuals are known to have lived in the wild. But still still this species remains listed in the Red Book. Therefore, to this day, work is underway to further increase the number of ferrets, until such time as they can independently exist and survive in the wild.

For the people themselves, in this case farmers, ferrets are beneficial by eating harmful prairie dogs, thereby helping to control their population. The latter are especially dangerous for livestock because they are carriers of various infections, one of which is bubonic plague. So is the harm - a large number of holes and tunnel systems belonging to ferrets and dogs often cause injuries to livestock, which now and then gets into them.

Kira Stoletova

The red book is full various types animals that are on the verge of extinction or disappeared altogether. Among them is the American Black-footed Ferret. This animal belongs to the mustelid family and, through the fault of poachers, has practically disappeared from the mainland. Thanks to the efforts of livestock breeders and local historians, Black-footed ferrets are already gradually restoring their population.

This is a very unusual animal both in color and in habits. The territory of its habitat and historical homeland is North America, where they are now actively grown. After being listed in the Red Book, the trochee began to be actively protected, and now any hunting for these animals is strictly punishable by law.

Description of American Blackfoot ferrets

The description of this type of ferret is worth special attention, because this breed has remarkable appearance features.

Distinctive features of Black-footed ferrets:

  • The ferret has a long elongated body and neck, short and thick legs.
  • The fur color of such animals is yellow-brown, darker on the back, and generally turns black towards the tail and paws (hence the name Black-footed American Ferret).
  • A distinctive feature of the trochee of just such a breed is the so-called mask around the eyes (the color of the coat around the eyes of such animals is black).
  • This type of ferret has large, rounded eyes that stand out against a white muzzle, where a black nose is also visible.
  • The shape of the claws is pointed and slightly curved.
  • The average weight of the female is in the range from 650 to 850 g, and the male can reach a mass of 1200 g.
  • According to average indicators, the length of the calf in the described trochees is 350-600 cm, and according to the statistics of the female, it is always 10% less than the male representatives of this breed.

So expressive appearance does not leave anyone indifferent, which is why the skins of such animals are highly valued by hunters, although it is important to remember that now the Red Book contains the name American Black-footed Ferret, which automatically prohibits any activity aimed at depopulating the species.

American Black-footed polecats can be seen in wildlife reserves in North America. Or, if there is no opportunity to visit another continent, anyone can easily admire the photo of the Black-footed Ferret on the Internet.

Habitat

The black-footed ferret is an animal that was quite common until the beginning of the last century. The historical range of animals is the territory stretching from the south of Canada to the north of Mexico. For North America, this species is the only indigenous representative. To date, a tourist can observe the described ferrets only in 3 territorial limits in northeastern Montana, western South Dakota, and southeastern Wyoming. Except places natural habitat people can also see how the American ferret behaves in a zoo or nature reserve. In places of natural settlement, the population was restored. Recovery continues to this day.

Knowing the range of these animals, it is quite simple to guess about their living conditions:

  • Steppe and hilly terrain in the expanses of North America.
  • haven for American polecat often becomes an abandoned hole left by a prairie dog (in such holes it is easier for animals to make tunnels and hide from hunting).
  • For obtaining food, one representative of this breed, according to average indications, needs a lot of space: within 40-45 hectares.
  • Females with offspring require even more space to survive: up to 55 hectares.
  • One male can introduce several females into the habitat at once.

The black-footed ferret is a freedom-loving creature that needs a large amount of free space for a normal existence. Such animals do not tolerate restrictions, and even in zoos they always get a large territory.

No less interesting is the life of such animals: the lifestyle they lead should be given special attention. The attitude towards the marten family has left its mark on the habits and habits of the trochee.

Lifestyle and nutrition

The American ferret is predominantly nocturnal. This is a predatory animal, the activity of which occurs at night. Having a good sense of smell and even sharper hearing, representatives of this breed can easily navigate without sunlight. The black coat allows them to remain less visible.

During the hunt, representatives of this species climb into the burrows of their victims (small rodents), where they deal with their prey, and then they also settle for a while. They are fast and agile, thanks to the structure of their body.

The black-footed ferret is a solitary animal. He does not try to get into the flock and only during the breeding season creates a pair.

With all these qualities, the American ferret is a friendly and non-aggressive animal towards representatives of its own species.

The diet for such animals consists of a large number options:

  • small rodents hiding in burrows;
  • large insects;
  • small birds, etc.

These cute at first glance animals are still predators. According to the statistics of livestock breeders, one black-footed ferret consumes about 100 prairie dogs during the year. In the reserves they are specially fed, and the cubs are fed with milk. In the 80s of the last century, all animals kept in captivity were released into a free habitat in order to renew the population and save the species from extinction.

Conclusion

The American ferret is a rare, but beautiful and unusual animal. The fact of entering into the Red Book only gives this breed an aura of mystery and makes it even more interesting for others and tourists.

black-footed ferret

15x4 - 15 minutes about the resurrection of species

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If there is an opportunity, then it is definitely worth watching such ferrets, because, in addition to all external indicators, they are unusually cute, and black hair will forever remain in the memory of observers.