Essay on ancient rome. Rise of Ancient Rome

1. Introduction… 2

2. Rise of Rome… 3

2.1. City of Rome… 3

2.2. Roman kings… 4

3. Formation of the Roman Republic… 6

4. Formation of the Roman Empire… 8

4.1. Principate… 9

4.2. Dominat… 13

5. Government of Rome… 15

5.1. The structure of the Roman community ... 15

5.2. Political system ancient rome during the period of the republic ... 17

5.3. The state structure of Rome during the period of the empire ... 19

6. Roman law (Laws of the XII tables) ... 22

6.1. Laws of the XII tables… 22

7. War with the Celts (Gauls)… 27

7.1. Invasion of the Gauls… 28

7.2. The consequences of the war with the Gauls ... 28

8. The collapse of the Roman Empire ... 30

9. Conclusion… 33

10. Literature… 35

INTRODUCTION

The history of ancient Rome is the last stage in the development of the ancient world, which covers the time from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. (754/3 BC - the traditional date of foundation of the city of Rome) until the end of the 5th century. AD (476 AD - the fall of the Western Roman Empire). Ancient Rome, in its almost thousand-year history, has gone from a small policy to the largest world power of antiquity. During its heyday, Rome subjugated a colossal territory that stretched from Britain in the north to North Africa in the south and from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east.

The history of the Roman state is divided into three periods:

- royal (mid-VIII century BC - 509 BC);

- Republican (509 - 27 BC);

- imperial (27 BC - 476 AD).

In VSH - III centuries. BC. there was a process of formation of the early Roman slave-owning society; in the SH BC. -P c. AD was its further development from a small community on the Tiber to the most powerful Italian and then Mediterranean power. In the SH AD came the economic, social and political crisis of the Roman state, which in the IV - V centuries. AD was replaced by a period of prolonged decline.

The most ancient period of Roman history, that is, the period from the formation of the Roman community to the establishment of the republic, is commonly called royal. According to the ancient tradition, which is confirmed by archaeological finds, the ancient Roman community was formed from three ethnic groups: Latins, Sabines (both Italian tribes) and Etruscans (the creators of the most ancient civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose origin is unknown) by synoikism (merger) of three settlements. The first Roman kings were Italians, then the Etruscan dynasty established itself in Rome, which led to a sharp rise in royal power and the expansion of the influence of the Etruscan civilization on ancient Rome. This period includes the formation of the Roman policy.

Rise of Rome

Literary data on the emergence of Rome are legendary and contradictory. This is noted even by the ancient authors themselves. So, for example, Diosinius of Halicarnassus said that “there are many disagreements, both about the time of the founding of the city of Rome, and about the personality of its founder.” The most common version was given by Livy: the founder of Rome was a descendant of the Trojan Aeneas who came to Italy.

City of Rome

On the hilly bank of the Tiber, 25 km. from its confluence with the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the IX century. BC. settlements of shepherds and landowners arose. Gradually, the settlements merged, were walled and became the city of Rome.

Subsequently, a legend appeared that Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus, fed by a she-wolf. The Romans believed this legend and kept their own reckoning from the fictitious date of the founding of the city.

According to this legend, the Trojan Aeneas, the son of the goddess Aphrodite and the mortal Anchises, survived the destruction of Troy. Together with his son Ascanius, Aeneas fled and, after long wanderings, arrived at the shores of Latium (a hilly plain along the lower reaches of the Tiber). At that time, Latinus, the king of the local tribe, ruled there. He received Aeneas in a friendly manner and married his daughter Lavinia to him. Aeneas did not reign over the Latins for long, he died in the battle of the Etruscans.

After the death of Aeneas, his son Ascanius (or Yul - that was his name in other versions of the legends) chose a place in the middle of Latium, on long ridge Alban Mountain, and founded a new city - Albu Longa or Long Road, where he began to reign. Over time, Alba became the main city of the Latin tribe. There, the descendants of Aeneas ruled safely, until the fifteenth generation of them in the royal family discord occurred. Two brothers succeeded their father. The elder Numitor received power, and the younger Amulius - royal wealth. Using gold, Amulius took the throne from his brother, and made his daughter Rhea Silvia a priestess of the goddess Vesta, the patroness of the hearth. Amulius hoped that his brother would not have legitimate heirs, since the Vestals, the servants of Vesta, took a vow of celibacy. However, Rhea Silvia secretly became the wife of the god of war Mars (Ares) and gave birth to two twins from him. For this she was condemned to death by Amuliem. The king ordered the twins to be thrown into the Tiber. But the slaves who were entrusted with this left the basket with the twins in a shallow place. A she-wolf came running to the crying of the twins and nursed them with her milk. Soon the royal shepherd Faustul found the children. He brought them home and gave them to his wife Larentia to raise. The twins were given the names Romulus and Remus. Having matured, the royal grandchildren turned into beautiful, strong and courageous young men. They became the leaders of the rural youth, the main participants in the numerous skirmishes that arose due to theft of livestock and the division of pastures.

Once Rem quarreled with the shepherds of Numitor and was taken prisoner by his own grandfather. During the disassembly, the secret of the origin of the twins was revealed. Having connected their supporters with the people of Numitor, Romulus and Remus overthrew the criminal king and returned power over Alba to his grandfather. They themselves and their retinue moved to the banks of the Tiber - to those places where they were raised by a she-wolf. There they decided to found a new city, but could not agree on who would reign in it. Finally, relying on the will of the gods, the brothers began to follow the heavenly signs. Rem, who was fortune-telling on the Aventine hill, was the first to see a good sign - six kites soaring in the sky. Romulus, who was sitting on the Palatine, saw 12 birds a little later. Each of the brothers interpreted the signs in his favor, a quarrel broke out between them, and Romulus, having rashly struck his brother, killed him in the wrong place.

On the hill where fraternal blood was shed, the first fortifications of the city, which received the name of its founder, were erected. In honor of Romulus, he was named Roma (Roma), this is the name in Latin, in Russian - Rome. Roman historians, who studied the antiquities of their people, subsequently calculated the year and day of the founding of Rome - April 21, 745 BC.

Romankings

Romulus, the founder of the city of Rome, became the first Roman king or, as they were then called, rex (from Latin rex - king). In an effort to increase his people, he accepted all the newcomers: beggars, robbers and even runaway slaves. The city grew, but it seemed that it would live only one generation: after all, the first Romans did not have wives and children, since the local inhabitants, despising them for their low birth, did not give their daughters for them. Then the Romans resorted to a trick: having invited their closest neighbors, the Sabines, to the feast, on a signal they rushed at the unarmed guests and kidnapped their daughters. With the wives obtained in this way, the Romans treated kindly and respectfully, so that they soon won their love, but the fathers and brothers of the Sabine women went to war against Rome. Once, during a battle, weeping women appeared on the battlefield and rushed into the thick of the battle. Embracing relatives and husbands, holding out babies to them with a prayer, they stopped the slaughter and reconciled the soldiers. After that, many Sabine families moved to Rome and became part of the Roman people.

After the death of Romulus, the Romans could not find a worthy replacement for him for a long time. Finally, they gave preference to the most virtuous person in Italy. It was the forty-year-old Numa Pompilius, who lived modestly in the town of Kura on the Sabine land: he was loudly famous as a man of outstanding learning, kindness of correctness. It was said that the warlike Romulus made the Roman people "iron", Numa - virtuous. Numa introduced new cults in Rome (worship of the gods), appointed priests, established priestly colleges - "partnerships" of priests. Among the gods he introduced, the place of honor was taken by the goddess of Fidelity and the god of the Border, guarding the sacred sign of property. During the 43-year reign of Numa, the Romans did not wage any wars. Arranging sacrifices, processions and holidays in honor of the gods, the king accustomed his people to virtue and the joys of a peaceful life. Patronizing good work and rest, he organized colleges of artisans, established holidays and working days. In this regard, Numa introduced a new 12-month calendar in Rome.

After Numa, two warlike kings ruled - Tull Hostilius and Ankh Marcius. Under them, the borders of both the cities of Rome and the Roman state expanded.

The last three Roman kings are called the Etruscans. Their history began with the fact that during the reign of Ancus Marcius, a rich and energetic person moved to Rome, who took the name of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. He became an adviser to Ancus Marcius and won the love of the Roman people, so after the death of Ancus, bypassing his sons, he was elected king. He received the name Tarquinius the Ancient. This king brought the high urban culture of Etruria to Latius. Under him, many Etruscan artisans moved to Rome, boiled construction works. Rome began to transform from a "big village" into a real city. Tarquinius waged successful wars with neighbors, established public games, and began draining the swampy parts of the city. Canals were built to drain the swampy lowlands between the hills, the future main square of the city, the Forum, was paved, the Great Circus was built in the valley between Avetino and Palatine, and a stone temple in honor of Jupiter was laid on the Capitol.

After Tarquinius the Ancient, his pupil Servius Tullius, the son of a slave, ruled. According to legend, once the household of Tarquinius saw a miraculous sign - a fiery radiance around a sleeping boy, the son of a maid. Guessing from this sign the great future of the child, the king and queen raised little Servius as a son, and then gave him their daughter. When Servius became king, he transformed the non-city of Rome, but the Roman state itself. Servius Tullius was also famous for the fact that he surrounded Rome with the first stone wall. In the memory of his descendants, he remained as a kind king, patron of the plebeians.

The last, seventh king, the son of Priscus Tarquinius the Ancient - Lucius, bore the name of Tarquinius the Proud. He seized power by atrocity: deposing and killing the aged Servius Tullius. Then he killed many senators, supporters of the legitimate king, and began to reign under the protection of bodyguards - not elected by the people, and not approved by the senate. He exhausted the plebeians with construction work, and destroyed the prominent patricians out of fear and hatred of their influence.

The cup of patience of the Roman people overflowed when the son of the king abused the noble patrician Lucretia, who rejected his love. The noble woman committed suicide, and the indignant Romans rebelled and drove the entire Tarquin family out of the city.

This period of Roman history is called period of seven kings.

In the “royal period” (7th-6th centuries BC), patriarchal-slave-owning relations and an agrarian system began to form in Roman society, in which, along with public land, private property of its individual members was born within the community.

Formation of the Roman Republic

After in 509 BC. Tarquinius the Proud was overthrown, Consul Junius Brutus was elected head of the city. The royal period ended and the period of the republic began, which lasted about 500 years (509-27 BC).

Territory of the Roman Republic

During the period of the early republic, an ancient form of ownership, characteristic of the policy, developed, in which only a full member of the civil community was the owner of the land. After the fall of the royal power and the formation of the republic, both classes - patricians and plebeians - found themselves face to face. For more than two centuries there was a fierce struggle between them. In general, the dispute was about three issues: the equalization of political rights, debt bondage, and access to communal-state land. The plebeians succeeded in the first decades of the 5th century. BC. achieve significant gains in the form of an independent organization of the plebeian community. By the middle of this century they had achieved their second major success, the writing of laws. Shortly thereafter, the plebeian poor achieved the virtual abolition of debt slavery.

Thus, the period of the republic (end of the 6th century BC - middle of the 1st century BC) is characterized by the struggle of the plebeians and patricians, culminating in the complete equalization of the rights of these estates and the merging of the patrician-plebeian elite. In the course of the struggle, a new estate structure of Roman society developed: the nobility, consisting of the senatorial class and the horsemen, and the plebs - rural and urban. All of them were Roman citizens (unlike the plebeians of the time of the struggle with the patricians). The classes of freedmen and slaves belonged to non-citizens. During the period of the republic, Rome turned into the largest Mediterranean power. In the course of continuous wars, the structure of the Roman army was formed, which had the character of a people's militia. Service in it was considered not only a duty, but also an honor. Starting from the 4th c. BC. the state began to pay for military service. The development of commodity-money relations and the expanded use of slave labor (their influx increased sharply in connection with victorious wars) by the beginning of the 2nd century. BC led to mass dispossession of communal farmers, that is, the rural plebs. The nobles bought up and simply seized their lands, creating large-scale farms, in which slaves became the main producers. Deprived of land, the population concentrated in the city and joined the ranks of the urban plebs, consisting of artisans, small traders, and the lumpen proletariat. A sharp reduction in the rural plebs - the basis of the Roman army - led to military reform: the army began to accept the poor and volunteers (army reform - the end of the 2nd century BC). The army has become professional. Now a successful commander could easily use it to establish sole power. The crisis of the economic basis of the policy (mainly a subsistence economy based on the personal labor of communal farmers), its social basis (erosion of the rural plebs), the crisis of republican institutions that were not suitable for managing a vast territory, and a sharp increase in the power of commanders who relied on a professional army - all this led to to the crisis of the polis as a type of state and to the crisis of the republic as its form typical of the polis.

Formation of the Roman Empire

With the increase in slavery, discontent among the peoples inhabiting the Roman Empire grew, and I in. BC. the wars of the inferior Italians against Rome and the slave uprisings, the most famous slave uprising led by Spartacus (74 - 71 BC), shocked all of Italy. Everything ended with the establishment in Rome in 30 BC. the sole power of the emperor, relying on armed force.

Growth of the Roman State

The era of Roman history from the middle of the III century. BC. until the end of the 1st c. BC. - the time of deep transformations of the previous structures, which led to the creation of a new image and essence of Roman society.

In turn, the victorious wars of the Roman-Italian Union in the Mediterranean led to the capture of masses of slaves and huge funds that were invested in the economy and contributed to the rapid development of the economy, social relations and culture of the peoples of Italy.

Roman-Italian society at the beginning of the 1st century. BC. entered into a period of bloody civil wars, a deep general crisis, primarily the political and state organization of the Roman Republic.

The complex relationship between Italy and the provinces, between citizens and non-citizens urgently required a new system of government. It was impossible to manage a world power with methods and apparatus suitable for a small community on the Tiber, but ineffective for a powerful power.

The old classes, whose interests were reflected by the Roman Republic, towards the end of the 1st century. BC. disappeared or degraded. There were new rich people, lumpen-proletariat, military colonists.

The traditional polis-communal (republican) socio-political system was replaced by the Roman Empire.

From the 30s BC. a new historical era begins in the history of the Roman state and the ancient world in general - the era of the Roman Empire, which replaced the Roman Republic.

It brought with it relative civil peace and a certain easing of external aggression. The exploitation of the provinces assumes a more organized and less predatory character. Many emperors encouraged urban construction and took care of the development of the cultural life of the provinces, the road system, the introduction of a single imperial monetary unit. For the empire of the first two centuries, one can note the growth of technology, the development of crafts, the rise of economic life, and the growth of local trade. Provincial cities receive self-government. Many new urban centers are emerging.

Thus, from 27 BC. and until 476 AD. Rome is going through a period of empire, which in turn breaks up into a period of principate (27 BC - 193 AD) and dominance (193-476 AD).

Principate

Empire period from the middle of the 1st c. BC. until the end of the 5th century AD was divided into the principate, when all-republican institutions formally continued to function, but in reality the power was in the hands of the princeps - the first citizen of the republic, in fact, the emperor, and the dominant (starting from the end of the 3rd century AD), when a new management system was formed, headed by emperor.

The period of the principate, or early empire, covers the time from 27 B.C. before 193 AD [rule of the dynasties Juliev - Claudius (27 BC - 68 AD), Flaviev (69-96), Antoninov (96-192)]. Augustus and his successors, being princeps of the senate, at the same time concentrated in their hands the highest civil and military power. Formally, the republican structure continued to exist: the Senate, popular assemblies (comitia), magistracies, but the actual power was in the hands of the princeps.

The emperor-princeps combined in his hands the powers of all the main republican magistracies: dictator, consul, praetor, people's tribune. Depending on the type of affairs, he acted in one capacity, then in another: as a censor, he completed the senate; how the tribune canceled the actions of any authority at his own will, arrested citizens at his own discretion, etc.; how the consul and dictator determined the policy of the state, gave orders for the branches of government; how the dictator commanded the army, ruled the provinces, etc.

Thus, the transfer of government to the princeps occurred due to the empowerment of him with the highest power (Latin imperium - power), election to the most important positions, the creation of a separate apparatus from the magisterial bureaucratic apparatus, provided by the formation of his own treasury of the princeps, and command of all armies.

Sulla's dictatorship. In the 1st century BC. Rome turned out to be embroiled in a difficult Allied war for him and was forced to grant Roman citizenship to the entire population of Italy.

The allied war brought neither Rome nor Italy true peace. The era of personal power, the era of dictatorships, was coming. The first dictator was the commander Sulla, who, relying on an army devoted to him, established a regime of sole power, or dictatorship, in Rome. It was indefinite, which distinguished it from the republican dictatorship described above. In addition, Sullaassigned to himself legislative functions and the right to arbitrarily dispose of the lives and property of citizens. He granted new rights to the senate, but sharply limited the powers of the people's assemblies and deprived political functions tribunes. The dictatorship of Sulla meant the advent of a new historical era in Roman history, and above all - end of the republic.

Dictatorship of Julius Caesar. The abdication of Sulla (79 BC) returned the republican constitution to Rome, but not for long. Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) became the new Roman dictator. His reign came at a time after the slave uprising (74 BC) under the leadership of Spartacus, which clearly revealed the crisis of the republican form of government and the need for an authoritarian state.

Elected in 59 BC The consul of Rome, Julius Caesar, leading the anti-Senate group, passed two land laws through the comitia, exercising direct violence against the Senate and rejecting the veto of the people's tribunes as insignificant. By a series of subsequent measures, Caesar won over to our side not only broad sections of the Roman people, but also the inhabitants of the provinces.

In 46 BC Caesar put an end to his last opponents (the Pompeians) and was proclaimed dictator for a 10-year term, and in 44 for life.

The peculiarity of the Caesarist dictatorship is that the dictator had not only consular and tribune powers, but also censorship (since 46 BC) and the highest priestly. As commander of the army, Caesar received the title of emperor. The comitia, made dependent on Caesar, although they continued to exist, imitating the preservation of the republic, followed the instructions of the emperor, including those related to the election to office.

In addition, Caesar received the authority to manage the army and the treasury of the state, the right to appoint proconsuls in the provinces and recommend half of the candidates for magistrates in general, the right to vote first in the Senate, which was important, etc. A triumph for Caesar was the proclamation of his "father of the fatherland" with all the honors associated with this (a special chariot, a gilded chair, special clothes and shoes, etc.).

The form of government created under Caesar - the principate - received its further development under his successor Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 12 AD).

founder of an empire OctavianAugust first received the title of princeps from the senate. Placed first in the list of senators, he received the right to be the first to speak in the Senate.

The principate still retains the appearance of a republican form of government and almost all the institutions of the republic: popular assemblies are convened, the senate is in session, consuls, praetors and popular tribunes are still elected. But all this is no more than a cover for the post-republican state system.

The emperor-princeps united in his hands the powers of all the main republican magistracies: dictator, consul, praetor, people's tribune. Depending on the type of affairs, he acted in one capacity, then in another: as a censor, he completed the senate; how the tribune canceled at his own will the actions of any authority, arrested citizens at his own discretion, etc.; how the consul and dictator determined the policy of the state, gave orders for the branches of government; how the dictator commanded the army, ruled the provinces, etc.

people's assemblies, main body the authorities of the old republic fell into complete decline. Cicero wrote on this occasion that gladiatorial games attract Roman citizens more than comitia meetings. Bribery of senators, dispersal of meetings, violence against their participants, and other signs of the extreme degree of decomposition of the comitia became commonplace.

Emperor Augustus reformed the comitia in a democratic spirit (eliminated qualifying grades, allowed absentee voting for residents of Italian municipalities), but took away judicial power from the assemblies, the most important of their former competencies. In addition, the comitia lost their original right to elect magistrates. First, a decision was made to test candidates for the consulate and praetorship in a special commission composed of senators and equestrians, i.e. approbation. But after the death of Augustus, under his successor Tiberius, the election of magistrates was transferred to the competence of the senate. princeps, something was done at the insistence of the tributary assemblies ”(Tacitus. Annals. 1.14). With regard to legislation, Tacitus notes that the princeps replaced not only the senate and magistrates, but the laws themselves (Annals. 1.21). This means, of course, that legislation has also become the business of the princeps.

The Senate, already under Augustus, was filled with provincial nobility, who owed everything to the princeps, and especially those horsemen who had reached the senatorial rank. From a body of power extending to the "city of Rome", the Senate turned into a kind of all-imperial institution. But its position was belittled, and its powers were limited. Bills that came to the Senate for approval came from the princeps, and their adoption was ensured by his authority. In the end, the unwritten rule arises and asserts: "Whatever the princeps decides has the force of law."

The right to elect the princeps himself belonged to the senate, but even this became a mere formality: in many cases the army decided the matter.

focus higher institutions empire was the "court", and precisely the court of the princeps. It housed the imperial office with legal, financial and other departments. Finance occupies a special place: never before has the state shown such ingenuity in finding sources of taxes, as in the departments of the Empire, never before - before August - was the tribe of imperial officials so numerous.

The army became permanent and mercenary. The soldiers served for 30 years, receiving a salary, and upon retirement - a significant plot of land. The command structure of the army was completed from the senatorial and equestrian estates. An ordinary soldier could not rise above the position of commander of a hundred centurion.

Dominat

Dominat (from Lat. dominus - lord) is an unlimited monarchy.

In the III century. AD (since 284) since the time of the emperor Diocletian, an unlimited monarchy regime has been established in Rome - the dominant. The old republican institutions are disappearing. The management of the empire is concentrated in the hands of several major departments. They are led by dignitaries who are directly subordinate to the emperor. Among these departments, a special place was occupied by: state council under the emperor (discussion of major policy issues, preparation of bills), the financial department and the military department, which is led by generals appointed by the emperor and only subordinate to him.

Officials stand out in a special class: they wear a uniform, they are endowed with privileges, at the end of their service they are assigned pensions, etc.

Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine. Among the many reforms and laws of the empire special attention historical and legal science deserve the reforms of the emperors of the period of dominance - Diocletian and Constantine.

Diocletian, son of a freedman, became Roman emperor in 284 AD. (284-305 AD). The time of his reign was marked by two major reforms.

The first concerned the state structure of the vast empire. This reform can be reduced to the following: 1) the supreme power was divided among the four co-rulers. Two of them, who bore the title "August", occupied a leading position, each ruling their own half of the empire - Western and Eastern. At the same time, Diocletian August retained the right of supreme power for both parts of the empire. The Augusti elected their own co-rulers, who were given the title "Caesar"; this is how the tetrarchy arose - the rule of four emperors, who were considered members of a single "imperial family"; 2) the army, increased by a third, was divided into two parts: one part was located on the borders of the empire, the other, mobile, provided internal security; 3) as a result of the administrative reform, the provinces were disaggregated (according to some sources, up to 101, according to others, up to 120); 4) the provinces, in turn, were united into dioceses, of which there were 12; 5) Divided into provinces and dioceses, Italy, among other lands of the empire, was now completely deprived of its special significance and position (although Rome continued to be considered the capital of the empire for some time).

The economic policy of Diocletian provides the first example in history of active administrative intervention in such a complex and mobile sphere of society as the economy.

Instead of various kinds of indirect taxes, Diocletian introduced a single direct tax - a land-per capita tax levied in kind: grain, meat, wool, etc. The amount of taxation was significantly increased. In an effort to put an end to the circulation of corrupted money, the emperor introduced a full-fledged gold coin along with silver and copper.

In an attempt to stop the rise in prices for goods and services, Diocletian issued an edict in 301 that set maximum prices for wheat, rye, poppy and other traded goods.

In addition, the edict established the maximum wages for a laborer, a hairdresser, a teacher, a stenographer, a lawyer, an architect, and others. Note that a lawyer's fee was 15 times higher than the salary of a coppersmith.

Other reforms of Diocletian strengthened the power of landowners over the peasantry, since the landowner was responsible for the receipt of taxes from the peasants. The landowner received the right to send, at his choice, a certain number of dependent people to military service, to the imperial army.

The reforms initiated by Diocletian were continued by Emperor Constantine (285-337 AD), best known for his ecclesiastical policies favorable to Christians, until then persecuted by the state. By the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine allowed Christians to freely practice their religion (shortly before his death, the emperor himself was baptized).

Under Constantine, the process of enslavement of the colonial peasants was completed. According to the imperial constitution of 332, the colon was deprived of the right to move from one estate to another. Those who did not obey this law were put into shackles like a slave, and in this form they were returned to the owner. The person who received the runaway column paid his master the full amount of payments due from the runaway column.

The same line was drawn in relation to artisans. For example, the imperial edict of 317 ordered the miners, shipbuilders and many other workers to "remain forever in their state."

The direct appropriation of the surplus product became the main form of exploitation of peasants and artisans.

Under Constantine, the capital of the Roman Empire was transferred to the old Byzantium, then called Constantinople (May 11, 330). Accordingly, the highest government institutions were transferred there from Rome, and the Senate was recreated.

The state structure of ROMEThe structure of the Roman community

Romulus is credited with organizing the Roman community (from lat. civitas). The population of the city at that time consisted of two main groups: the Roman citizens proper, the so-called patricians, and non-citizens - plebeians. The plebeians were part of a community of full citizens and constituted a free, but deprived of political rights layer of the population, hung with various duties, however, they carried out military service on a par with the patricians. When conquering neighboring communities, the Romans seized part of their land into a public fund, but the plebeians were not allowed to use this land. In the hands of the plebeians, mainly commercial and industrial wealth was concentrated: proud of their origin, the patricians considered humiliating any occupation other than agriculture, political activity and military service. Patricians were full citizens. They broke up into three tribes ( tribes). Three tribes - Ramni, Titii and Luceres - made up the "Roman people". Each tribe consisted of 100 genera. Every 10 genera formed curia. The curia formed the general assembly of the Roman community. curate comitia. The People's Assembly accepted or rejected the bills proposed to it, elected all senior officials, acted as the highest court of appeal in deciding the issue of the death penalty, declared war, elected the king together with the Senate, dealt with the most important court cases, etc.

So, speaking about the origin of the Roman estates, one should take as a basis his "complex theory":

– patricians were indeed indigenous citizenship. They were a full-fledged "Roman people";

– clients were in direct contact with the patricians, they received from them land, livestock, enjoyed their protection in court, etc. For this, they had to serve in the military detachments of their patrons, provide them with money, and perform various work;

– plebeians stood outside the tribal organization of the patricians, i.e. did not belong to the "Roman people", did not have access to communal land and were deprived of political rights.

The Roman patrician community was a primitive city-state with the typical features of a "military democracy". Another body of democracy was the council of elders - senate. Its members were called "fathers" (from Latin patres - fathers). The competence of the Roman Senate included the affairs of direct management,drafting bills, making peace. It consisted of the elders of all 300 clans, which is why it was called the Senate (from Latin senex - old, elder). The elders constituted the hereditary aristocracy of the Roman community, since the custom had taken root that they were chosen from the same family of each kind.

According to legend, Romulus created a Senate of 100 senators, Tullus Hostilius added another 100, and Tarquinius the Ancient brought them to 300.

Over time, the patricians turned into a closed group of nobility, opposed to the broad mass of the plebeians. The strengthening of the role of the plebeians in the economy, with their numerical superiority, led to a struggle between the plebeians and patricians, the first stage of this struggle ended with the reforms of the social system attributed to King Servius Tulia. Along with the previous division of the population by clan, a new division of the population was introduced according to property and territorial characteristics.

In the course of the reform of “military democracy”, all-Roman citizens, both patricians and plebeians, were “valued” according to their cash property (land, livestock, inventory, etc.) and divided into 193 hundreds - centuries. That is, according to the reform, a division into 5 property categories or classes was made:

- persons with a fortune of at least 100,000 asses were enrolled in the first class (asses - a copper coin, originally weighing 1 pound, its value for the early period of the history of Rome has not been established);

- in the second - 75,000 asses;

- in the third - 50,000 asses;

- in the fourth - 25,000 asses;

- in the fifth - 12.500 asses.

Those who had very little wealth stood "below the class" and were called "proletarians" (lat. proletarii, from the word proles - offspring), i.e. people who had only children.

Each category of the population exhibited a certain number of its representatives - wax units - centuries (literally - a hundred). Centuriae now began to be voted on by the people's assembly; each centuria had one vote. Proletarians, i.e. completely deprived of accountable property, amounted to only one century. With the coordinated voting of the first two categories, the votes of the rest did not matter. Instead of the old generic tribes, a division into territorial tribes was introduced. The reforms of the "military dictatorship" of Servius Tulia dealt a crushing blow to the outdated tribal system and laid the foundation of the state, i.e. society based on consanguinity was destroyed, and instead of it a state system was created based on property differences and territorial division.

The position of the soldiers in the ranks of the legion was also determined by their property status. The richest citizens of the 1st class served in the cavalry and were called riders. The remaining members of this class were required to have full heavy weapons infantryman and stand in the front ranks of the legion.

Citizens of other classes had lighter weapons and took their place in the back rows. Warriors of the 5th class were lightly armed in the ranks, and the proletarians did not serve in the ranks at all.

Servius Tullius allowed the plebeians into the army, endowing them with some political rights through the organization of a new form of popular assembly. Both classes participated in it. It was called centuriate assembly.

Century(hundred), being a military tactical unit, has become a voting unit. The most important functions of the old assemblies were transferred to the centuriate assemblies - the declaration of war, the election of officials, the court, etc.

At that time, these reforms were a progressive form of government.

The fall of military democracy in Rome, according to scientists, occurred at the end of the VI - the beginning of the V centuries. BC. in the form of the violent overthrow of the last king and the transfer of his power to two elected officials. They could only get out of the patricians and were called consuls. Thus, the transition to the republic was carried out.

The political system of ancient Rome during the period of the republic

509 BC - the establishment of a republican system after the expulsion of Tarquinius the Proud. The organization of power in this period is quite simple, it almost did not change, despite the fact that the republic grew significantly. Combined aristocratic and democratic features.

On the basis of the struggle and regrouping of social forces that took place in the era of the early Republic, the Roman republican constitution took shape. No such document actually existed. But the description of the Roman state system as a whole and its individual elements has been preserved in the works of ancient authors.

The state organization differs from the tribal one in three features: the presence of a special apparatus of violence and coercion (army, courts, prisons, officials), the division of the population not by consanguinity, as well as taxes collected for the maintenance of the army, officials, etc.

The highest government authority is people's assembly. There were three types of national assembly - comitia (from lat. somitia - gathering); – curiat; - centuriate; - Tribute commissions.

Popular assemblies in Rome were convened at the discretion of the magistrates, who could interrupt the assembly or postpone it. The magistrates presided over the assembly and announced the agenda. Voting on issues was open, secret ballot (by tabulation) introduced at the end of the republican period. In the first century of the existence of the republic, the Senate approved the decisions of the comitia, from the III century. BC. -preliminarily considered issues on the agenda of the comitia.

The functions of the comitia were clearly delimited, which was used for their own purposes by the ruling elite of Rome, represented by the Senate and magistrates.

Senate - supervised led the activities of the people's assembly in the direction necessary for him, the composition of the Senate was replenished from magistrates who had served their term. Senators (300,600, 900) were appointed by the censors every 5 years according to the lists of representatives of wealthy noble families from former magistrates. The Senate was convened by one of the magistrates. The speeches and decisions of the senators were recorded in special books. Formally, the Senate was an advisory body, its resolutions were the Senate Counsels. He disposed of the treasury, set taxes, determined expenses, made decisions on public security, landscaping, religious worship, conducted foreign policy (approved peace treaties, treaties of alliance), allowed recruitment into the army and distributed legions between commanders.

Magistrate only a rich man could be elected. The highest magistrates were considered to be censors, consuls and praetors. All magistrates were elected for 1 year (except for the dictator, whose term of office is six months, and the consul during the conduct of hostilities).

The power of the magistrates: the highest (military power, the right to conclude a truce, convene the Senate and popular assemblies and preside over them, issue orders and force their execution, the right to judge and impose punishment - with the dictator, consul and praetor; the dictator could sentence to death without the right to appeal, consul - his sentence could be challenged in the centuriate assembly; the praetor could not) and general (the right to give orders and impose fines for non-execution).

Consuls- 2 senior magistrates, they were entrusted with primary affairs in the civil and military parts, during the war one remained in the city, the other fought; they recruited an army and commanded it, appointed commanders, concluded truces, disposed of military booty.

praetors-exercised judicial power. Praetors (city and peregrine) led the legal proceedings (from the 4th century), interpreted the law (from the 3rd-2nd centuries). 2 censors were elected for 5 years, they compiled lists of citizens for their distribution by tribes and categories, observed morality and issued appropriate edicts.

Quaestors-Assistant consuls were in charge of the state treasury, kept the state archives, i.e. disposed of the financial expenses and the investigation of some criminal cases.

Aediles -(2 people) observed public order in the city, trade in the market, organized festivities and processions.

Collegia "26 men"(5 colleges) oversaw prisons, coinage, road clearing, and some court cases. The plebeian tribunes first protected the plebeians from the arbitrariness of the patricians, observed the rule of law, defended unjustly offended citizens, had the right to veto the actions of any magistrates, and made legislative proposals to the people's comitia.

Army- the people's militia, which was formed by ranks: centuries (commanded by centurions); legions (commanded by military tribunes); detachments of cavalry (commanded by the decurions).

Gradually, the difference in the legal status of patricians and plebeians was destroyed. By the 3rd century BC. the Roman state system finally took shape in the form of an aristocratic slave-owning republic.

Centuriate comitia resolved issues of war and peace, passed laws and elected senior officials.

were of paramount importance tribute comitia, which in the early period were a collection of only the plebeians, and then all the citizens of a given tribe. The publication of laws passed to them.

The People's Assembly was convened relatively rarely, issues of current policy were resolved by the Senate, which was the most important stronghold of the aristocracy, and the executive power belonged to the masters. The magistrates and the Senate enjoyed virtually all the fullness of state power in the Roman Republic, which received a pronounced aristocratic character. The introduction of the Senate were finance, foreign policy, military affairs, cult issues. Roman masters were elected, collegiate, short-term (usually annual) and gratuitous. In addition to the usual magistracies, under emergency circumstances, a dictator was appointed, who was given all the supreme military civil power for a period of 6 months.

The state structure of Rome during the period of the empire

After the victory of Octavian, great-nephew and successor of Julius Caesar over his political opponents, the Senate gave Octavian supreme power over Rome and the provinces (and presented him with the honorary title of August). In Rome and the provincesestablished state system, which was called the principate. "Princepssenatus" was in previous times the name of the first senator on the list (usually the oldest of the former censors) who was the first to express his opinion. Princeps Augustus is "the first citizen of the Roman state", and in accordance with the unwritten Roman constitution, this meant the office of emperor.

In order to understand what the Roman Empire was like during the period of the principate, what was its social system, we must first dwell on the issue of citizenship. Already under Julius Caesar, the provision of the rights of a Roman citizen in the provinces (there were 18 provinces in total) became a common political measure. This practice was continued by his successors. In 212 AD Emperor Caracalla granted the rights of a Roman citizen to the entire free population of the Empire. This momentous step had far-reaching consequences. The privileged position of Rome itself was undermined. But by this time, the position of free people in Rome and the Empire was significantly different from what it was under the republic.

The top of the slave-owning class consisted of two estates. The first and most noble class was the nobility. It was formed in the IV-III centuries. BC. from the patrician-plebeian local nobility. Under the Empire, the inobili was the ruling class, dominating both in society and in the state. The economic basis of the nobility was made up of huge land holdings, cultivated by a mass of slaves and dependent peasant peculants. The senate became the political stronghold of the nobility. High-ranking priests and high magistrates, especially the consulate, the rulers of the conquered territories - proconsuls, propraetors, legates, etc. - belonged to the nobility. Under the emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD), the nobility turned into a senatorial estate, which was replenished at the expense of dignitaries who advanced in public service.

From the estate of horsemen - the financial nobility of the empire with a scene of 4,000,000 sesterces - came out responsible officials and officers.

The empire's cities were administered decurions- an estate represented by former magistrates. These were, as a rule, middle landowners.

At the lowest rung of the social ladder were still slaves. Under Augustus, in order to protect the interests of slave owners, special measures were introduced that were distinguished by extreme cruelty. In particular, the possibilities of granting freedom to slaves were sharply reduced, the law was restored, according to which all those slaves who were in the house at the time of the murder of their master (at a shouting distance) and did not come to his aid were subject to execution. One of the sources describes a case of this kind, when, despite the discontent of the people, the senate and the emperor put 400 slaves to death. Roman jurists found a justification for this cruel law: no house can be safe (of labor) in any other way than by fear of the death penalty ...

Meanwhile, the economic situation testified to the unprofitability of the labor of slaves. Neither the overseer nor punishment could replace the economic stimulus. The slave did what was absolutely necessary and did not get sick, and in such a way as not to cause punishment. None of the improvements were beneficial. In Rome, the progress of technology seemed to have stopped: neither a scythe, nor even a primitive flail, with which grain is knocked out of ears, were known in Rome and its provinces.

Understanding this, slave owners began to provide slaves with peculia, i.e. plots of land for which the owner had to pay a predetermined share of the product (usually half of the harvest). But in order for speculative relations to bring noticeable results, they should be reliably protected from abuse, giving them more or less extensive legal protection. However, the old Roman law forbade the slave to carry out in his own name (not the owner) and for his own benefit all types of trading and lending operations, as well as to file a lawsuit and answer in court. These prohibitions were an obstacle to the development of peculia as a specific form of rental relations, so they had to be softened, modified, canceled, which was carried out very slowly.

At the same time, such an important process is taking place in the Roman Empire as the transformation of a free peasant into a sharecropper - a column. The development of the colony was a direct consequence of the never-stopping robbery of the peasants, directly related to the growth of senatorial and equestrian latifundia. Another reason was the decrease in the influx of slaves due to a decrease in military power empire and strengthening the resistance shown to it.

Colon obligations were both monetary and in-kind. In the first period of the colony, the lease was short-term, but it was unprofitable for the landlord. Only a long-term lease could provide him with a labor force and at the same time give rise in the colony to the desire to improve the land, increase productivity, etc.

Satisfying the requirements of landowners, law 332g. initiated the attachment of tenants to the land. The columns that left the estates without permission returned by force. At the same time, the law forbade the expulsion of colonies when selling land. In the same way, the unauthorized increase of the burdens and duties lying on the column was also prohibited. Attaching columns to the ground was lifelong and hereditary. Thus, in still slave-owning Rome, the feudal order, feudal production relations, was born. In this complex process, the slave rises in his social status, the free peasant, on the contrary, descends.

By the end of the empire, the unauthorized murder of a slave, the separation of his family is prohibited, and a simplified procedure for releasing slaves to freedom is introduced.

Artisans, organized according to colleges, i.e. communities, had to “remain forever in their state”, which meant for them nothing more than forced hereditary attachment to their professions.

Roman law(LawsXIItables)

The historical conditions for the creation of laws were due to the fact that in the first centuries of the Roman Republic, land - ager publicus was very important. Arable land was scarce, as was livestock. Because of the land, aggression arose against neighboring tribes with military occupation of their lands and demands for citizens to be warriors. The public nature of the land was the basis for its fair redistribution. The creation of laws is associated with the struggle of patricians and plebeians for equal rights.

Unfortunately, the Laws were not preserved, they died in 390 BC. during the invasion of the Gauls, their content was reconstructed on the basis of fragments from the writings of later Roman authors.

Laws of the XII tables

The laws of HP tables are an original source for studying the features of economic relations, social structure, legal norms during the early Roman Republic. Legislation was created during a sharp struggle between patricians and plebeians who sought to obtain the right to use public land, to achieve the abolition of debt bondage, political equality with patricians. According to tradition, at the insistence of the plebeians in 451 BC. A commission of 10 decemvirs was formed to record the current law. The work was completed in 450 BC. another commission, which included 5 patrician decemvirs and 5 plebeian decemvirs. In 449 BC laws common to patricians and plebeians. They got their name because they were inscribed on 12 wooden boards-tables, exhibited for public viewing on the main square of Rome, its political center - the Forum.

A distinctive feature of the Laws was strict formalism: the slightest omission in the form of adjudication entailed the loss of the case. This omission was taken for the "finger of God."

The laws of the XII tables regulated the sphere of family and inheritance relations, contained norms relating to loan transactions, criminal offenses, but did not touch at all state law. Starting from the IV-III centuries. BC. Laws began to be corrected by a new source of law - praetor edicts, reflecting new economic relations generated by the transition from ancient archaic forms of sale, loan and loan to more complex legal relations caused by the growth of commodity production, commodity exchange, banking operations, etc.

ABOUT family law Ancient Rome must be said first of all, because the Roman family, as depicted in the Tables, was a strictly patriarchal family, i.e. under the unlimited power of the householder, which could be a grandfather or father. Such relationship was called agnatic, and all the “subjects” to the householder were agnates to each other.

Cognatic kinship arose with the transfer of an agnat (agnate) to another family or with a separation from the family. So, the daughter of a householder, who got married, fell under the authority of her husband (or father-in-law, if he was) and became a cognat in relation to her consanguineous family. A son also became a cognat separated from the family (with the permission of the father). On the contrary, the adopted and thus adopted into the family became in relation to her an agnatomy with all the rights associated with that, including the legal part of the inheritance.

Agnathic kinship was undoubtedly more progressive in comparison with consanguineous, cognatic kinship, in which it is impossible not to see a relic, a relic of tribal relations.

In ancient Rome, there were three forms of marriage: two ancient and one comparatively new. The most ancient were performed in a solemn atmosphere and gave the wife to the subjugation of her husband. In the first case, marriage was performed in a religious form, in the presence of priests, accompanied by the eating of specially made cakes and the solemn oath of the wife to follow her husband everywhere. The second form of marriage was in the form of buying a bride (in a manipulative form).

But already the Laws of the XII tables know the informal form of marriage - "blue manu", i.e. "without the power of a husband." In this form of marriage, the woman found considerable freedom, including the freedom to divorce (which she did not have in a "proper" marriage). With a divorce, a woman took away her own property, brought into the common house as a dowry, as well as acquired after marriage.

With the passage of time, it was the marriage of sine manu that became most widespread, while the “correct” forms of marriage were preserved mainly in priestly and patrician surnames.

A specific feature of the marriage of sine manu was that it had to be renewed annually. For this, the wife left her husband’s house for three days on the appointed day (to her parents, friends) and thereby interrupted the statute of limitations.

Divorce was available to the husband in all forms of marriage, but to the wife only in the sine manu marriage.

After the death of the householder, the property of the family passed to the agnates according to the law, and if the deceased left a will, it was necessary to blindly and sacredly adhere to its literal text. The widow of the deceased in all cases received some part of the property both for her own subsistence and for the maintenance of young children, if they remained in her care after the death of her father. The heirs could, however, not divide the inheritance, but manage the household together, as was the case with their father.

Inheritance law. The most significant thing in inheritance law can be considered the recognition of the right to inheritance for those blood relatives (cognates) who previously did not have it.

The first to inherit, of course, were the children, and if there were none left, the grandchildren. When there was neither one nor the other, the testator's brothers, uncles, nephews were called to inherit. If there were none, the praetor granted the right of inheritance to all blood relatives of the deceased up to the sixth generation. The closest degree of relationship excluded the next.

In the interests of the old Roman families and to curb the arbitrariness that was the result of the hypertrophied domination of private property, norms were introduced into Roman law that limited the freedom of testamentary dispositions. The closest relative of the deceased, if he was bypassed by inheritance, was entitled to at least one-fourth of the property that he would have received in the absence of a will. Thus, the principle of compulsory inheritance was introduced into law, which has survived to this day.

The will itself was drawn up in writing and certified by witnesses.

Ownership. In colloquial speech, the words "property" and "possession" are often used as synonyms. However, already Roman jurists warned: "There is nothing in common between property and possession."

In Roman law, possession was defined as the actual domination of a person over a thing, combined, of course, with the desire to exercise this power for himself.

What does possession lack in order to become the property of an individual or legal entity? An extremely important “detail” is the right of disposal, i.e. determining the fate of a thing: using it, pledging, donating, passing by inheritance, etc.

The most common type of ownership was the ownership of provincial land. It could be used, i.e. extract, appropriate the income it brings; however, the ownership of provincial land belonged to the Roman state and the owner was required to pay a special tax.

Thus, it is possible to own a thing, but not to own it. On the other hand, often the owner, for one reason or another, is deprived of actual dominion over the thing, and hence, possession.

It is impossible to become a legal owner with the help of sale, donation, exchange, inheritance, i.e. any such way of transferring things that gives rise to the right of disposal, and hence the right of ownership. And even in the case when land ownership (non-property!), For example, a land plot, did not “hold out” for two years, which the law required for acquiring ownership of it, passes from father to son by right of inheritance, it should be considered that the son owns initially for only such can and must be any conscientious possession of things.

Possession, therefore, may be said to arise from the conscientious use, without the use of cunning or violence, of a thing whose owner is either unknown, missing, or offering no resistance. Abandoned lands, wild animals and fish, treasures discovered for the first time, etc., can be freely “captured” and appropriated. things that do not belong to anyone.

Possession cannot, must not, be eternal: this is hindered by economic interest. It is necessary that the owner be interested in improving the ownership, especially land ownership, so that he treats it as his own property (fertilizes, irrigates, fences, etc.).

An important feature of the Roman ownership was under the division of things into two types - res mancipi and res nec mancipi. The first type included land (at first near Rome, and then all the land in Italy in general), draft animals, slaves, buildings and structures, i.e. objects of traditional communal property. The second type included all other things, the possession of which could be individualized.

For the alienation of things of the first category - sale, exchange, donation, etc. - it was necessary to comply with formalities that were called mancipations. This word comes from "manus" - a hand and contains a figurative idea of ​​the transfer of ownership when laying a hand on an acquired thing. Having laid a hand, one should have said: “I affirm that this thing belongs to me by the right of the clergy ...” (that is, the descendants of the deified Romulus-Quirin). Mancipation informed the acquirer of an indisputable right of ownership of the thing. The payment of money without mancipation was still not enough, as we see, for the emergence of property rights. The transfer of the mancipated thing took place in a solemn atmosphere, in the presence of five witnesses and a holder with scales and copper. The latter indicates that the rite of mancipation arose before the appearance of a minted coin - assa, but copper in a weight determined by the parties already figured as a general equivalent. The formalities served to remember the transaction in case there was a dispute over ownership associated with it in the future.

All other things, even precious ones, passed through a simple tradition, i.e. informal transfer on the terms established by the contract of sale, exchange, donation, etc.

The old slave, like the old horse, demanded - when passing from hand to hand - mancipation, and a precious vase - traditions. The fact is that the first two things belong to the category of tools and means of production and, by their origin, gravitate towards the supreme collective property of the Roman community, while the vase, decoration, like any other everyday thing, were both initially and in the subsequent time objects of individual property.

As for the loan, the Laws of the XII tables, in addition to the usual loan operations related to interest, mortgage, etc., also know the so-called nexum, i.e. the debtor's salu mortgage is a debt obligation secured by a guarantee of freedom. Upon the expiration of the legal delay in payment, the creditor was free to arrest the debtor and imprison him in his house (debt) prison. Three times during the month, on market days, the creditor undertook to bring the debtor to the market in the hope that there would be relatives, friends, compassionate, willing to pay the debt and redeem the debtor from captivity. Only in 326 BC. By Petelia's law, the loan agreement was reformed and debt slavery was abolished. Since that time, the debtor was responsible to the creditor within the limits of his property.

In addition to obligations from agreements, the Laws of the XII Tables also know those that arise from causing harm and illegal actions in general - theft, poisoning, etc. For example, a thief captured with a weapon in his hands was allowed to be executed at the crime scene. The same fate awaited the one who deliberately "set fire to buildings or stacks of bread stacked near the house."

In the most ancient period, an order was formed in accordance with which the right of ownership of a thing could arise as a result of long-term possession of a thing. (T. VI. 3: The prescription of possession in relation to a land plot (established) was two years, in relation to all other things - one year).

A special type of real right, fixed in the Laws of the XII tables, are easements, rules of law that restrict the rights of owners to their property, as well as endowing the subject with a number of rights to property that does not belong to him.

In the Laws of the XII Tables, the owner was directly prescribed:

- Leave an undeveloped place around the building (T. VII. 1.);

- Retreat from the border section at a certain distance (T. VII. 2.);

- Cut trees at a height of 15 feet, so as not to harm the neighboring plot (T. VII. 9 a).

In addition, they were granted the right to pass through foreign land. “Let (the owners of roadside plots) block the road, if they do not pave it with stone, let him ride on a beast of burden wherever he wants.” The owners of the plots had the right, under certain circumstances, to use the products brought by someone else's property: (T. VII. 9 b.) The Law of the XII tables was allowed to collect acorns falling from a neighboring plot, as well as to file a lawsuit against the owner of property causing damage (T. VII. 10). If a tree from a neighboring property has been blown over by the wind on your property, you may, on the basis of the Law of the XII Tables, sue for its removal.

Thus, in essence, the Laws of the XII tables were a processing and consolidation of the customary law of Rome. They were influenced by the Greek law of the South Italian policies. The laws were set forth in brief imperatives and prohibitions, some of which bore the stamp of religious rituals. From IV-III centuries. Laws were corrected by praetor edicts. Formally, they operated until the 4th century. and were abolished during the reforms of Justinian.

War with the Celts (Gauls)

Rome constantly had clashes with its neighbors. The results of the foreign policy of the V-III centuries. BC. were large enough: Rome destroyed its main enemy in southern Etruria and significantly increased its territory. Having repulsed the attack of the Etruscans, Rome from the 5th century. BC. long-term wars with their neighbors, mainly for the expansion of territorial possessions. At the beginning, Rome fought for hegemony in the Latin Union, then for the subordination of Latium and other territories. As a result of the victory over the Etruscan city of Veii, the Romans firmly established themselves on the right bank of the Tiber River and expanded their territory at the expense of the Etruscan lands.

Thanks to an alliance with the Latins, the Romans managed to stop the onslaught from the east. Most importantly, Rome, whose territory was relatively large and continuous, received a significant strategic advantage compared to its neighbors, whose possessions were scattered.

In the struggle for Italy, which lasted about three centuries, the former small community on the Tiber turned out to be the winner.

By the 60s of the III century. BC. all of Italy during the republic from the Rubicondo River of the Strait of Messina, entered into a kind of federation, headed by Rome, capable of facing off against the most powerful powers of the Mediterranean.

By the end of the 3rd century BC. after the formation of the strongest Roman Mediterranean slave-owning power, a Roman society developed, which was distinguished by great diversity and ambiguity of the class-estate structure.

Gauls invasion

In 390 BC Rome was under a terrible threat. Through the Alps, hordes of Gallic tribes poured into Italy. Armed with huge shields and long swords, the Gauls (Celts), with wild warlike cliques, rushed at the enemies. The Romans were defeated, and their city was captured, plundered and burned. Only a small fortress on the steep Capitoline Hill survived. Her long siege began. Half a year later, the Romans could barely stand on their feet from hunger and constant lack of sleep. Then the Gauls ventured to storm. At night, under the cover of darkness, they climbed up the rocks. Where it was cool, they pulled each other up, passing weapons from hand to hand. At the top of the Capitol, the exhausted guards slept. Even clear watchdogs did not hear the enemy. And only the geese woke people up with their noise. As if insane, the sacred birds that lived at the temple of the goddess Juno flapped their wings and cackled. The Romans woke up from their slumber and threw the Gauls down. The enemy attack was repulsed.

The leader of the Gauls, Brennus, lost hope of taking the Capitol and was ready to leave the banks of the Tiber. But, of course, not without reason! Negotiations began. The Romans, forced by hunger to eat the leather of their sandals, agreed to a ransom. After this event, the Romans surrounded their city with a powerful wall.

Consequences of the war with the Gauls

The Gauls (Celts) who invaded central Italy devastated the Roman region and burned Rome. After the Gallic invasion that ravaged Rome, the social struggle between the plebeians and patricians intensified.

In 385 BC. the performance of the plebeians - debtors was headed by Mark Manliy Capitol. The patricians managed to suppress the movement, Manlius was executed.

In 367-366. BC. the plebeians achieved the adoption of the laws of the people's tribunes, which limited the occupation by a citizen of state lands to the size of 500 yugers (125 hectares) and provided that one of the consuls should be elected from the plebeians, as well as a partial cassation of debts. As a result of uprisings of indentured slaves in Rome, debt slavery was abolished.

By the middle of the IV century. BC. Rome as a result of victorious wars has become the strongest state in central Italy. In the middle of the 4th century BC. began the warRome with a federation of tribes led by the Samnites, because of the dominance ofCampania and Central Italy. The suppression of the uprising of the Latin and Campanian peoples against Rome (340 - 308 BC) and the victory over the Samnites ensured the establishment of Roman domination in Central and much of Southern Italy.

At the beginning of the III century. BC. the Romans, having repulsed the attacks of the Gauls and Etruscans in the Battle of Vadimon Lake (283 BC) and having achieved the subordination of the Etruscan peoples, made an attempt to capture the South Italian Greek cities (Tarenti etc.). In 280 BC Tarentum called for help against Rome, the famous commander, King Pyrrhus, who was related to Alexander the Great. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in 280 BC. under Hercules and in 279 BC. under Ausculus in Apulia, but in 275 BC. The Romans defeated Pyrrhus near the town of Malevetum (renamed Beneventum in honor of his victory), forcing him to leave Italy.

The subjugation of the Greek policies and the southern capitalist tribes completed the conquest of the Apennine Peninsula, which lasted about 200 years, as a result of which federations of policies and tribes subordinate to Rome were formed.

The conquered communities lost part of their lands, did not have the right to conduct an independent foreign policy and were obliged to put up an auxiliary army (they did not have the right to serve in the legions). In matters of internal administration, they were placed in a different position in relation to Rome, which excluded the possibility of their united action against it, very few received the rights of Roman citizenship, some received limited rights.

In an atmosphere of constant wars, the struggle of the plebeians (the main force of Warmia) with the patricians continued.

Fall of the Roman Empire

One of the periods of Roman history begins with the great conquests of Rome (approximately 264-241 BC), starting with the I Puntian War and ending with the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. From a number of wars, Rome emerged as a first-class military power, the equal of which was no longer in the Mediterranean region. The states and peoples that remained independent no longer played a significant role in the future political life this region.

Huge values ​​flocked to Rome in the form of indemnities and war booty, a lot of slaves were sold in the slave markets, and the systematic robbery of the provinces began. An excess of money capital gave rise to insane luxury at the top of the ruling class. Italy was turning into a country of classical slavery.

Began to become more frequent (in the historical sense of the word) performances of slaves against their oppressors. One of the significant such performances was the uprising of Spartacus (74 - 71 BC). At first, the Roman authorities did not attach much importance to this incident, because. similar cases often occurred in Italy before, but then, realizing the danger, they threw elite units to suppress Spartacus, who destroyed the slaves.

The complex relationship between Italy and the provinces, between citizens and non-citizens urgently required a new system of government. It was impossible to manage a world power with methods and apparatus suitable for a small community on the Tiber, but ineffective for a powerful state.

The old classes, whose interests were reflected by the Roman Republic, by the end of the 1st century. BC. disappeared or degraded. There were new rich, lumpen proletariat, military colonists.

The republic was replaced empire. It brought with it a relative civil peace and a certain weakening of external aggression. The exploitation of the provinces takes on a more organized and less predatory character. Many emperors encouraged urban construction and took care of the development of the cultural life of the provinces, the road system, and the introduction of a single imperial monetary unit. For the empire of the first two centuries, one can note the growth of technology, the development of crafts, the rise of economic life, the growth of local trade. Provincial cities receive self-government. Many new urban centers are emerging.

1st-2nd centuries AD - the time of the heyday of the Roman Empire. But by the end of II century. began to affect the consequences of the widespread use of slave labor, which increasingly revealed its unprofitability in the face of a reduction in the influx of slave labor in connection with the cessation of wars. Commodity-money relations curtailed, the economy became natural, cities fell into decay, ties between provinces were disrupted, centrifugal tendencies intensified, and many lands remained uncultivated. There was political instability.

In the middle of the III century. The Roman Empire was in a state of general crisis. All segments of the population were insecure about tomorrow. Against this backdrop of empire, Christianity became widespread. The Christian religion, equated with paganism under Emperor Constantine (beginning of the 4th century), created the ideological basis of the Middle Ages. Socio-economic and political processes also prepared the onset of a new era. A large estate became the main unit of society. Along with the slaves, who began to be transferred to peculium, that is, some property was allocated to them, sometimes a piece of land, columns worked on the estate - small tenants dependent on the landowner, whose labor was much more profitable, since part of the results of labor (minus a fixed rent) remained in their disposal. Three classes of medieval society begin to take shape: the clergy, secular farmers (nobility) and working people - peasants. As a result of the naturalization of the economy and the weakening of ties between parts of the empire, local administration was strengthened. Attempts by the imperial government to resist this process were generally unsuccessful.

The weakening of the central government was also facilitated by the threat from the barbarians - the Huns and Germans. Barbarians raided and also settled in the empire with the consent of the emperors as "allies". The Roman army was increasingly composed of barbarians.

In the end, all this led to the fallresistance of Rome to external aggression. The displacement of some emperors, their replacement by others did not lead to the desired results. In the IV century. The Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern (Byzantium). The division of the empire into the Western with its capital in Rome and the Eastern with its capital in Constantinople occurred in 395. It happened, however, that the Western and Eastern empires were united under the rule of a successful emperor, but not for long.

In the middle of the VI century, the Eastern (or Byzantine) Empire made a grandiose effort to restore the former Roman power. The originality of Byzantium lay mainly in the fact that it retained a strong imperial power.

Western Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. waged a continuous struggle with the barbarians. Their tribal unions were introduced into the social and political body of the empire and from an external factor gradually turned into an internal factor in its further history. Emperor Justinian (527–565) began big wars in the West. But this inhuman exertion of forces led, in the end, to the complete exhaustion of the treasury, uprisings and almost to the loss of almost all conquests.

In 476, after the abdication of the last emperor, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist. On its ruins, new states arose, new political formations, within which the formation of feudal socio-economic relations began. And although the fall of the power of the Western Roman emperor, who had long lost prestige and influence, was not perceived by contemporaries as a major event, in world history the year 476 became an important milestone, the end of the ancient world, the slave-owning socio-economic formation, and the beginning of the medieval period of world history, the feudal socio-economic formation.

The collapse of the Roman state and the fall of the Western Roman Empire

Thus, the Roman Empire existed (or rather, eked out existence) until 476, when the head of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, overthrew the Roman emperor, the infant Romulus-Augustus (Romulus-Augustishka) and took his place. This event was preceded by the actual collapse of the entire Western Empire. And Gaul, and Spain, and Britain were in the power of the Germans. Africa is gone. As for the Eastern Roman Empire, it existed for about 1000 years.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it should be said that the ancient Roman civilization was a progressive type of development. It is characterized by dynamism: important changes occurred throughout the life of one generation.

It is necessary to note the most important events that occurred during the period of the existence of Roman civilization:

- for the first time, private property relations were developed, although there was no complete private property in the Greco-Roman world;

- for the first time, a developed system of commodity-money relations developed: production was oriented primarily to the market;

- the presence of a variety of developed state forms: democracy, aristocratic republic, ancient Greek tyranny, empire.

Rome is historically the first civilization based on the requirement of well-designed laws. Of great interest is Roman law (Laws of the XII tables), as well as the attitude of citizens to the laws of their state.

In the course of the development of Roman civilization, the foundations of civil society were laid - the self-organization of the population. True, it did not oppose the state, but was its basis, which was determined by the specifics of the policy as a civil community.

The achievements of antiquity are the achievements of a free man. The "classical" exploitation of slaves is an exception, not the rule for Greco-Roman civilization: the establishment of a slave-owning mode of production in the Roman Empire (II century BC - III century AD) was one of the main factorsdeath of the ancient world.

The Roman policy ensured the existence and development of Roman civilization only at a certain stage in history. The moment came when the interests of further development required the overcoming of the policy as a type of state, led to the need for the formation of much larger and differently structured states.

In ancient Rome, the crisis was a long process that took place from the time of the transformation of Rome into a Mediterranean power until the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The economic aspect of the crisis of the policy was the development of commodity-money relations, which violated the economic isolation and sufficiency of the city-state. IN social sphere there was an erosion of the basis of the policy - a layer of small and medium-sized landowners-communities, artisans and merchants living on the results of their own labor. Sharpproperty differentiation within this layer was a consequence of the development of commodity-money relations, as well as the widespread use of slave labor inlarge farms. Under the influence of the development of commodity-money relations, small and medium-sized proprietors went bankrupt, and those who grew rich, seized or bought land from the poor, created handicraft workshops in which slaves worked. As a result of these processes, the people's militia fell into decline. For Rome, this led to the replacement of the people's militia by a professional army, and as a result, the fall of the republic and the establishment of the empire.

On the territory of the Roman Empire, Italian city-states continued to exist, and in those provinces where there were no policies before, they arose during the period of Roman rule. The gradual loss by the Romans of their exclusivity as a result of the increasingly broad presentation of Roman citizenship to the population of the provinces and the introduction of a leveling system for managing the empire did not change the internal structure of the state, consisting, as it were, of many autonomous formations of the state type. In the conditions of the general crisis of the III century. AD as a result of the naturalization of the economy and the curtailment of commodity-money relations (a consequence of a sharp reduction in the influx of slaves due to the cessation of wars), cities began to decline and large estates gradually became centers of economic, and then political life. The empire split into East and West, centrifugal tendencies intensified in the provinces. Attempts by the Roman emperors to stop this process by strengthening the bureaucratic apparatus and total surveillance of the administration of the provinces could not bring success. With the transfer of the center of gravity of public life from the city to the estate, the formation of a new social structure (clergy, large landowners, dependent farmers who owned a plot of land), the spread of Christianity in the Western Roman Empire, the prerequisites for the transition to the Middle Ages were formed.

LITERATURE

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Roman history is divided into three main periods - royal (mid-VIII BC - 510 BC), republican (510-30 BC) and imperial (30 BC - 476 AD). e.).

Early Roman history.

Royal period.

From the middle of the II millennium BC. in the lower reaches of the Tiber in northern Latium (Middle Italy), the Latin-Sikul tribes settled, a branch of the Italics who came to the Apennine Peninsula from the Danube regions at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The Latins settled on the Palatine and Velia hills, the neighboring hills were occupied by the Sabines. As a result of Sinoikism (unification) of several Latin and Sabine settlements in the middle of the 8th century. BC. (tradition dates this event to 754–753 BC) a common fortress, Rome, was built on the Capitoline Hill. Tradition attributes this deed to Romulus, a prince from the city of Alba Longa. Initially, the Roman urban community (people) consisted of three tribes (tribes) - Ramnes, Titiums and Lucers, divided into thirty curias (unions of male warriors), and those into one hundred clans (gentes). The Roman family was paternal with the right of mutual inheritance; he could accept strangers into his composition, had his own religious cult, a common place of settlement and burial; its members bore the same generic name, which went back to a mythical or real ancestor, and were obliged to help each other. The genus consisted of large (three generations) paternal families (familia). The land was owned by the family - the relatives used the forests and pastures together, and the arable land was divided between the families. Rome was ruled by the comitia (people's meetings of male warriors), the senate (council of heads of families) and the king. Participants of the comitia gathered in curiae (curiat comitia). The king combined the functions of a military leader, priest and judge; he was elected by the comitia on the recommendation of the senate.

Members of the Roman clans were quirites - full citizens (patricians). A special category was made up of clients - people dependent on individual quirites and under their protection. It is possible that impoverished quirites became clients, forced to seek protection from their relatives or from members of other clans.

From the legendary list of seven kings, the first reliable was Numa Pompilius, the second was Ankh Marcius, after which the throne passed to the Etruscan dynasty (Tarquinius the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud). Under them, the Romans conquered a number of neighboring Latin cities and resettled their inhabitants in Rome; voluntary immigration also took place. Initially, the settlers were included in tribes and curia; later access there was closed. As a result, a group of incomplete citizens was formed - plebeians (plebes); they were not members of either the senate or the comitia (that is, they were deprived of the right to vote) and could not serve in the army; the state provided them with only a small allotment, but they did not have the right to receive part of the “public field” (the fund of lands seized by the Romans from their neighbors).

Demographic growth provoked territorial expansion; the strengthening as a result of constant wars of the power of the king as the leader of the army caused opposition from the senate, which largely controlled the comitia. The kings tried to weaken the tribal organization, the basis of the power of the heads of patrician families, and rely on the plebeians, including them in the political and military organization (this also made it possible to strengthen the army). In the middle of the VI century. BC. Servius Tullius introduced a new administrative division of Rome and its surroundings: instead of three tribal tribes, he established twenty-one territorial tribes, thus mixing patricians with plebeians. Servius divided the entire male population of Rome (both patricians and plebeians) into six categories according to property; each category was obliged to put up a certain number of armed detachments - hundreds (centuries). From now on, the people's assembly, to resolve the main political issues, was no longer assembled by curiae, but by centuries (comitia centuriata); in the jurisdiction of the curiat comitia remained mainly religious matters.

The growth of the power of kings in the VI century. BC. expressed in the disappearance of the principle of their election and the adoption by them of new royal paraphernalia borrowed from the Etruscans (a golden crown, a scepter, a throne, special clothes, ministers-lictors). The early Roman monarchy attempted to rise above society and its traditional institutions; absolutist tendencies especially intensified under Tarquinius Proud. However, the tribal aristocracy succeeded in 510 BC. expel Tarquinius and establish a republican system.

Republican Rome.

The overthrow of the monarchy did not lead to fundamental changes in the state structure of Rome. The place of the king for life was taken by two praetor elected by the centuriate comitia for one year from among the patricians (“going ahead”); from the middle of the 5th c. they became known as consuls ("consulting"). They convened and directed meetings of the senate and the people's assembly, controlled the implementation of the decisions made by these bodies, distributed citizens into centuries, monitored the collection of taxes, exercised judicial power, and commanded troops during the war. Only their joint decisions were valid. At the end of their term of office, they reported to the Senate and could be subjected to prosecution. Assistant consuls for court cases there were quaestors, to whom the management of the treasury later passed. The people's assembly remained the highest state body, which approved laws, declared war, made peace, and elected all officials (magistrates). At the same time, the role of the Senate increased: not a single law entered into force without its approval; he controlled the activities of the magistrates, resolved foreign policy issues, supervised finances and religious life; Senate resolutions (senatus-consuls) became laws.

The main content of the history of early republican Rome was the struggle of the plebeians for equality with the patricians, who, as full-fledged citizens, monopolized the right to sit in the Senate, occupy the highest magistracies and receive (“occupy”) land from the “public field”; the plebeians also demanded the abolition of debt bondage and the limitation of debt interest. The growth of the military role of the plebeians (by the beginning of the 5th century BC they already made up the bulk of the Roman army) allowed them to exert effective pressure on the patrician senate. In 494 BC after another refusal of the Senate to satisfy their demands, they retired from Rome to the Sacred Mountain (the first secession), and the patricians had to make concessions: a new magistracy was established - people's tribunes, elected exclusively from the plebeians (originally two) and possessing sacred immunity; they had the right to interfere in the activities of the other magistrates (intercession), to impose a ban on any of their decisions (veto) and to bring them to justice. In 486 BC the consul Spurius Cassius proposed distributing half of the land seized from the Guerniki and part of the "public field" plundered by the patricians to the plebeians and allied Latin communities; the senators prevented the passage of this law; Cassius was charged with treason and executed. In 473 BC the tribune of the people, Gnaeus Genutius, was killed on the eve of his trial of both consuls. In 471 BC the plebeians managed to achieve the adoption of a law on the election of people's tribunes by tributary comitia (assemblies of plebeians by tribes): in this way, the patricians lost the opportunity to influence the elections through their freedmen. In 457 BC the number of people's tribunes increased to ten. In 456 BC the people's tribune Lucius Itsilius passed a law granting the plebeians and settlers the right to build and cultivate land on the Aventine Hill. In 452 BC the plebeians forced the senate to create a commission of ten members (decemvirs) with consular power to write down laws, primarily for the sake of fixing (i.e. limiting) the powers of the patrician magistrates; the activities of consuls and people's tribunes for the duration of the commission was suspended. In 451–450 BC the decemvirs drew up laws that were engraved on copper plates and exhibited in the Forum (the laws of the Twelve Tables): they protected private property; they asserted a severe debt law (the debtor could be sold into slavery and even executed), while setting a limit on the usurious interest (8.33% per annum); determined the legal status of the main social categories of Roman society (patricians, plebeians, patrons, clients, freemen, slaves); forbade marriages between plebeians and patricians. These laws satisfied neither the plebeians nor the patricians; the abuses of the decemvirs and their attempt to extend their powers provoked in 449 BC. the second secession of the plebeians (to the Sacred Mountain). Decemvirs had to give up power; the consulate and tribunate were restored. In the same year, the consuls Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horace passed a law making it mandatory for all citizens, including patricians, to make decisions of comitia tributa (plebiscites), if they receive the approval of the senate. In 447 BC the right to elect quaestors passed to the comitia tributa. In 445 BC At the initiative of the people's tribune Gaius Canulei, the ban on marriages between plebeians and patricians was lifted. The growth of the influence of the plebeians was also expressed in the establishment of the post of military tribunes with consular power, which they had the right to occupy. B 444, 433-432, 426-424, 422, 420-414, 408-394, 391-390 and 388-367 BC. military tribunes with consular authority (from three to eight) performed the duties of the highest officials of the Republic instead of consuls; until the beginning of the 4th c. BC. only patricians were elected to this post, and only in 400 BC. it was occupied by the plebeian Licinius Calf. In 443 BC the consuls lost the right to distribute citizens by centuries, which was transferred to new magistrates - two censors elected from among the patricians every five years by centuriate comitia for a period of 18 months; Gradually, the compilation of the list of senators, control over the collection of taxes and supervision of morals passed into their jurisdiction. In 421 BC the plebeians received the right to hold the office of quaestor, although they realized it only in 409 BC. After a ten-year fierce struggle with the patricians, the popular tribunes Licinius Stolon and Sextius Lateran won in 367 BC. a decisive victory: a limit was set for the land allocated from the “public field” (500 yugers = 125 hectares) and the debt burden was significantly eased; the institution of consuls was restored, provided that one of them would be a plebeian; however, the Senate secured the transfer of judicial power from the consuls to the praetors, who were elected from among the patricians. The first plebeian consul was Licinius Stolon (366 BC), the first plebeian dictator was Marcius Rutulus (356 BC). From 354 BC the plebeians got the opportunity to influence the composition of the senate: now it was made up of former senior magistrates, some of whom no longer belonged to the patricians; only they had the right to make proposals and participate in their discussion. In 350 BC The first plebeian censor was elected. In 339 BC Publilia's law secured one of the censorship seats for the plebeian class. In 337 BC the office of praetor became available to the plebeians. Activation in the second half of the 4th c. BC. the policy of withdrawing colonies of small-land citizens in different regions of Italy made it possible to partially remove the acuteness of the agrarian issue. In 326 BC the people's tribune Petelius passed a law abolishing debt bondage for Roman citizens - from now on they were responsible for the debt only with their property, but not with their bodies. In 312 BC censor Appius Claudius allowed citizens who did not have landed property (merchants and artisans) to be assigned not only to urban, but also to rural tribes, which increased their influence in the comitia; he also tried to include some of the sons of freedmen among the senators. In 300 BC under the law of the Ogulniev brothers, the plebeians gained access to the priestly colleges of pontiffs and augurs, whose composition was doubled for this. Thus, all the magistracies were open to the plebeians. Their struggle with the patricians ended in 287 BC, when, after their next secession (on the Janiculum Hill), the dictator Quintus Hortensius passed a law according to which the decisions of the comitia comitia were legally valid even without the sanction of the senate.

The victory of the plebeians led to a change in the social structure of Roman society: having achieved political equality, they ceased to be an estate different from the patrician estate; noble plebeian families, together with the old patrician families, constituted a new elite - the nobility. This contributed to the weakening of the internal political struggle in Rome and the consolidation of Roman society, which allowed him to mobilize all his forces for active foreign policy expansion.

Roman conquest of Italy.

Under the Republic, the territorial expansion of the Romans intensified. At the first stage (the conquest of Latium), their main opponents in the north were the Etruscans, in the northeast - the Sabines, in the east - the Aequi and in the southeast - the Volsci.

In 509–506 BC Rome repelled the advance of the Etruscans, who came out in support of the deposed Tarquinius the Proud, and in 499-493 BC. defeated the Arician Federation of Latin Cities (First Latin War), concluding an alliance with it on the terms of non-interference in each other's internal affairs, mutual military assistance and equality in the division of booty; in 486 BC the Guernica joined this alliance. This allowed the Romans to start a series of wars with the Sabines, Volscians, Aequas and the powerful South Etruscan city of Veii, which lasted for a whole century. After repeated victories over neighbors and capture in 396 BC. Wei Rim established hegemony in Latium.

The strengthening of the foreign policy positions of the Romans in Central Italy was interrupted by the invasion of the Gauls, who in 390 BC. defeated the Roman army at the river Allia, captured and burned Rome; The Romans took refuge in the Capitol. According to legend, the geese, dedicated to the goddess Juno, woke up its defenders with their cry and thwarted the night attempt of the enemies to secretly enter the fortress. Although the Gauls soon left the city, the influence of the Romans in Latium was greatly weakened; the union with the Latins actually broke up; in 388 BC gerniki were deposited from Rome; the Volsci, the Etruscans and the Aequis resumed the war against him. However, the Romans managed to repel the onslaught of neighboring tribes. After a new Gallic invasion of Latium in 360 BC. the Roman-Latin alliance was revived (358 BC); in 354 BC a treaty of friendship was concluded with the powerful Samnite Federation ( cm. SAmnites). By the middle of the IV century. BC. Rome established full control over Latium and Southern Etruria and began to expand into other areas of Italy.

In 343 BC the inhabitants of the Campanian city of Capua, having suffered a defeat from the Samnites, passed into Roman citizenship, which caused the First Samnite War (343–341 BC), which ended with the victory of the Romans and the subjugation of the Western Campaign.

The growth of the power of Rome led to an aggravation of its relations with the Latins; the refusal of the Roman Senate to assign one consular seat and half the seats in the Senate to them provoked the Second Latin War (340-338 BC), as a result of which the Latin Union was dissolved, part of the lands of the Latins was confiscated, and a separate agreement was concluded with each community. The inhabitants of a number of Latin cities received Roman citizenship; the rest were equalized with the Romans only in property (the right to acquire property and trade in Rome, the right to marry the Romans), but not in political rights (citizens without the right to vote), which they, however, could acquire upon resettlement in Rome.

During the Second (327–304 BC) and Third (298–290 BC) Samnite Wars, the Romans, with the support of the Lucans and Apuls, defeated the Samnite Federation and defeated its allies, the Etruscans and Gauls. The Samnites were forced to enter into an unequal alliance with Rome and cede part of their territory to him. In 290 BC the Romans subjugated the Sabines, granting them citizenship without the right to vote; they also occupied a number of districts of Picenum and Apulia. As a result of the war of 285–283 BC. with the Lucans, Etruscans and Gauls, Rome strengthened its influence in Lucania and Etruria, established control over Picenum and Umbria and seized Senonian Gaul, becoming the hegemon of all of Central Italy.

The penetration of Rome into southern Italy (the capture of the Furies) led to 280 BC. to the war with Tarentum, the most powerful of the states of Magna Graecia (the South Italian coast colonized by the Greeks), and his ally, the Epirus king Pyrrhus. In 286–285 BC the Romans defeated Pyrrhus, which allowed them to 270 BC. subjugate Lucania, Bruttius and all of Greater Greece. In 269 BC Samnium was finally conquered. The conquest of Italy by Rome up to the borders with Gaul was completed in 265 BC. the capture of Volsinia in southern Etruria. The communities of Southern and Central Italy entered the Italian Union, headed by Rome.

Rome's expansion outside of Italy made it inevitable that he clashed with Carthage, the leading power in the Western Mediterranean. Roman intervention in Sicilian affairs in 265–264 BC sparked the First Punic War (264–241 BC). In its first period (264–255 BC), the Romans were initially successful: they captured most of Sicily and, having built a fleet, deprived the Carthaginians of dominance at sea; however, during the African expedition of 256-255 BC. their army was routed and their fleet destroyed by a storm. In the second stage (255–241 BC), Sicily again became the theater of operations; the war went on with varying success; the turning point came only in 241 BC, when the Romans defeated the Carthaginian fleet near the Egatsky Islands and blocked the Carthaginian fortresses of Lilibey and Drepana in Western Sicily. Carthage had to agree to a peace treaty with Rome, ceding to him their Sicilian possessions. Rome became the strongest state in the Western Mediterranean. Cm. PUNIC WARS.

In 238 BC the Romans captured the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, which belonged to Carthage, making them in 227 BC. together with Sicily the first Roman provinces. In 232 BC at the Etruscan port of Telamon (at the confluence of the Ombrone into the Tyrrhenian Sea), they defeated the hordes of Gauls who invaded Central Italy. In 229–228 BC in a coalition with the Achaean and Aetolian alliances, Rome defeated the Illyrians (First Illyrian War), who attacked merchant ships in the Adriatic Sea, and captured part of the Illyrian coast (modern Albania); Illyrian tribes pledged to pay tribute to the Romans. In 225–224 BC Roman troops occupied Cispadan Gaul (the country of the Gauls south of the Padus River - modern Po), and in 223-220 BC. - Transpadanian Gaul (the country of the Gauls north of Padus), establishing control over Northern Italy. In 219 BC The Romans won the Second Illyrian War, securing their dominion in the Adriatic.

Taking advantage of the struggle of Rome with the Gauls and Illyrians, Carthage subjugated the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian (Pyrenean) peninsula up to the Iber River (modern Ebro). The siege by the Carthaginian commander Hannibal of the Iberian city of Sagunt, allied to the Romans, in 219 BC. led to the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). At its first stage (218-215 BC), Hannibal, having invaded Italy, won a series of brilliant victories and brought Rome to the brink of disaster. During the second period of the war (215-211 BC), hostilities spread to Sicily and Iberia (modern Spain); neither side was able to achieve a decisive advantage: the defeats of the Romans in Italy and Iberia were offset by their capture of Sicily (the capture of Syracuse in 211 BC). At the third stage (211–201 BC), a turning point occurred in favor of the Romans: they ousted the Carthaginians from the Iberian Peninsula, blocked Hannibal in southern Italy, and transferred the war to Africa. After a crushing defeat at Zama in 202 BC. Carthage capitulated: under the terms of the world 201 BC. he lost all his overseas possessions and lost the right to have a navy and to wage war without the consent of Rome; the Romans received all of Sicily and the east coast of Iberia; the Numidian kingdom entered into an alliance with them. Rome became the hegemon of the Western Mediterranean.

In parallel with the Second Punic War, Rome fought in 215–205 BC. war with an ally of Carthage, the Macedonian king Philip V. He managed to win over the Achaean Union and a number of policies of Balkan Greece, which prevented the Macedonians from invading Italy. Exhausted by prolonged hostilities, Macedonia in 205 BC. made peace with Rome, ceding part of her Illyrian possessions to him.

The defeat of Carthage allowed Rome to start a wide expansion in different regions of the Mediterranean, primarily in the east, where the Hellenistic states became the main object of its policy - the power of the Seleucids (Syria), Ptolemaic Egypt, Macedonia, Pergamum, Rhodes, policies of the Balkan Greece, the Kingdom of Pontus ( ). In 200–197 BC Rome, in coalition with Pergamon, Rhodes, the Achaean and Aetolian alliances, defeated Macedonia (Second Macedonian War), which had to give up all its possessions in Greece, the navy and the right to an independent foreign policy. In 196 BC the Romans proclaimed the "freedom" of Hellas. Since that time, Rome has gained significant political weight in the Balkans and began to interfere in the internal affairs of the Greek states (Thessaly, Sparta). In 192–188 BC the Romans in a coalition with Pergamum, Rhodes and the Achaean League defeated the Syrian king Antiochus III and the Aetolian League that supported him (Syrian War); the power of the Seleucids lost their possessions in Asia Minor, which were divided between Pergamum and Rhodes; The Aetolian Union lost its political and military value. Thus, by the early 180s, Rome was able to undermine the positions of the two most powerful states of the Hellenistic world - Macedonia and Syria - and become an influential force in the Eastern Mediterranean.

In 179 BC the Romans managed to suppress the outbreak that broke out in 197 BC. the uprising of the coastal Iberian tribes, supported by the Celtiberians and Lusitanians, and subjugate the central regions of the Iberian Peninsula, forming two provinces in the conquered territories - Near and Far Spain.

In 171–168 BC the Romans defeated the coalition of Macedonia, Epirus, Illyria and the Aetolian Union (Third Macedonian War) and destroyed the Macedonian kingdom, creating in its place four independent districts that paid tribute to them; Illyria was also divided into three districts dependent on Rome; The Aetolian Union ceased to exist. Rome became the hegemon of the Eastern Mediterranean.

After the Third Macedonian War, Rome ceased to need the support of its former allies- Pergamon, Rhodes and the Achaean Union - and began to seek their weakening. The Romans took away from Rhodes his possessions in Asia Minor and dealt a blow to his trading power, declaring neighboring Delos a free port. They also contributed to the falling away from the Pergamum kingdom of Galatia and Paphlagonia and entered into an alliance with Bithynia and Heraclea Pontus, hostile to him.

From the middle of the II century. BC. the nature of Rome's foreign policy is changing: if before he asserted his influence, supporting some states against others, not striving, as a rule, to establish direct control over territories outside Italy, now he is moving to a policy of annexations. After the suppression of the Andriska uprising in 149-148 BC. Macedonia was turned into a Roman province, which also included Epirus, the islands of the Ionian Sea and the Illyrian coast. In 148 BC Rome entered the war with the Achaean League and in 146 BC. defeated him; The union was dissolved, and the Greek policies, with the exception of Athens and Sparta, became dependent on the Roman governors of the province of Macedonia. Taking advantage of the conflict between Carthage and the Numidian king Masinissa, Rome began in 149 BC. The Third Punic War, which ended in destruction in 146 BC. Carthage and the creation of the province of Africa on its territory. In 139 BC after a long and exhausting war with the Lusitanians (154-139 BC), the Romans captured the southwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula, and in 133 BC. as a result of the Numantine War (138–133 BC), they took possession of the lands between the Duria (modern Duero) and Taga (modern Tajo) rivers. After the suppression of the rebellion of Aristonicus (132-129 BC), the Kingdom of Pergamon, bequeathed to Rome by King Attalus III, was turned into the Roman province of Asia. In 125 BC the Romans defeated the union of the Celtic tribes led by the Arverns and occupied the Mediterranean coast between the Alps and the Pyrenees, forming here in 121 BC. province of Gallia Narbonne. In 123–122 BC they finally conquered the Balearic Islands. As a result of a difficult war with the Numidian king Jugurtha in 111-105 BC. (Yughurtin war) the Numidian kingdom also turned out to be dependent on Rome.

The expansion of Rome in the north was halted by the invasion of the Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Teutons, who inflicted several defeats on the Roman troops. However, the consul Gaius Maria, who reorganized the Roman army, managed to defeat in 102 BC. Teutons under Aqua Sextiev, and in 101 BC. Cimbri under Vercellus and eliminate the German threat.

In the 1st century BC. the Romans continued the policy of annexations of neighboring countries. In 96 BC the ruler of Cyrene, Ptolemy, bequeathed to the Roman people his kingdom, which became a province in 74 BC. In the 90s BC. Rome subjugated part of the southeastern coast of Asia Minor (Cilicia). As a result of three wars (89-85, 83-82 and 74-63 BC) with the energetic and aggressive Pontic king Mithridates VI and the war with his ally the Armenian king Tigran II, the Romans captured a number of Asia Minor regions (Bithynia, Pontus) and Cyprus; Armenia (66 BC) and the Kingdom of Bosporus (63 BC) recognized their dependence on Rome. In 67–66 BC The Romans took possession of Crete, the nest of Mediterranean pirates, in 64 BC. liquidated the power of the Seleucids and formed the province of Syria on the territory of Syria and Palestine; in 63 BC subjugated Judah. As a result, the system of Hellenistic states was dealt a mortal blow; Egypt, Cappadocia, Commagene, Galatia and the Bosporus, which retained their nominal independence, no longer represented a real political force; the Romans reached the Euphrates and came into direct contact with the Parthian kingdom, henceforth their main rival in the East. In 53 BC The Parthians, having destroyed the army of Marcus Licinius Crassus, stopped further Roman aggression in Mesopotamia.

From the second half of the 60s BC. the Romans resumed aggression in the west and northwest. In 63 BC they completed the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, annexing to the Roman state its northwestern part - the country of the Gallecs (Gallecia), and in 58-51 BC. took possession of the entire territory of Gaul up to the Rhine (provinces of Lugdun Gaul, Belgica and Aquitaine); military expeditions to Germany (56-55 BC) and Britain (in 56 and 54 BC), however, did not lead to the conquest of these lands.

A new stage of Roman foreign policy expansion is associated with the civil wars in Rome in 49–30 BC. During the struggle with Pompey, Julius Caesar in 47 BC. repulsed the attempt of the Bosporan king Pharnaces II (63–47 BC) to recapture Pontus, and in 47–46 BC. defeated the ally of the Pompeians, the Numidian king Yubu the Elder, and annexed his kingdom to the Roman state as the province of New Africa. During the war with Mark Antony Gaius Octavius ​​(Octavian) in 30 BC. captured Egypt - the last major Hellenistic state.

Thus, as a result of the conquests of the III-I centuries. BC. Rome became a world power, and the Mediterranean became an inland Roman lake.

Social and political development of III-I centuries. BC.

Roman society at the beginning of the III century. BC. consisted of full and non-full citizens; full-fledged were divided into nobles, horsemen and plebs. Nobili - serving nobility: clans (both patrician and plebeian) who had consuls among their ancestors; most of the magistrates and senators were recruited from them. Horsemen - members of eighteen equestrian centuries; these included, first of all, wealthy plebeians who did not occupy the highest positions and were not included in the Senate list. The rest of the citizens made up the plebs. The category of inferiors included freedmen, who did not have the right to marry quirites and be elected to public office (they could only vote in four city tribes), and Latin allies, who were completely excluded from participation in elections.

In the era of the Punic and Macedonian wars (264-168 BC), the internal contradictions of Roman society faded into the background. In the III century. BC. the popular assembly retained an important role in political life; it was the influence of the plebs and horsemanship that explained the particular aggressiveness of Roman foreign policy, for the senate treated overseas conquests with restraint. After the First Punic War, the centuriate comitia were reformed: the first class (the wealthiest citizens) lost their exclusive position; all classes now fielded an equal number of centuries and had equal number votes in the popular assembly. In 232 BC tribune Gaius Flaminius achieved a division among the poor citizens of the lands of Northern Picenum ("Gallic field"). In 218 BC, at the suggestion of the tribune Claudius, senatorial families were forbidden to have ships with a displacement of more than three hundred amphoras; thus, the nobles were removed from maritime trade, which passed mainly into the hands of horsemen.

Since the Second Punic War, on the contrary, the positions of the Senate and the nobility have been strengthened, which is gradually turning into a closed estate; in the II century. BC. only rare representatives of other social groups manage to break through to the highest government positions, especially after the law of Willius of 180 BC, which established the age limit for taking magistracy and a strict sequence of their passage from the lowest to the highest. The nobility establishes complete control over the elections, primarily through freedmen and the practice of bribery. The People's Assembly loses its political independence. At the same time, the legal status of the allies is deteriorating, the inequality between the Romans, Latins and Italics is deepening; in the provinces, the arbitrariness of the governors and the abuse of horsemen, who take taxes for farming, become a real disaster. The evasion of a significant number of citizens from military service and the system of recruitment by lot leads to a drop in combat effectiveness and discipline in the army.

In the second third of the II century. BC. the situation is aggravated by the crisis of small landownership, which is being replaced by large slave-owning farms (villas). If in 194-177 BC. the state carried out a mass distribution of state lands, then after the completion of the main military campaigns in the East, it abandons this practice (the last distribution is 157 BC). This leads to a reduction in the number of full citizens (from 328 thousand in 159 BC to 319 thousand in 121 BC). The agrarian question comes to the forefront of the political struggle between the two main groups - the optimates and the populists. The optimates defended the political privileges of the nobility and opposed land reform; The populace advocated limiting the role of the Senate, returning to the state the lands that were in use by the nobility, and redistributing them in favor of the poor. In 133 BC tribune Tiberius Gracchus passed laws on the land maximum (1000 yugers), on the confiscation of surpluses, on the creation of a public land fund and the allocation of a plot of 30 yugers from it to each needy for hereditary use for a moderate rent to the state without the right to sell. Despite the murder of Gracchus and three hundred of his supporters by the optimates, an agrarian commission formed by decision of the people's assembly in 132-129 BC. endowed with land at least 75 thousand Romans, who were included in the lists of citizens; possessing judicial functions, it invariably resolved land disputes not in favor of large owners. In 129 BC its activities were suspended, but the popular achieved the adoption of a law on secret ballot in comitia and on the right of the people's tribune to be elected for the next term. In 123–122 BC tribune Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius Gracchus, passed a number of laws in favor of the plebs and horsemen: on the resumption of the activities of the agrarian commission, on the withdrawal of colonies to Africa, on the sale of grain to the Romans at low prices, on the creation of equestrian courts to investigate the abuses of the governors of the provinces, on the surrender to horsemen to pay off taxes in the province of Asia, to establish an age limit for military service (from seventeen to forty-six years), to provide soldiers with free weapons, to abolish the right of the Senate to appoint special judicial commissions. Gaius Gracchus gained enormous political influence in Rome, but in 122 BC. the optimates managed to weaken his position by defeating a bill granting Roman citizenship to the allies and putting forward a number of populist proposals. In 121 BC he was killed, and the popular were repressed, yet the senate did not dare to annul his reforms; True, a ban was imposed on the further distribution of state lands (only its lease was allowed), and the already allocated plots were transferred to the private ownership of their owners, which contributed to the mobilization of land in the hands of a few.

The degradation of the senatorial oligarchic regime was especially clearly manifested during the Jugurthian War of 111-105 BC, when the Numidian king Jugurtha managed to easily bribe magistrates, senators and generals who fought against him. The fall in the influence of the optimates allowed Gaius Mary, a native of the plebs, who distinguished himself in the war with the Numidians, to become in 107 BC. consul. He carried out a military reform, laying the foundations of a professional army (recruitment of citizens regardless of qualifications; their equipment at the expense of the state; annual salary; the abolition of the estate principle in promotion, etc.); the army began to turn into an autonomous social institution, and the soldiers into a special social group, associated more with their commander than with civil authorities. At the end of the 100s, Marius, whose authority increased enormously as a result of victories over Jugurtha in 107-105 BC. and the Germans in 102-101 BC, entered into an alliance with the leaders of the popular Apuleius Saturninus and Servilius Glaucius. In 100 BC they won the elections (Marius became consul, Saturninus became tribune, and Glaucius became praetor) and passed laws to reduce the price of bread sold to citizens by five times, to establish colonies in the province for Marius veterans, and to grant civil rights to the allies. However, the conflict between Marius and Saturninus and Glaucius and disappointment in their equestrian policy led to the defeat of the popular in the next election and the abolition of all adopted in 100 BC. laws.

Inequality in the army, the cessation of the practice of granting Roman citizenship, the restriction of the right to move to Rome, arbitrariness on the part of Roman officials and even ordinary Roman citizens caused in 91–88 BC. Italic revolt ( cm. ALLIED WAR); as a result, the Romans were forced to grant Roman citizenship to almost all Italic communities, although they assigned them not to all thirty-five, but only to eight tribes. Thus, an important step was taken towards the transformation of Rome from a city-state into a pan-Italic power.

In 88 BC tribune Sulpicius Rufus passed a series of anti-Senate laws - on the distribution of new citizens and freedmen to all thirty-five tribes, on the exclusion of large debtors from the Senate and on the removal from the post of commander of the eastern army of the protege of the optimates Lucius Cornelius Sulla. However, Sulla moved his troops to Rome, took it, repressed the populace, repealed the laws of Sulpicius Rufus and carried out a political reform (limiting the legislative initiative of the people's tribunes; restoring the inequality of centuries when voting in favor of the first class). After the departure of Sulla to the East in the spring of 87 BC. the populares, led by Cornelius Cinna and Gaius Marius, with the support of the Italics, captured Rome and brutally cracked down on the optimates; after the death of Mary in January 86 BC. power was usurped by Cinne; in 84 BC he was killed by soldiers. In the spring of 83 BC Sulla, having defeated Mithridates VI, landed in Calabria and defeated the army of the populares; in 82 he occupied Rome and established control over all of Italy; his generals crushed popular resistance in Sicily, Africa (82 BC) and Iberia (81 BC).

In 82 BC Sulla became an indefinite dictator with unlimited powers and launched a reign of terror against his political opponents; special lists (proscriptions) of persons declared outside the law were drawn up (4,700 people); on their basis about fifty senators and sixteen hundred horsemen were killed. Sulla distributed the confiscated lands and the remnants of the "public field" to his soldiers (about 120 thousand), which contributed to the strengthening of small land ownership in Italy; he abolished grain distributions; replaced farming in the province of Asia with the collection of taxes; destroyed equestrian courts; increased the role of the Senate, transferring to it the exclusive right of legislative initiative and eliminating the institution of censors; restricted the judicial and financial functions of the people's assembly; fixed the age limit for holding positions and the strict sequence of their passage; introduced the practice of appointing senior magistrates after the expiration of their term as governors of the provinces; reformed local government, making municipal bodies part of the national mechanism. At the same time, Sulla recognized the equality of new citizens and widely distributed civil rights. In 81 BC he restored the normal functioning of republican institutions and the electoral system, and in 79 BC. renounced unlimited power.

After the death of Sulla in 78 BC. the order he had established began to crumble. In opposition to the optimates (leaders - Gnaeus Pompey and Mark Crassus), horsemen, plebs, freedmen and Italics united; control of Spain was in the hands of the popular Quintus Sertorius. But the defeat of Pompey in 78 BC. Antisullan rebellion in Etruria led to the strengthening of the power of the Senate oligarchy. In 74 BC in Italy, a slave uprising broke out under the leadership of Spartacus; in 71 BC it was crushed by Crassus. After the assassination of Sertorius in 72 BC. Pompey took Spain from the populars. The rise of Pompey's influence aroused concern among the Senate, which refused in 71 BC. appoint him commander in the East. Pompey made an agreement with Crassus and the populares; in 70 BC they defeated the optimates in the elections. Pompey and Crassus, who became consuls, achieved the abolition of the Sullan laws: the rights of the people's tribunes and the position of censors were restored, representatives of the horsemanship and the plebs were introduced to the courts, and farming was allowed in the province of Asia. In 69 BC Sulla's supporters were expelled from the Senate. In 67 BC Pompey received emergency powers for three years to combat piracy, and in 66 BC. unlimited five-year power in the East to fight Mithridates; in his absence, Julius Caesar rose to prominence among the populace, gaining prestige from the plebs by organizing lavish spectacles. Failure in 63 BC a rebellion close to the peoples of Catiline, who put forward the slogan of the complete abolition of debts, scared away many supporters from them, especially horsemen; the influence of the optimates increased again. In 62 BC the senate rejected the request of Pompey, who had successfully completed his eastern campaign, to retain command of the army and allocate land to his soldiers. Returning to Italy, Pompey concluded in 60 BC. alliance with Crassus and Caesar (first triumvirate). The triumvirs achieved the election of Caesar as consul, who in 59 BC. passed a law providing allotments for veterans of Pompey and poor citizens; the power of governors in the provinces was also limited; the leaders of the optimates - Cicero and Cato the Younger - were forced to leave Rome. In 58 BC, after the expiration of the term of consular powers, Caesar received control of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria (later Transalpine Gaul) with the right to recruit an army. Associated tribune 58 BC Publius Clodius, an extreme popular, achieved great influence in the popular assembly; he introduced free distributions of bread, limited the right of the censors to change the composition of the Senate, and created armed detachments of slaves and freedmen. Pompey, who came into conflict with Clodius, became close to the optimates and achieved the return of Cicero to Rome; tribune 57 BC Annius Milon, a supporter of the Senate, organized his detachments in opposition to Clodius. But Cicero's attempt to repeal the agrarian law of 59 B.C. again rallied the triumvirs, who in the spring of 56 BC. concluded a new agreement in Luqa. The Senate capitulated and was completely removed from political decision-making; the popular assembly extended the powers of Caesar in Gaul for another five years and elected Pompey and Crassus as consuls. After the death of Crassus in the Parthian campaign 53 BC. and the murder of Clodius in 52 BC. control over Rome was concentrated in the hands of Pompey; his relationship with Caesar deteriorated and he again went over to the side of the Senate, which gave him virtual dictatorial power; for the sake of an alliance with Pompey, the optimates sacrificed Milo: he was condemned, and his troops were disbanded. In 50 BC there was an open rift between Caesar and Pompey. Rejecting the Senate's demand for resignation, Caesar in January 49 BC. started a civil war: he invaded Italy and captured Rome; Pompey retreated to Greece. In January 48 BC Caesar landed in Epirus and in June 48 BC. at Pharsalus (Thessaly) he inflicted a crushing defeat on Pompey, who fled to Alexandria, where he was executed by order of the Egyptian king Ptolemy XIV. Arriving in Egypt, Caesar crushed the anti-Roman uprising in Alexandria and elevated Cleopatra VII to the Egyptian throne. In 47 BC, he established control over Asia Minor, and in 46 BC. took control of Africa, defeating the Pompeians and their ally, the Numidian king Yuba, at Thapsus. The civil war ended in 45 BC. the defeat of the sons of Pompey at Munda and the subjugation of Spain.

Caesar effectively established a monarchical regime. In 48 BC he became dictator for an indefinite period, in 46 BC. - dictator for ten years, in 44 BC. - dictator for life In 48 BC he was elected tribune for life. As a great pontiff (as early as 63 BC), Caesar had the supreme religious authority. He received censorship powers (as prefect of morals), a permanent proconsular empire (unrestricted power over the provinces), supreme judicial jurisdiction and the functions of commander in chief. The title of the emperor (a sign of the highest military authority) was part of his name.

The old political institutions survived, but lost any meaning. The approval of the popular assembly turned into a formality, and the election into a fiction, since Caesar had the right to recommend candidates for office. The Senate was transformed into a state council, which discussed laws in advance; its composition increased one and a half times due to the supporters of Caesar, including the sons of freedmen and natives of Spain and Gaul. The former magistrates became officials of the city government of Rome. The governors of the provinces, whose duties were reduced to administrative supervision and command of local military contingents, were directly subordinate to the dictator.

Having received from the popular assembly the authority to "organize" the state, Caesar carried out a number of important reforms. He abolished the direct taxes and streamlined their collection, placing the responsibility for it on the communities; limited the arbitrariness of local authorities; brought numerous colonies (especially veterans) to the provinces; reduced the number of recipients of grain distributions by more than half. By granting Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul and many cities in Spain, Africa and Narbonne Gaul, and introducing a single gold coin into circulation, he initiated the process of unification of the Roman state.

Caesar's authoritarianism fueled Senate opposition. March 15, 44 BC conspirators led by Cassius Longinus and Junius Brutus killed the dictator. However, they failed to restore the republic. Octavian, Caesar's official heir, and Caesarian leaders Mark Antony and Mark Aemilius Lepidus in October 43 BC. formed a second triumvirate, dividing the western provinces among themselves; having captured Rome, they obtained emergency powers from the popular assembly and launched a terror against political opponents, during which about three hundred senators and two thousand horsemen died; the republicans strengthened themselves in Sicily (Sextus Pompey) and in the eastern provinces (Brutus and Cassius). In the autumn of 42 BC Octavian and Anthony defeated the Republican army at Philippi (Macedonia); Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Having conquered the East, the triumvirs in 40 BC. made a redistribution of all the provinces: Octavian received the West and Illyria, Antony - the East, Lepidus - Africa. After the destruction in 36 BC. the last hotbed of republican resistance (Octavian's victory over Sextus Pompey), the contradictions between the triumvirs escalated. In 36 BC Lepidus tried to take Sicily from Octavian, but failed; Octavian removed him from power and included Africa in his possessions. In 32 BC an open conflict broke out between Octavian and Mark Antony and his wife (from 37 BC) Egyptian queen Cleopatra. In September 31 BC Octavian defeated Antony's fleet at Cape Actions (Western Greece), and in the summer of 30 BC. invaded Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Octavian became the sole ruler of the Roman state. The era of the Empire began.

Culture.

The worldview of a Roman of the early period was characterized by a sense of himself as a free citizen, consciously choosing and doing his actions; a sense of collectivism, belonging to a civil community, the priority of state interests over personal ones; conservatism, following the mores and customs of ancestors (ascetic ideals of frugality, diligence, patriotism); the desire for communal isolation and isolation from the outside world. The Romans differed from the Greeks in greater sobriety and practicality. In II-I centuries. BC. there is a departure from collectivism, individualism increases, the individual opposes himself to the state, traditional ideals are rethought and even criticized, society becomes more open to external influences. All these features were reflected in Roman art and literature.

Urban planning and architecture of the Republican era go through three stages in their development. On the first (5th century BC), the city is built up chaotically; primitive dwellings made of mud and wood predominate; monumental construction is limited to the construction of temples (the rectangular temple of Capitoline Jupiter, the round temple of Vesta).

At the second stage (4th-3rd centuries BC), the city begins to be improved (paved streets, sewers, water pipes). The main type of structures are engineering military and civil buildings - defensive walls (the wall of Servius IV century BC), roads (Appian Way 312 BC), grandiose aqueducts that supply water for tens of kilometers (Appius Claudius aqueduct 311 BC), sewer channels (cloaca of Maxim). There is a strong Etruscan influence (type of temple, arch, vault).

At the third stage (II-I centuries BC), elements of urban planning appear: division into quarters, design of the city center (Forum), arrangement of park areas on the outskirts. A new building material is used - waterproof and durable Roman concrete (from crushed stone, volcanic sand and lime mortar), which makes it possible to build vaulted ceilings in large rooms. Roman architects creatively reworked Greek architectural forms. They create a new type of order - a composite one, combining the features of the Ionian, Dorian and especially Corinthian styles, as well as an order arcade - a set of arches based on columns. On the basis of the synthesis of Etruscan samples and the Greek peripter, a special type of temple arises - a pseudo-peripter with a high base (podium), a facade in the form of a deep portico and blank walls, dissected by semi-columns. Under Greek influence, the construction of theaters begins; but if the Greek theater was cut into the rock and was part of the surrounding landscape, then the Roman amphitheater is an independent structure with a closed internal space in which the audience rows are located in an ellipse around the stage or arena (the Great Theater in Pompeii, the theater on the Field of Mars in Rome). For the construction of residential buildings, the Romans borrow the Greek peristyle structure (a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade, to which the living quarters adjoin), but, unlike the Greeks, they try to arrange the rooms in strict symmetry (House of Pansa and House of the Faun in Pompeii); country estates (villas), freely organized and closely connected with the landscape, became a favorite vacation spot for the Roman nobility; their integral part is the garden, fountains, pavilions, grottoes, statues and a large pond. Actually, the Roman (Italian) architectural tradition is represented by basilicas (rectangular buildings with several naves), intended for trade and the administration of justice (Portia Basilica, Aemilia Basilica); monumental tombs (the tomb of Cecilia Metella); triumphal arches on roads and squares with one or three spans; terms (complexes of bathing and sports facilities).

Roman monumental sculpture did not receive the same development as Greek; she did not focus on the image of a physically and spiritually perfect person; its hero was a Roman statesman dressed in a toga. Plastic art was dominated by a sculptural portrait, historically associated with the custom of removing a wax mask from the deceased and keeping it together with the figures of household gods. Unlike the Greeks, the Roman masters sought to convey the individual, rather than the ideally generalized features of their models; their works were characterized by great prose. Gradually, from a detailed fixation of the external appearance, they moved on to revealing the inner character of the characters ("Brutus", "Cicero", "Pompey").

In painting (wall painting), two styles dominated: the first Pompeian (inlaid), when the artist imitated the laying of a wall of colored marble (House of the Faun in Pompeii), and the second Pompeian (architectural), when he used his drawing (columns, cornices, porticos, arbors) created the illusion of expanding the space of the room (Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii); An important role here was played by the image of the landscape, devoid of the isolation and limitation that were characteristic of ancient Greek landscapes.

History of Roman Literature V-I centuries. BC. splits into two periods. Until the middle of the III century. BC. Oral folk literature undoubtedly dominated: incantations and spells, labor and everyday (wedding, drinking, funeral) songs, religious hymns (the hymn of the Arval brothers), festennina (songs of a comic and parodic nature), saturas (improvised scenes, a prototype of folk drama), atellani (satirical farces with constant characters-masks: fool-glutton, fool-braggart, old miser, pseudo-scientist-charlatan).

The birth of written literature is associated with the emergence of the Latin alphabet, which originates either from Etruscan or from Western Greek; it had twenty-one characters. The earliest monuments of Latin writing were the annals of the pontiffs (weather records of major events), prophecies of a public and private nature, international treaties, funeral speeches or inscriptions in the homes of the dead, genealogical lists, legal documents. The first text that has come down to us is the laws of the Twelve Tables 451-450 BC; the first writer known to us is Appius Claudius (late 4th - early 3rd centuries BC), author of several legal treatises and a collection of poetic maxims.

From the middle of the III century. BC. Roman literature began to be strongly influenced by Greek. He played an important role in cultural Hellenization in the first half of the 2nd century. BC. circle of Scipios; however, she also faced strong opposition from the defenders of antiquity (the group of Cato the Elder); Greek philosophy evoked particular rejection.

The birth of the main genres of Roman literature was associated with the imitation of Greek and Hellenistic models. The works of the first Roman playwright Livius Andronicus (c. 280-207 BC) were a reworking of Greek tragedies of the 5th century. BC, as well as most of the writings of his followers Gnaeus Nevius (c. 270–201 BC) and Quintus Ennius (239–169 BC). At the same time, Gnaeus Nevius is credited with creating the Roman national drama - pretexts ( Romulus, clastidia); his work was continued by Ennius ( The Rape of the Sabine Women) and Actions (170 - c. 85 BC), who completely abandoned mythological plots ( brutus).

Andronicus and Nevius are also considered the first Roman comedians who created the Palleata genre (a Latin comedy based on a Greek story); Nevius took material from the Old Attic comedies, but supplemented it with Roman realities. The heyday of the Palleata is associated with the work of Plautus (mid-III century - 184 BC) and Terentius (c. 195-159 BC), who were already oriented towards the neo-Attic comedy, especially Menander; they actively developed everyday topics (conflicts between fathers and children, lovers and pimps, debtors and usurers, problems of education and attitudes towards women). In the second half of the II century. BC. the Roman national comedy (togata) was born; Aphranius stood at its source; in the first half of the 1st c. BC. Titinius and Atta worked in this genre; they portrayed the life of the lower classes and ridiculed the decline of morals. At the end of the II century. BC. Atellana (Pomponius, Noviy) also received a literary form; now it was played after the performance of the tragedy for the amusement of the spectators; often she parodied mythological subjects; the mask of an old rich miser, eager for positions, acquired special significance in it. Then, thanks to Lucilius (180–102 BC), satura turned into a special literary genre- satirical dialogue.

Under the influence of Homer in the second half of the 3rd century. BC. the first Roman epic poems appear, telling about the history of Rome from its foundation to the end of the 3rd century BC. BC., - Punic War Navea and Annals Ennia. In the 1st century BC. Lucretius Carus (95–55 BC) creates a philosophical poem On the nature of things, which outlines and develops the atomistic concept of Epicurus.

At the beginning of the 1st century BC. Roman lyric poetry arose, which was greatly influenced by the Alexandrian poetic school. Neoteric Roman poets (Valery Cato, Licinius Calv, Valery Catullus) sought to penetrate into the intimate experiences of man and professed a cult of form; their favorite genres were the mythological epillium (short poem), the elegy, and the epigram. The most outstanding neotheric poet Catullus (87 - c. 54 BC) also contributed to the development of Roman civil lyrics (epigrams against Caesar and Pompey); thanks to him, the Roman epigram took shape as a genre.

The first prose works in Latin belong to Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), the founder of Roman historiography ( origins) and Roman agronomic science ( ABOUT agriculture ). The true flowering of Latin prose dates back to the 1st century. BC. The best examples of historical prose are the writings of Julius Caesar - Notes on the Gallic War And Notes on the Civil War- and Sallust Crispus (86 - c. 35 BC) - Conspiracy of Catiline, Yugurtin war And Story. Scientific prose of the 1st century. BC. represented by Terentius Varro (116–27 BC), author of the encyclopedia Human and divine antiquities, historical and philological works About Latin, About grammar, About the comedies of Plautus and treatise About agriculture, and Vitruvius (second half of the 1st century BC), the creator of the treatise About architecture.

1st century BC. is the golden age of Roman oratorical prose, which developed within the framework of two directions - Asian (flowery style, abundance of aphorisms, metrical organization of periods) and Attic (compressed and simple language); Hortensius Gortalus belonged to the first, and Julius Caesar, Licinius Calvus and Mark Junius Brutus belonged to the second. It reached its peak in the judicial and political speeches of Cicero, who originally combined Asian and Attic manners; Cicero also made significant contributions to the development of the theory of Roman eloquence ( About the speaker, brutus, Speaker).

Imperial Rome.

Principate of Augustus.

Having become the sole ruler, Octavian, given the rejection of the openly monarchical form of government by the general population, tried to clothe his power in traditional clothes. The basis of his authority was the tribunate and the highest military authority - empires (from 29 BC he bore the permanent title of emperor). In 29 BC he received the honorific nickname "August" ("Exalted") and was proclaimed princeps (first person) of the senate; hence the name of the new political system - principate. In the same year, he was granted proconsular power in the border (imperial) provinces (Gallia, Spain, Syria) - he appointed their rulers (legates and procurators), the troops stationed in them obeyed him, the taxes collected there went to his personal treasury (fisk ). In 24 BC the senate freed Augustus from any restrictions imposed by law in 13 BC. his decisions were equated with Senate resolutions. In 12 BC he became a great pontiff, and in 2 BC. was awarded the title of "Father of the Fatherland".

Formally, in the Roman state there was a diarchy of the princeps and the senate, which retained significant rights, disposed of the internal (senate) provinces and the state treasury (erarium). However, the diarchy only masked the monarchical regime. Having received in 29 BC. censorship powers, Augustus expelled the republicans and supporters of Antony from the Senate and reduced its membership. Significantly limited the real power of the Senate, the creation of an informal advisory council under the princeps and the institution of unelected (appointed by him) magistrates with their own staff - the prefect of Rome, the prefect of annona (who was in charge of supplying the capital), the prefect of the praetorium (commander of the guard). The princeps actually controlled the activities of the governors of the senatorial provinces. As for the popular assembly, Augustus preserved it, making it an obedient instrument of his power; using the right to recommend candidates, he determined the outcome of the elections.

In his social policy Augustus maneuvered between the senatorial aristocracy and the equestrianism, which he sought to turn into a service class, actively involving him in governance, primarily in the provinces. He supported medium and small landowners, whose number increased due to 500,000 veterans who received land in colonies outside Italy; land plots were assigned to the private property of their owners. Large-scale state construction provided work for a significant part of the urban population. With regard to the lumpen (about 200 thousand), August pursued a policy of "bread and circuses", allocating large funds for it. Unlike Caesar, he practically refused to grant Roman citizenship to the provincials, but at the same time limited the practice of farming, partially transferring them to local merchants, began to introduce a new tax collection system through the procurators, and fought against corruption and abuses of provincial governors.

Augustus carried out military reform, completing the century-long process of creating a Roman professional army: from now on, soldiers served 20–25 years, receiving regular salaries and constantly being in a military camp without the right to start a family; upon retirement, they were given a monetary reward (donativa) and were given a plot of land; the principle of voluntary recruitment of citizens into legions (shock units) and provincials into auxiliary formations was established; guards units were created to protect Italy, Rome and the emperor; guardsmen (praetorians) enjoyed a number of benefits (did not participate in wars, served only 16 years, received high salaries). For the first time in Roman history, special police units were organized - cohorts of vigils (guardians) and city cohorts.

The reign of Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD) was marked by three major uprisings in the border provinces - the Cantabri and Asturians in Northern Spain (28-19 BC), the tribes of Central and Southern Gaul (27 BC .e.) and the Illyrians (6–9 AD).

In foreign policy, Augustus avoided large-scale wars; nevertheless, he managed to annex Moesia (28 BC), Galatia (25 BC), Noricum (16 BC), Rhetia (15 BC), Pannonia ( 14–9 BC), Judah (6 AD); The Thracian kingdom became dependent on Rome. At the same time, an attempt to subjugate the Germanic tribes (campaigns 12 BC - 5 AD) and organize the province of Germany between the Elbe and the Rhine ended in complete failure: after the defeat in 9 AD. In the Teutoburg Forest, the Romans retreated across the Rhine. In the East, Augustus generally supported a system of buffer vassal kingdoms and fought the Parthians for control of Armenia; in 20 BC the Armenian throne was occupied by his protege Tigran III, however, from 6 AD. Armenia fell into the orbit of Parthian influence. The Romans even intervened in dynastic conflicts in Parthia itself, but did not achieve much success. Under Augustus, for the first time, South Arabia became the object of Roman aggression (the unsuccessful campaign of the Egyptian prefect Elius Gallus in 25 BC) and Ethiopia (the victorious campaign of Gaius Petronius in 22 BC).

Under the closest successors of Augustus - Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius I and Nero, there is an increase in monarchical tendencies.

Vespasian's successors, his sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96), continued the policy of favoring the provinces. At the same time, they resumed the practice of generous distributions and the organization of spectacles, which led to the impoverishment of the treasury in the mid-80s; in order to replenish it, Domitian unleashed terror against the propertied strata, which was accompanied by massive confiscations; repressions especially intensified after the uprising in 89 of Anthony Saturninus, the legate of Upper Germany. The internal political course began to acquire an openly absolutist character: following the example of Caligula, Domitian demanded to call himself "lord" and "god" and introduced the ritual of ceremonial worship; to suppress the opposition of the senate, he carried out periodic purges of it, using the powers of a life censor (from 85). In an atmosphere of general discontent, the princeps' inner circle conspired, and he was killed in September 96. The Flavian dynasty left the historical scene.

In foreign policy, the Flavias as a whole completed the process of eliminating the vassal buffer states on the border with Parthia, finally including Commagene and Lesser Armenia (west of the Euphrates) into the Empire. They continued the conquest of Britain, subjugating most of the island, except for its northern region - Caledonia. To strengthen the northern border, Vespasian captured the area between the sources of the Rhine and the Danube (the Decumates Fields) and created the provinces of Upper and Lower Germany, while Domitian made a successful campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Hattians in 83 and entered into a difficult war with the Dacians, which ended in 89 with a compromise peace: for an annual subsidy, the Dacian king Decibal undertook not to invade the territory of the Empire and to protect the Roman borders from other barbarian tribes (Sarmatians and Roxolans).

After the assassination of Domitian, the throne was taken by the protege of the Senate, Marcus Cocceus Nerva (96–98), the founder of the Antonin dynasty, who tried to consolidate different layers of Roman society. To this end, he continued the agrarian policy of the Flavians to support small landowners (mass purchase of land and its distribution among the needy), created an alimentary fund to support orphans and children of poor citizens, and proclaimed his heir and co-ruler, the governor of Upper Germany, popular in military circles, Mark Ulpius Trajan ( 97).

Another important component of the dominate regime was the army, whose numbers increased significantly under Diocletian; The main support of the emperor was not the stationary legions, the eternal source of political tension, but the newly created mobile troops stationed in the cities. Voluntary recruitment was supplemented by forced recruitment: landowners were obliged to supply one or another number of soldiers, depending on the size of their possessions. The process of barbarization of the army also intensified significantly.

The financial policy of the tetrarchs was also aimed at strengthening state unity. In 286, the minting of a full-weight gold (aureus) and a new copper coin began, and money circulation temporarily returned to normal; however, due to the discrepancy between the real and nominal value of the aureus, it quickly disappeared from circulation, and the practice of defacing the coin resumed. In 289-290, a new tax system was introduced, common to all regions of the Empire (including Italy): it was based on a periodic head-to-head census, unified principles of taxation (capita in cities, land in a rural district) and tax liability - land owners for colons and landed slaves, curials (members of city councils) for citizens; this contributed to the attachment of peasants to the land, and artisans to their professional organizations (colleges). In 301 fixed prices and fixed wage rates were legislated; severe punishments were provided for their violation, up to the death penalty (special executioners were even on duty in the markets); but even this could not stop the speculation, and the law was soon repealed.

In the religious sphere, a sharply anti-Christian course prevailed: by the beginning of the 4th century. Christianity spread in the army and urban strata and seriously competed with the imperial cult; an independent church organization led by bishops, which controlled a significant part of the population, posed a potential threat to the omnipotence of the state bureaucracy. In 303, the practice of Christian worship was prohibited, and persecution of its adherents began; prayer houses and liturgical books were destroyed, church property was confiscated.

The Tetrarchs managed to achieve some internal and external political stabilization. In 285-286 the uprising of the Bagauds was defeated, in 296 control over Egypt and Britain was restored, in 297-298 unrest in Mauritania and Africa was suppressed; a limit was placed on the invasions of the Germanic (Alemanni, Franks, Burgundians) and Sarmatian (Carps, Iazygi) tribes; in 298–299, the Romans ousted the Persians from the eastern provinces, captured Armenia, and made a successful campaign in Mesopotamia. But after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian from the throne in 305, a civil war broke out in the Empire between their heirs, culminating in the victory of Constantine the Great (306-337), the son of Constantius Chlorus: in 306 he established power over Gaul and Britain, in 312 - over Italy, Africa and Spain, in 314-316 - over the Balkan Peninsula (without Thrace), and in 324 - over the entire Empire.

Under Constantine, the formation of the dominant regime was completed. Instead of a tetrarchy, a harmonious vertical system of government arose: a new element was added to the administrative-territorial structure created by Diocletian - four prefectures (Gallia, Italy, Illyria and the East), uniting several dioceses; each prefecture was headed by a praetorian prefect, reporting directly to the emperor; in turn, the rulers of the dioceses (vicars) were subordinate to him, and to those - the governors of the provinces (presidents). The civil power was finally separated from the military: the command of the army was carried out by four military masters, not controlled by the prefects of the praetorium. Instead of the council of the princeps, an imperial council (consistory) arose. A strict hierarchy of ranks and titles was introduced, court positions acquired special significance. In 330, Constantine founded a new capital on the Bosporus - Constantinople, which became at the same time the imperial residence, the administrative center and the main headquarters.

In the military sphere, the legions were disaggregated, which made it possible to strengthen control over the army; from the mobile troops, palace units (domestiki) emerged, replacing the Praetorian Guard; access to them was open to barbarians; the military profession gradually began to turn into a hereditary one.

Constantine carried out a successful monetary reform: he issued a new gold coin (solidus), which became the main monetary unit in the Mediterranean; only small change coins were minted from silver. The emperor continued the policy of attaching subjects to a certain place of residence and field of activity: he forbade the curials to move from one city to another (decrees 316 and 325), artisans - to change their profession (edict 317), columns - to leave their allotments (law 332); their duties became not only lifelong, but also hereditary.

Constantine abandoned the anti-Christian course of his predecessors; moreover, he made the Christian church one of the main pillars of the dominant regime. By the Edict of Mediolanum 313, Christianity was equalized in rights with other cults. The emperor freed the clergy from all state duties, granted church communities the rights of legal entities (to receive contributions, inherit property, buy and free slaves), encouraged the construction of churches and missionary activities of the church; he also closed part of the pagan sanctuaries and abolished some priestly offices. Constantine actively interfered in the internal affairs of the Christian Church, seeking to ensure its institutional and dogmatic unity: in the event of serious theological and disciplinary disagreements, he convened congresses of bishops (councils), invariably supporting the position of the majority (Councils of Rome 313 and Arles 314 against the Donatists, the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea 325 against the Arians, Council of Tire 335 against the orthodox Athanasius of Alexandria). Cm. CHRISTIANITY.

At the same time, Constantine remained a pagan and only before his death was baptized; he did not renounce the dignity of the great pontiff and patronized some non-Christian cults (the cult of the invincible Sun, the cult of Apollo-Helios). In 330, Constantinople was dedicated to the pagan goddess Tyukha (Fate), and the emperor himself was deified as Helios.

Constantine successfully fought the Franks on the Rhine and the Goths on the Danube. He continued the practice of settling barbarians in the deserted territories: Sarmatians - in the Danube provinces and Northern Italy, Vandals - in Pannonia.

Before his death in 337, Constantine divided the Empire between his three sons: Constantine II the Younger (337-340) received Britain, Gaul, Spain and the western part of Roman Africa, Constantius II (337-361) - the eastern provinces, Constans (337-350) - Illyria, Italy and the rest of Africa. In 340, Constantine II tried to take Italy from Constans, but was defeated at Aquileia and died; his possessions passed to Constant. In 350 Constans was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the military leader Magnentius, a barbarian by birth, who seized power in the West. In 352, Constantius II defeated Magnentius (who committed suicide in 353) and became the sole ruler of the Empire.

Under Constantius II, theocratic tendencies intensified. As a Christian, he constantly interfered in the intra-church struggle, supporting the moderate Arians against the orthodox, and toughened his policy towards paganism. Under him, taxes increased significantly, which placed a heavy burden on the curials.

In 360, the Gallic legions proclaimed Emperor Julian Caesar (360-363), who, after the death of Constantius II in 361, became the sole ruler of the Empire. In an effort to stop the decline of cities and municipal land ownership, Julian lowered taxes, cut spending on the court and the state apparatus, and expanded the rights of curiae. Turning to paganism (hence his nickname "Apostate"), he made an attempt to revive traditional cults: destroyed pagan temples were restored and confiscated property was returned to them. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, the emperor at the same time forbade Christians from teaching in schools and serving in the army.

Julian the Apostate died in 363 during a campaign against the Persians, and the army elected as his successor the chief of the imperial bodyguards, the Christian Jovian (363-364), who canceled all the anti-Christian decrees of his predecessor. After his death in 364, the commander Valentinian I (364–375) was proclaimed emperor, who shared power with his brother Valens II (364–378), giving him the eastern provinces. Having suppressed in 366 the uprising of Procopius, who acted under the slogan of continuing the policy of Julian and appealed to the social rank and file, the emperors issued a series of laws to protect the "weak" from the "strong", established the position of defensor (defender) of the plebs and launched a fight against corruption. At the same time, they pursued a policy of restricting the rights of the curials and completely disregarded the senate. Both brothers professed Christianity, but if Valentinian I avoided interfering in church affairs, then Valens II persecuted the orthodox and planted Arianism by all means. After the death of Valentinian I in 375, power over the western provinces passed to his sons Gratian (375–383) and the infant Valentinian II (385–392). Gratian normalized relations with the Senate and finally broke all ties with paganism, refusing the dignity of the great pontiff.

The foreign policy of the successors of Constantine the Great was reduced to the defense of the borders of the Empire. On the Rhine direction, the Romans won a number of victories over the Franks, Alemanni and Saxons (Constant in 341-342, Julian in 357, Valentinian I in 366); in 368 Valentinian I invaded right-bank Germany and reached the source of the Danube. On the Danube direction, success also accompanied the Romans: in 338 Constant defeated the Sarmatians, and in 367–369 Valens II defeated the Goths. In the late 360s - early 370s, the Romans erected a new system of defensive structures on the Rhine-Danube border. In the eastern direction, the Empire waged a protracted struggle with the power of the Sassanids: Constantius II fought with the Persians with varying success in 338–350 and in 359–360; after the unsuccessful campaign of Julian the Apostate in 363, his successor Jovian made a shameful peace with the Sassanids, abandoning Armenia and Mesopotamia; in 370, Valens II resumed the war with Persia, which ended after his death with an agreement on the division of Armenia (387). In Britain, the Romans under Constant and Valentinian I managed to inflict several defeats on the Picts and Scots, who periodically invaded the central part of the island.

In 376, Valens II allowed the Visigoths and part of the Ostrogoths, who were retreating south under pressure from the Huns, to cross the Danube and occupy the deserted lands of Lower Moesia. Abuses of imperial officials caused in 377 their uprising. In August 378, the Goths defeated the Roman army at the Battle of Adrianople, in which Valens II died, and devastated the Balkan Peninsula. Gratian appointed the commander Theodosius (379–395) as ruler of the eastern provinces, who managed to stabilize the situation. In 382, ​​Theodosius I concluded an agreement with the Goths, which became a turning point in the relationship between the Romans and the barbarians: they were allowed to settle in Lower Moesia and Thrace as federates (with their own laws and religion, under the control of tribal leaders). This marked the beginning of the process of emergence of autonomous barbarian proto-states on the territory of the Empire.

Theodosius I generally followed the political course of Gratian: in the interests of the senatorial aristocracy, he introduced the post of defensor of the senate; provided benefits to peasants who developed abandoned lands; intensified the search for runaway slaves and columns. He abandoned the rank of great pontiff and in 391-392 switched to a policy of eradication of paganism; in 394, the Olympic Games were banned, and Christianity was declared the only legal religion in the Empire. In the intra-church sphere, Theodosius I strongly supported the orthodox direction, ensuring its complete triumph over Arianism (Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople 381).

In 383, Gratian died as a result of a rebellion by Magnus Maximus, who brought the western provinces under his control. Valentinian II fled to Thessalonica, but in 387 Theodosius I, having overthrown the usurper, restored him to the throne. In 392, Valentinian II was killed by his commander, Frank Arbogast, who proclaimed the rhetorician Eugene (392–394) emperor of the West, who, being a pagan, tried to revive the religious policy of Julian the Apostate. In 394 Theodosius I defeated Arbogast and Eugene near Aquileia and restored the unity of the Roman state for the last time. In January 395, he died, having divided the state between his two sons before his death: the elder Arcadius got the East, the younger Honorius - the West. The empire finally broke up into Western Roman and Eastern Roman (Byzantine). Cm. BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

Culture.

A new phenomenon in the cultural sphere, starting from August, is state patronage. Roman culture is losing its polis (narrow ethnicity) and acquiring a cosmopolitan character. A new system of values ​​is spreading, primarily among the urban population, based on servility, contempt for work, consumerism, the pursuit of pleasure and passion for foreign cults. The rural type of consciousness is distinguished by great conservatism: it is characterized by respect for work, loyalty to the patriarchal system of relations and veneration of traditional Roman gods.

Urban development is intensively developing. A special Roman type of urban planning is spreading: the city consists of residential areas, public buildings, squares (forums) and industrial zones (on the outskirts); it is organized around two central avenues intersecting at right angles, dividing it into four parts, usually oriented to the cardinal points; Narrow streets run parallel to the avenues, dividing the city into quarters; along paved streets with sidewalks, drain channels are laid, closed from above with slabs; a developed water supply system includes water pipes, fountains and cisterns for collecting rainwater.

Architecture remains the leading field of Roman art. Most of the buildings are constructed from Roman concrete and fired bricks. In temple architecture of the 1st c. the pseudo-peripter (Square house in Nîmes) certainly dominates. In the era of Hadrian, a new type of temple appears - a rotunda crowned with a dome (Pantheon); in it, the main attention is paid not to the external appearance (most of it is a blank wall), but to the internal space, integral and richly decorated, which is illuminated through a hole in the center of the dome. Under the Severa, a new form of a centered-domed temple appeared - a decahedron with a dome on a high drum (Temple of Minerva in Rome). Civil architecture is represented primarily by triumphal columns (the 38-meter column of Trajan) and arches (the single-span arch of Titus, the three-span arches of Septimius Severus and Constantine the Great), theaters (the theater of Marcellus and the Colosseum, which use a multi-tiered arcade), grandiose aqueducts and bridges, inscribed in the surrounding landscape (the aqueduct in Segovia, the Garda bridge at Nimes, the bridge over the Tagus), mausoleums (the tomb of Hadrian), public baths (the baths of Caracalla, the baths of Diocletian), basilicas (the Basilica of Maxentius). Palace architecture evolves in the direction of the castle, taking as a model the layout of a military camp (Diocletian's palace-fortress in Split). Peristyle construction is widely used in the construction of residential buildings; new elements are the glazed peristyle and mosaic floors. For the poor, "high-rise" houses (insulas) are being built, reaching four to five floors. Roman architects of the 1st-3rd centuries. they continue to creatively master the achievements of various architectural traditions - classical, Hellenistic, Etruscan: the creators of the Colosseum combine a multi-tiered arcade with order elements (semi-columns), the leading architect of the era of Hadrian Apollodorus of Damascus uses colonnades and beam ceilings instead of vaults and arches in the construction of Trajan's Forum; the mausoleum of Hadrian reproduces the model of an Etruscan burial structure; in the construction of the Split palace of Diocletian, an arcade on columns is used. In some cases, an attempt to synthesize different styles leads to eclecticism (the temple of Venus and Roma, Hadrian's villa in Tivoli). From the 4th century the Christian type of temple is spreading, which borrows a lot from the Roman tradition (basilica, round temple).

In plastic art I-III centuries. continues to dominate the sculptural portrait. Under Augustus, under the influence of classical models, republican realism gives way to some idealization and typification, primarily in the ceremonial portrait (the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta, Augustus in the form of Jupiter from Cum); the masters strive to convey the impassibility and self-control of the model, limiting the dynamics of the plastic image. Under Flavius, there is a turn towards a more individualized figurative characteristic, increased dynamism and expressiveness (busts of Vitellius, Vespasian, Caecilius Jukund). Under the Antonines, the general fascination with Greek art leads to mass copying of classical masterpieces and an attempt to embody the Greek aesthetic ideal in sculpture; the tendency to idealization again appears (numerous statues of Antinous). At the same time, the desire to convey the psychological state, primarily contemplation ( Syrian, bearded barbarian, Black person). By the end of the II century. in portraiture, features of schematization and mannerisms are growing (the statue of Commodus in the form of Hercules). The last flowering of the Roman realistic portrait takes place in the Severae; the veracity of the image is combined with psychological depth and dramatization (bust of Caracalla). In the III century. two tendencies are indicated: coarsening of the image (laconic modeling, simplification of the plastic language) and an increase in internal tension in it (busts of Maximinus Thracian, Philip the Arab, Lucilla). Gradually, the spirituality of the models acquires an abstract character, which leads to schematism and conventionality of the image. This process reaches its climax in the 4th century. both in portraiture (bust of Maximinus Daza) and in monumental sculpture, which has become the leading genre of plastic art (the colossi of Constantine the Great and Valentinian I). In the sculptures of that time, the face turns into a frozen mask, and only disproportionately big eyes convey the state of mind of the model.

In painting at the beginning of the 1st century. AD the third Pompeian (candelabra) style is approved (small mythological paintings framed with light architectural decor); new genres arise - landscape, still life, everyday scenes (the House of the Centennial Anniversary and the House of Lucretius Frontinus in Pompeii). In the second half of the 1st c. it is replaced by a more dynamic and expressive fourth Pompeian style (House of the Vettii in Pompeii). In the II-III centuries. wall painting begins to be gradually replaced by mosaic images.

The Augustan era is the "golden age" of Roman literature. Centers literary life mugs of Maecenas and Messala Corwin become. Poetry remains the leading sphere of literature. Virgil (70–19 BC) introduces the bucolic genre into it (a collection of shepherd's poems Bucoliki), creates a didactic poem about agriculture ( Georgics) and a historical and mythological poem about the origin of the Roman people ( Aeneid). Horace (65–8 BC) composes epodes (couplets), satires, odes, solemn hymns, combining lyrical motifs with civil ones and thereby departing from the principles of neotericism; he also develops the theory of Roman classicism, putting forward the ideal of simplicity and unity ( The Art of Poetry). Tibullus (c. 55–19 BC), Propertius (c. 50–15 BC) and Ovid (43 BC–18 AD) are associated with the flourishing of elegiac poetry. Peru Ovid, in addition, belong Metamorphoses (transformations) - a hexametric epic, which sets out the foundations of Greco-Roman mythology, and fasty describing in elegiac meter all Roman rituals and festivities. The largest prose writer of the "golden age" is the historian Titus Livius (59 BC - 17 AD), the author of the monumental History of Rome from the founding of the City in 142 books (from mythical times to 9 BC).

In the era from Augustus to Trajan (" silver Age»Roman literature) satirical poetry is rapidly developing; its leading representatives are Persia Flaccus (34-62), Martial (42-104) and Juvenal (mid-1st century - after 127). In the work of Martial, the Roman epigram receives its classical design. The tradition of epic poetry is continued by Lucan (39–65), creator Pharsalia(Pompey's war with Caesar), Papinius Statius (c. 40–96), author Thebaids(campaign of the Seven against Thebes) and Achilleas(Achilles at Lycomedes on Skyros), and Valery Flakk (second half of the 1st century), who wrote Argonautics. Phaedrus (first half of the 1st century) introduces the genre of fable into Roman literature. The largest playwright of the era is Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD), who mainly composed palliata ( Oedipus, Medea and etc.); the modern Roman plot is developed by him only in the pretext Octavia; he creates a new type of hero - a strong and passionate person, capable of crime, becoming a toy in the hands of an inexorable fate and obsessed with the thought of death (suicide). The importance of prose is growing. In the middle of the 1st c. Petronius (d. 66) writes a satirical adventure novel Satyricon in the genre of Menippean satire (a combination of prose and poetry). Historiography is represented by Velleius Paterculus (born c. 20 BC), who gave an overview of the history of Rome from the fall of Troy to the reign of Tiberius, Curtius Rufus (mid-1st century), author Stories of Alexander the Great, and Cornelius Tacitus (55 - c. 120), famous for his Annals And History; he also wrote a historical and ethnographic treatise Germany, eulogy On the Life and Morals of Julius Agricola And Dialogue about speakers. Oratory prose is in decline (a passion for panegyrics and flowery recitations). The only major orator of the 1st c. is Quintilian (c. 35 - c. 100), who contributed with his work Instruction to the speaker significant contribution to the development of rhetorical theory. Pliny the Younger (61/62 - c. 113), the author of a collection of stylized letters, works in the epistolary genre. Scientific prose is represented by the historical and medical treatise of Cornelius Celsus Arts, geographical opus of Pomponius Mela About the structure of the earth grandiose encyclopedia of Pliny the Elder Natural history and the agronomic work of Columella About agriculture.

2nd century marked by a sharp increase in Greek literary influence and the flourishing of Roman literature in Greek primarily prosaic. Its main genres are romance novel ( Kherei and Calliroya Khariton, Ephesian stories Xenophon of Ephesus, Leucippe and Cleitophon Achilles Tatsia), biography ( Parallel biographies Plutarch), satire ( Dialogues Lucian of Samosata), historiography ( Anabasis Alexandra And indica Arriane, History of Rome Appian), scientific prose ( Almagest, Geography guide And Quaternary Claudius Ptolemy, medical treatises of Soranus of Ephesus and Galen). In Latin literature of the 2nd century. prose also occupies a leading position. Suetonius (c. 70 - c. 140) raises the genre of historical and political ( Life of the Twelve Caesars) and historical and literary biography to the level of historical research. In the second half of the II century. Apuleius creates an erotic-adventurous novel Metamorphoses(or golden donkey). The archaizing tendency gradually intensifies (Fronto, Aulus Gellius), associated with the desire to revive the samples of the old Roman (pre-Ciceronian) literature. In the III century. Latin literature is in decline; at the same time, a Christian direction was born in it (Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Cyprian). Greek-language Roman literature of the 3rd century. predominantly a romance novel Daphnis and Chloe longa, Ethiopian Heliodor); prominent Greek-speaking historian of the early 3rd century. is Dio Cassius (c. 160–235). In the IV century. there is a new rise in Latin literature - both Christian (Arnobius, Lactantius, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine) and pagan, the best examples of which are the historical work of Ammianus Marcellinus (second half of the 4th century) Acts(from Nerva to Valens II) and the poetic works of Claudian (born c. 375), especially his mythological epic The Abduction of Proserpina. The desire of educated pagan circles to support the ancient Roman cultural tradition leads to the appearance of various comments on classical Roman authors (comments on Virgil by Servius, etc.).

In the era of the Empire, philosophy is actively developing. Its leading direction in the I - the first half of the II century. becomes stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius). According to the Stoics, the universe is generated and controlled by the divine mind; man is not able to change the laws of the universe, he can only live in harmony with them, worthily fulfilling his social duties and maintaining dispassion in relation to the outside world, its temptations and disasters; this allows a person to find inner freedom and happiness. In the III-IV centuries. the dominant position in Roman philosophy is occupied by Christianity and Neoplatonism, which arose as a result of the synthesis of Platonism, Aristotelianism, mystical neo-Pythagoreanism and Eastern religious movements. The founder of Neoplatonism is Ammonius Sakk (175-242), the main representatives are Plotinus (c. 204 - c. 270), Porphyry (c. 233 - c. 300) and Proclus (412-485). According to them, the beginning of being is the divine unity, from which the spiritual world arises, from the spiritual - the spiritual, from the spiritual - the physical world; the goal of a person is to find the path to the one, renouncing the material (which is evil) through moral purification (catharsis) and freeing the soul from the body through asceticism.

In the imperial period, Roman jurisprudence reaches its peak - the most important component of Roman culture, which largely determined its originality.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

At the beginning of the 5th century the position of the Western Roman Empire became more complicated. In 401, the Visigoths led by Alaric invaded Italy, and in 404 the Ostrogoths, Vandals and Burgundians led by Radagaisus, who with great difficulty managed to defeat the guardian of the emperor Honorius (410–423), the vandal Stilicho. The withdrawal of part of the British and Gallic legions to defend Italy led to the weakening of the Rhine border, which in the winter of 406/407 was broken through by the Vandals, Suebi and Alans, who flooded Gaul. Having received no help from Rome, Gaul and Britain proclaimed Emperor Constantine (407-411), who in 409 drove the barbarians into Spain; however, the Burgundians entrenched themselves on the left bank of the Rhine. In 408, taking advantage of the death of Stilicho, Alaric again invaded Italy and in 410 took Rome. After his death, the new Visigoth leader Ataulf withdrew to southern Gaul and then captured northeastern Spain. In 410 Honorius led the legions out of Britain. In 411 he recognized as federates of the Empire the Suebi, who settled in Gallecia, in 413 the Burgundians who settled in the district of Mogontsiaka (modern Mainz), and in 418 the Visigoths, ceding Aquitaine to them.

During the reign of Valentinian III (425–455), barbarian pressure on the Western Roman Empire intensified. During the 420s, the Visigoths expelled the Vandals and Alans from the Iberian Peninsula, who in 429 crossed the Gaditan (modern Gibraltar) Strait and by 439 captured all the Roman West African provinces, founding the first barbarian kingdom on the territory of the Empire. In the late 440s, the conquest of Britain by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes began. In the early 450s, the Huns, led by Attila, attacked the Western Roman Empire. In June 451, the Roman commander Aetius, in alliance with the Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians and Saxons, defeated Attila in the Catalaunian fields (east of Paris), but already in 452 the Huns invaded Italy. Only the death of Attila in 453 and the collapse of his tribal alliance saved the West from the Hun threat.

In March 455, Valentinian III was deposed by the senator Petronius Maximus. In June 455, the Vandals captured Rome and subjected it to a terrible defeat; Petronius Maximus died. The Western Roman Empire was dealt a mortal blow. Vandals subjugated Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. In 457, the Burgundians occupied the Rodan (modern Rhone) basin, creating an independent Burgundian kingdom. By the beginning of the 460s, only Italy remained under the rule of Rome. The throne became a plaything in the hands of the barbarian commanders, who proclaimed and overthrew emperors at will. Skir Odoacer put an end to the protracted agony of the Western Roman Empire: in 476 he overthrew the last Western Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus, sent signs of supreme power to the Byzantine emperor Zeno and founded his own barbarian kingdom in Italy.

Religion.

Religion was an important element in the public and private life of the Romans. It arose from a synthesis of Latin, Sabine and Etruscan beliefs. In ancient times, the Romans deified the most diverse natural and economic functions (the god of fertilizers Sterkulin, the god Statinin, who teaches babies to stand, the goddess of death Libitina, etc.). The object of veneration was also the deified virtues: Justice, Consent, Victory, Mercy, Piety, etc. From the Etruscans, the Romans borrowed the triad of higher gods - Jupiter (the god of the priests), Mars (the god of war) and Quirinus (the god of peace), which at the end of the 7th century . BC. they replaced the Capitoline triad Jupiter - Juno (goddess of marriage and motherhood) - Minerva (patron of crafts). Since that time, cult images of gods (statues) have appeared. Gradually, Jupiter became the head of the pantheon, the composition of which increased due to a number of Italic deities. Particularly revered were, in addition to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, Janus (originally the keeper of the doors of the dwelling, later the god of all beginnings), Vesta (protector of the hearth), Diana (goddess of the moon and vegetation, assistant in childbirth), Venus (goddess of gardens and orchards) , Mercury (patron of trade), Neptune (lord of water), Vulcan (god of fire and blacksmiths), Saturn (god of crops). From the 4th century BC. Hellenization of the Roman pantheon begins. Roman deities are identified with Greek ones and acquire their functions: Jupiter-Zeus, Juno-Hera, Minerva-Athena, Diana-Artemis, Mercury-Hermes, etc.

Ancestral cults played an important role in Roman religion. Each family had its own patron gods - penates (protected the family inside the house) and lares (protected the family outside the house). Each member of the family had his own individual guardian (genius), while the genius of the father was revered by everyone. They also worshiped the spirits of their ancestors, which could be good (mana) or evil (lemurs). The hearth, in front of which the head of the family performed all the rituals, was the center of the domestic cult.

The cult consisted of sacrifices (animals, fruits), prayers and rituals. Prayer was a magical way of influencing the deity, who was supposed to fulfill the request in response to the sacrifice. The Romans attached particular importance to the predictions of the fate and will of the gods. The most common were divination by the entrails of sacrificial animals, by the flight of birds (auspices), by atmospheric phenomena, according to the movement of celestial bodies. Fortune-telling belonged to the jurisdiction of special priests-interpreters - both the Romans (a college of augurs) and the famous Etruscan haruspices. In addition to the augurs, there were other categories of priests in Rome, also united in colleges: pontiffs, headed by the great pontiff, who supervised other colleges, were in charge of observing the general Roman religious calendar and led rituals, sacrifices and a funeral cult; Flamins (priests of certain gods); salii (who performed rites in honor of the gods of war, primarily Mars); Arval brothers (who prayed for a good harvest); vestals (immaculate priestesses of Vesta); luperki (priests of the Faun god of fertility).

From the 2nd century BC. traditional Roman religion begins to decline; All great popularity acquire various oriental cults (Isis, Mitra, Serapis); with the beginning of our era, Christianity and religious movements close to it (Gnosticism, Manichaeism) spread. In the era of the Empire, the cult of the emperor and a number of other official cults (the cult of the World of Augustus, the cult of the Deified Rome) also play an important role. At the end of the IV century. Roman religion, along with other pagan areas, is subject to a complete ban.

Private life.

The family principle and family law were developed in Rome. The family was ruled by the father, who enjoyed unlimited power over his children: he could expel them, sell them, and even kill them. Children were brought up at home or studied with a home teacher or in schools. The sons remained in the power of the father until his death; daughters before marriage.

The Romans were characterized by respect for the woman, especially for the mother. Unlike Greek women, Roman women could freely appear in society. In the house, the wife-mother was the lady who managed the household and the guardian of the family cult. The laws protected her from the arbitrariness of her husband; she herself was the intercessor of children before her father. Many women had elementary education. In the era of the Empire, they almost equaled their rights with men, having the opportunity to dispose of their own property and enter into marriage on their own initiative; this led to divorce. In the era of dominance, under the influence of Christianity, the social role of women is reduced; the belief in their inferiority spreads; the practice of marriage is being revived only with the consent of the bride's parents; married women are locked in household chores.

An important role in the life of the Romans was played by rituals associated with birth, coming of age, marriage and death. On the ninth (boy) or eighth (girl) day after birth, a naming ceremony was performed: in front of the home altar, the father raised the child from the ground, thereby recognizing him as his own, and gave him a name. As soon as the child got up on his feet, he was put on a children's toga and a golden amulet. Upon reaching the age of sixteen, the young man underwent a dressing ceremony (he took off the children's toga and amulet, dedicating them to the penates, and put on a white toga and a special tunic), and then, together with his peers, went in a solemn procession to the Capitol for sacrifice. The marriage was often preceded by an engagement: after a conversation with the groom, the bride's father arranged a dinner; the groom gave the bride an engagement ring, and the bride to the groom gave elegant clothes woven by her hands. The wedding ceremony itself was opened with the ritual of kidnapping the bride in the evening by the light of torches in the presence of relatives and acquaintances; when the procession came to the groom's house, the bride decorated the door and oiled the jambs, and the groom carried her over the threshold; inside the house, the main ceremony was performed under the guidance of a priest (the young people exchanged greetings, the bride received fire and water from her betrothed, symbolically touching them; they ate the wedding cake); the festive dinner that followed ended with the distribution of nuts; the women took the bride to the bedroom to the singing of the guests; in the morning, the wife made a sacrifice to the penates and took over the duties of the hostess. The ceremony of parting with the deceased began with the extinguishing of the fire in the hearth; relatives mourned the deceased, loudly calling him by name; the washed and anointed body was clothed in a toga, laid on a bed in the atrium (main hall) and left for seven days; a pine or cypress branch was attached to the outer door; during mourning, the Romans did not bathe, cut their hair or shave their beards. The funeral itself took place at night; their participants were dressed in dark togas. The funeral procession to the music and singing was sent to the forum, where a laudatory speech was made about the deceased, and then followed to the place of rest. The body was either buried or burned. After burning, the ashes were mixed with incense and placed in an urn. The ceremony ended with an appeal to the shadow of the deceased, sprinkling those present with consecrated water and pronouncing the words "it's time to go."

The usual daily routine of a Roman: morning breakfast - business - afternoon breakfast - bathing - lunch. The timing of morning and afternoon breakfast varied, while lunchtime was fixed at about half past two in winter and half past three in summer. Bathing lasted about an hour, and lunch - from three to six to eight hours (often before dark); after that, they usually went to sleep. Breakfast consisted of bread dipped in wine or a weak solution of vinegar, cheese, dates, cold meat or ham. Several dishes were served for dinner: appetizer (fish, soft cheese, eggs, sausages), lunch proper (meat, mostly pork, pie), dessert (apricots, plums, quinces, peaches, oranges, olives); at the end of dinner they drank wine, usually diluted and chilled (Falerno was the favorite). There were no forks, food was taken by hand. Dinner rarely did without guests and involved the communication of companions; they reclined around a small table on stone couches covered with fabrics and cushions; they were entertained by jesters and comedians, sometimes by musicians and poets.

The underwear for men and women was a tunic - a shirt like a Greek tunic, belted around the hips; in the early period, a short (knee-length) sleeveless tunic was preferred; later, the tunic became wider and longer (to the feet) with one-piece or split sleeves. On the tunic, married women put on a table (a long shirt made of expensive fabric with sleeves and a belt) and a strophium (a corset made of thin leather that supports the chest and makes it fuller); girls who were not supposed to have too full breasts, on the contrary, tightened it with a bandage. Toga served as outerwear for men (a cloak, the half of which was thrown over the left shoulder, leaving the right open. Until the beginning of the 1st century BC, the toga was modest; then it began to be decorated with numerous folds. The color of the toga testified to the status of its wearer (purple , embroidered with golden palms, for victorious commanders, white with a purple border for officials, etc.) To protect against the weather, they wore a cloak with a hood (penula). Greek chlamys and a short (sagum) for an ordinary warrior. From the Gauls, the Romans borrowed trousers; they mostly wore short ones to the knees and not very wide. Outerwear for women was a palla - a cross between a cloak and a wide tunic; sometimes it looked like a toga. Tunic was considered home and work clothing, toga and palla - front and festive.Unlike Greek, Roman clothing was sewn together, it was usually wrapped or fastened with buckles, buttons were practically not used. In the early period they wore woolen clothes, later - linen and silk. The men walked around with their heads uncovered; in bad weather it was covered with a hood or a toga was pulled over it. Women threw a veil over their heads or covered their faces; then they began to use bandages and round caps, sometimes covered with gold or silver mesh. Initially, footwear was limited to sandals (only in the house) and shoes that covered the entire foot to the ankle; then one-piece or split lace-up boots, half boots and boots with straps are distributed. The soldiers had rough shoes (kaligi). The Romans also knew gloves that they wore during hard work and in cold weather; cases of their use during a meal are also known.

Until the beginning of the III century. BC. the Romans wore long hair and beards; from 290 BC thanks to the Sicilian barbers who arrived in Rome, haircuts and shavings became a custom. The fashion for beards returned in the imperial era (especially under Hadrian). The oldest female hairstyle - hair combed in the middle and tied in a knot at the back of the head; under the influence of the Greeks, perm gradually spread. At the end of the II century. BC. in Rome, wigs from Asia appeared, which gained particular popularity in the 1st century BC. BC. The Romans (especially the Roman women) took care of the beauty of the face (rouge, ointments, dough mixed with donkey milk, powdered rice and bean flour), healthy teeth (cleaned them with pumice powder or chewed mastic; artificial teeth and even jaws are known) and about body hygiene (washed daily and anointed with ointments); in Rome, bathing became a special ritual. In the early era, the Romans practically did not wear jewelry, rings at best; Gradually, especially among women, neck chains, necklaces, bracelets, diadems came into use.

Foreign historiography.

The scientific historiography of Ancient Rome dates back to the creator of the historical-critical method, the German scientist G.B. Niebuhr (1776–1831), who applied it to the analysis of the legendary Roman tradition; his name is also associated with the beginning of a serious study of the social evolution of Roman society. The first researcher of the Roman economy was the Frenchman M. Dureau de La Malle (1777–1857), who put forward a hypothesis about its purely slave-owning nature. However, until the middle of the 19th century. scholars focused on political history. In the second half of the 19th - early 20th century. there is a significant historiographic rise, due primarily to the expansion of the source base (epigraphic material) and the use of the historical-comparative method. The leading position is occupied by the German school headed by T. Mommsen; French (A. Vallon, F. de Coulange) and English (C. Merivel) schools compete with it. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. a hypercritical direction arises (E. Pais), interest in socio-economic history (E. Meyer, K. Bucher, M. Weber), the struggle of classes and estates (R. Pelman, G. Ferrero), the outskirts of the Roman world - Gaul ( C. Jullian), North Africa (J. Toutain), Britain (R. Holmes); the scientific study of early Christianity is progressing (A. Harnak). The modernizing interpretation of Roman history is spreading (the school of E. Meyer), attempts are being made to consider it from the point of view of racial theory (O. Zeek).

After the First World War, the importance of archaeological research increased (Pompeii, Ostia), the prosopographic method was introduced (M. Geltzer, F. Müntzer). Fundamental collective works on Roman history appear ( Cambridge ancient history in England, General History of Antiquity in France, History of Rome in Italy). The leading role goes to the French (L. Omo, J. Carcopino, A. Piganol) and English (R. Skallard, R. Syme, A. Duff) schools. An active study of socio-economic issues continues, primarily from modernizing positions (M. Rostovtsev, T. Frank, J. Tutin).

In the second half of the 20th century the influence of the modernizing direction is noticeably weakening: more and more emphasis is placed on the difference between the Roman economy and the modern one (M. Finlay), the thesis is put forward about the limited role of slavery in Roman society (W. Westerman, the school of I. Voigt), the postulate of the absolute lack of rights of slaves is criticized (K .Hopkins, J. Dumont), indirect forms of expression of social contradictions are studied (R. McMullen). One of the main debatable issues is the question of the causes of the fall of the Roman Empire (F. Altheim, A. Jones) and the nature of the transition (continuity or gap) from antiquity to the Middle Ages (G. Marron, T. Barnes, E. Thompson). At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. interest in the ecological factor of Roman history, the influence of the natural environment and landscape on social relations, political institutions and culture is growing (K. Schubert, E. Milliario, D. Barker).

Domestic historiography.

The tradition of scientific study of Roman history arose in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. (D.L. Kryukov, M.S. Kutorga, T.N. Granovsky, S.V. Eshevsky). The object of research by Russian scientists was mainly political history, socio-political institutions, social ideology, religious consciousness; in the second half of the 19th century. the leading positions were occupied by the historical-philological (F.F.Sokolov, I.V.Pomyalovsky, I.V.Tsvetaev) and cultural-historical directions (V.G.Vasilyevsky, F.G.Mishchenko). At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. increased attention to socio-economic issues (R.Yu. Vipper, M.M. Khvostov, M.I. Rostovtsev). After 1917, Russian historiography refocused on the study of material culture, socio-economic relations, and the class struggle. The concept of the ancient socio-economic formation and the slave-owning mode of production was actively developed (S.I. Kovalev, V.S. Sergeev). The theory of the "revolution of slaves" in Roman society was put forward (S.I. Kovalev and A.V. Mishulin). Issues related to slavery (E.M. Shtaerman, L.A. Elnitsky) and the economic system (M.E. Sergeenko, V.I. Kuzishchin) also dominated in the 1960s–1980s, but interest in history gradually increased Roman culture (A.F. Losev, V.V. Bychkov, V.I. Ukolova, E.S. Golubtsova). Since the late 1980s, the thematic spectrum and methodological base of Russian historiography has expanded significantly. An important direction was the study of the history of everyday life, socio-cultural and ethno-cultural processes (G.S. Knabe, A.B. Kovelman).

Ivan Krivushin

Literature:

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History of Roman literature, tt. 1–2. M., 1959–1961
Bokshchanin A.G. Parthia and Rome, ch. 1–2. M., 1960–1966
Plutarch. Comparative biographies, tt. 1–3. M., 1961–1964
Nemirovsky A.I. History of early Rome and Italy. Voronezh, 1962
Varro Terence. About agriculture. M. - L., 1964
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Laws of the XII tables. Guyanese Institutions. Digests of Justinian. M., 1977
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Letters from Pliny the Younger. M., 1984
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Historians of antiquity, vol. 2. M., 1989
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When the Roman civil community subjugated most of the known world, its state structure ceased to correspond to reality. It was possible to restore the balance in the administration of the provinces only under the conditions of the empire. The idea of ​​autocracy took shape in Julius Caesar and entrenched in the state under Octavian Augustus.

Rise of the Roman Empire

After the death of Julius Caesar, a civil war broke out in the republic between Octavian Augustus and Mark Antony. The first, in addition, killed the son and heir of Caesar - Caesarion, eliminating the opportunity to challenge his right to power.

Defeating Antony at the Battle of Actium, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome, taking the title of emperor and turning the republic into an empire in 27 BC. Although the power structure was changed, the flag of the new country did not change - it remained an eagle depicted on a red background.

Rome's transition from republic to empire was not an overnight process. The history of the Roman Empire is usually divided into two periods - before and after Diocletian. During the first period, the emperor was elected for life and next to him was the Senate, while during the second period the emperor had absolute power.

Diocletian, on the other hand, changed the procedure for obtaining power, passing it on by inheritance and expanding the functions of the emperor, while Constantine gave it a divine character, religiously substantiating its legitimacy.

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Roman Empire at its height

During the years of the existence of the Roman Empire, many wars were fought and a huge number of territories were annexed. In domestic policy, the activities of the first emperors were aimed at the Romanization of the conquered lands, at appeasing the peoples. In foreign policy - to protect and expand borders.

Rice. 2. The Roman Empire under Trajan.

In order to protect against the raids of the barbarians, the Romans built fortified ramparts, called by the names of the emperors under whom they were built. Thus, the Lower and Upper Trajan's ramparts in Bessarabia and Romania are known, as well as the 117-kilometer Hadrian's Wall in Britain, which has survived to this day.

August made a special contribution to the development of the regions of the empire. He expanded the road network of the empire, established strict supervision of the governors, conquered the Danube tribes and fought successfully with the Germans, securing the northern borders.

Under the Flavian dynasty, Palestine was finally conquered, the uprisings of the Gauls and Germans were suppressed, and the Romanization of Britain was completed.

The empire reached its highest territorial scope under the emperor Trajan (98-117). The Danubian lands underwent Romanization, the Dacians were conquered, and a struggle was waged against the Parthians. Adrian, who replaced him, on the contrary, was engaged in purely internal affairs of the country. He constantly visited the provinces, improved the work of the bureaucracy, built new roads.

With the death of Emperor Commodus (192), the period of "soldier" emperors begins. The legionnaires of Rome, at their whim, overthrew and installed new rulers, which caused the growth of the influence of the provinces over the center. The “epoch of 30 tyrants” is coming, which resulted in a terrible turmoil. Only by 270 did Aurelius manage to establish the unity of the empire and repel the attacks of external enemies.

Emperor Diocletian (284-305) understood the need for urgent reforms. Thanks to him, a true monarchy was established, and a system of dividing the empire into four parts under the control of four rulers was also introduced.

This need was justified by the fact that, due to their huge size, communications in the empire were very stretched and news of barbarian invasions reached the capital very late, and in the eastern regions of the empire, the popular language was not Latin, but Greek and in money circulation instead of the denarius drachma went.

With this reform, the integrity of the empire was strengthened. His successor, Constantine, officially entered into an alliance with the Christians, making them his support. Maybe that's why it was moved. political center empire to the east - to Constantinople.

Decline of an empire

In 364, the structure of the division of the Roman Empire into administrative parts was changed. Valentinian I and Valens divided the state into two parts - eastern and western. This division corresponded to the basic conditions of historical life. Romanism triumphed in the West, Hellenism triumphed in the East. The main task of the western part of the empire was to contain the advancing barbarian tribes, using not only weapons, but also diplomacy. Roman society became a camp where every stratum of society served this purpose. Mercenaries began to form the basis of the empire's army more and more. Barbarians in the service of Rome protected it from other barbarians. In the East, everything was more or less calm and Constantinople was engaged in domestic politics, strengthening its power and strength in the region. The empire united several more times under the rule of one emperor, but these were only temporary successes.

Rice. 3. Division of the Roman Empire in 395.

Theodosius I is the last emperor who united the two parts of the empire together. In 395, dying, he divided the country between his sons Honorius and Arcadius, giving the eastern lands to the latter. After that, no one will succeed in uniting the two parts of the vast empire again.

What have we learned?

How long did the Roman Empire last? Speaking briefly about the beginning and end of the Roman Empire, we can say that it was 422 years. It inspired fear in the barbarians from the moment of its formation and beckoned with its riches when it collapsed. The empire was so large and technologically advanced that we still use the fruits of Roman culture.

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The report on the topic "Ancient Rome" will tell about the culture and life in this country. "Ancient Rome" report grade 5 can present in the history lesson.

"Ancient Rome" report

Ancient Rome- a powerful ancient civilization that got its name from the capital - Rome. His dominions stretched from England in the north to Ethiopia in the south, from Iran in the east to Portugal in the west. The legend prescribes the founding of the city of Rome to the brothers Romulus and Remus.

The history of ancient Rome dates back to 753 BC. e. and ends in 476 AD. e.

In the development of the culture of Ancient Rome, the following main periods can be distinguished:

1. Etruscan VIII-II century BC e.
2. "royal" VIII-VI century BC. e.
3. Roman Republic 510-31 BC e.
4. Roman Empire 31 years. BC e. - 476 AD e.

What did the ancient Romans do?

Rome was originally a small city-state. Its population consisted of three estates:

• patricians - indigenous people who occupied a privileged position in society;
• plebeians - later settlers;
• foreign slaves - they were captured during the wars waged by the Roman state, as well as their own citizens who became slaves for breaking the law.

Slaves did housework, hard work in agriculture, worked in quarries.
The patricians received servants, talked with friends, studied law, military art, visited libraries and entertainment establishments. Only they could hold government positions and be military leaders.
The plebeians in all spheres of life were dependent on the patricians. They could not govern the state and command the troops. They had only small plots of land at their disposal. The plebeians were engaged in trade, various crafts - processing of stone, leather, metal, etc.

All work was done in the morning hours. After lunch, the residents rested and visited the baths with thermal waters. Noble Romans could go to libraries, to the theater.

The political system of ancient Rome

The entire 12-century path of the Roman state consisted of several periods. Initially, it was an elective monarchy headed by a king. The king ruled the state, and performed the duties of the high priest. There was also a senate, which included 300 senators, chosen by the patricians from among their elders. Initially, only the patricians participated in the popular assemblies, but in a later period, the plebeians also achieved these rights.

After the expulsion of the last king at the end of the VI century. BC, a republican system was established in Rome. Instead of a single monarch, 2 consuls were elected annually, who ruled the country together with the Senate. If Rome was in serious danger, a dictator with unlimited power was appointed.
Having created a strong, well-organized army, Rome conquers the entire Apennine Peninsula, defeats its main rival - Kargafen, conquers Greece and other Mediterranean states. And by the 1st century BC, it turns into a world power, the borders of which passed through three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa.
The republican system could not maintain order in an overgrown state. Several dozen of the richest families began to dominate the Senate. They appointed governors who ruled in the conquered territories. The governors shamelessly robbed both ordinary people and wealthy provincials. In response to this, uprisings and civil wars began, which lasted for almost a century. In the end, the victorious ruler became emperor, and the state became known as an empire.

Education in ancient Rome

The main goal of the Romans was to raise a strong, healthy, self-confident generation.
Boys from low-income families were taught by their fathers to plow and sow, and were introduced to various crafts.
Girls were prepared for the role of wife, mother and mistress of the house - they were taught to cook, sew and other women's activities.

There were three levels of schools in Rome:

• elementary schools, gave students basic skills in reading, writing and mathematics.
• Grammar schools taught boys from 12 to 16 years old. Teachers of such schools are more educated and occupied a fairly high position in society. Special textbooks and anthologies were created for these schools.
• The aristocrats sought to educate their children in rhetorical schools. Boys were taught not only grammar and literature, but also music, astronomy, history and philosophy, medicine, oratory and fencing.

All schools were private. The tuition fees in rhetorical schools were high, so the children of rich and noble Romans studied there.

Roman heritage

Ancient Rome left a great cultural and artistic heritage to mankind: poetic works, oratorical works, philosophical works of Lucretius Cara. Roman law, Latin language - This is the legacy of the ancient Romans.

The Romans created age-old architecture. One of the great buildings Coliseum. hard work the construction was carried out by 12 thousand slaves from Judea. They used a new building material created by them - concrete, new architectural forms - a dome and an arch. The Colosseum held over 50,000 spectators.

Another architectural masterpiece is Pantheon, i.e. temple complex of the Roman gods. This structure is in the form of a dome about 43 m high. At the top of the dome there was a hole with a diameter of 9 m. Sunlight penetrated through it into the hall.

The Romans were rightly proud of the aqueducts - water pipes, through which water flowed into the city. The total length of the aqueducts leading to Rome was 350 km! Some of them went to public baths.

To strengthen their power, the Roman emperors widely used a variety of mass spectacles. Caesar in 46 ordered to dig a lake on the Campus Martius, on which a battle was organized between the Syrian and Egyptian fleets. 2000 rowers and 1000 sailors took part in it. And the emperor Claudius staged a battle of the Sicilian and Rhodes fleets on Lake Futsin with the participation of 19,000 people. These spectacles impressed with their scale and splendor, convincing the audience of the power of the rulers of Rome.

Why did the Roman Empire fall? Scientists believe that the state and military power of the Romans was not able to manage such a huge empire.

­ A Brief History of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was one of the most powerful civilizations in the history of mankind. Its history dates back to the founding of Rome in the 8th century BC. and lasts until the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. This centuries-old period is divided into three parts: royal, republican and imperial.

Rome itself was founded by the Italic tribes near the Tiber River and was at first a small village. To the north of it lived the Etruscan tribes. According to legend, the Vestal Rhea lived there, who by chance gave birth to two sons from the god Mars - Romulus and Remus. By order of Rhea's brother and father, the children in the basket were thrown into the river and nailed to the Palatine Hill, where they were fed by a she-wolf. Subsequently, on this hill in 753 BC Romulus built Rome, and the she-wolf became a sacred animal for the city.

At times Tsarist period(VIII century BC - VI century BC) Ancient Rome was ruled by seven kings in turn. In the VIII century, the Romans became friends with the Sabines and their king Tatius ruled jointly with Romulus. However, after the death of Tatius, Romulus became the king of the united peoples. He created the Senate and strengthened the Palatine. The next king was Numa Pompilius. He was famous for his piety and justice, for which he was elected by the Senate. The third king, Tullus Hostilius, was distinguished by militancy and often fought with neighboring cities.

After his death, the Sabine Ankh Marcius came to power, who significantly expanded the city to the sea coast. IN royal period Rome was alternately ruled by Latins, Sabines or Etruscan rulers. One of the wisest rulers was Servius Tullius of Corniculum. Once he was captured by the Romans, became the successor of Tsar Tarquinius the Ancient and married his daughter. After the death of the king, he was unanimously elected by the Senate. At the beginning of the VI century BC. through the efforts of the Latin-Sabine patricians, the royal power in Rome fell and came Republican period, lasting up to about 30 BC

This period was quite long, so it is customary to divide it into two parts: the Early Roman Republic and the Late Roman Republic. The early period was marked by the struggle of the patricians (tribal aristocracy) and the plebeians (descendants of the defeated people). Patricians were born with the privileges of the highest caste, and the plebeians were not even allowed to enter into legal marriages or carry weapons with them. The republic was ruled by two consuls from the patrician caste. This state of affairs could not last long, so the plebeians organized a riot.

They demanded the abolition of debt interest, the right to participate in the senate and other privileges. Due to the fact that their military role in the country increased, the patricians had to make concessions and by the end of the 3rd century BC. the plebeians had the same rights and opportunities as the "higher caste". During this same period, the Romans were involved in a series of wars that resulted in the conquest of Italy. TO 264 BC Rome became the leading power in the Mediterranean. The late period of the formation of the Republic was marked by a series of Punic Wars, during which the Romans took Carthage.