Usually alternative history explores the consequences of certain decisions that people might have made at certain historical moments. And if we do not live in a completely deterministic Universe and can go even further in time, having studied the possibilities of the existence of various Earths?

If Pangea had not collapsed?

Between three and two hundred million years ago, the world's continents were connected into a monolithic ingot of land, which is now called Pangea. It gradually crumbled into pieces, forming the continents we now know. At the same time, curious things were happening on the planet. geological histories. For example, India, crashing into lower part Asia, caused the growth of the Himalayas. What would happen if there was no tectonic drift, and Pangea still occupied the whole hemisphere, leaving on the other Tethys, the world ocean of incredible size?

We probably wouldn't have that much variety. biological world. For the development of different species implies the presence of geographic isolation, causing selective pressure, leading to the development of fresh genetic traits. The vast majority of the interior of such a continent would be arid. After all, clouds that carry moisture could not reach the center of such big piece sushi. Overweight would have influenced the rotation of our planet, and most of it would have been equatorial hot regions.

Compared to what we have, the Earth would become a couple of tens of degrees Celsius warmer in summer. This would lead to incredible typhoons due to the extraordinary circulation system in Tethys. After all, only small ones could prevent them continental shelves and small island chains.

In the second historical period of such a Pangea, the tropics with monsoon regions rich in water would have been inhabited by mammals. Reptiles would have remained predominantly in arid large areas. After all, mammals require much more water. As the study of sections of Pangean fossils shows, the now extinct ancestor of the very first mammals, traversodont cynodont, dominated the regions of the tropics. In more temperate regions, procolophonoid lived. These are stocky lizards that vaguely resemble modern turtles.

The various regions of what is now Pangea may well have had a completely different distribution of life: mammals in the humid and hot tropics, pseudo-reptiles and reptiles in the temperate and dry regions. The relative stagnation of the entire environment unlikely to allow intelligent life to emerge. But with luck, it would have a strong impact on regions with the opposite climate.

What if the earth's axis were not tilted?


As time passes, we follow the changing seasons as a result of the tilt of the earth's axis. The planet revolves around the sun, and different hemispheres are subject to different influences. sunlight. If the earth's axis had not tilted by 23 degrees, the daylight hours in any region of the planet would have lasted about twelve hours, and only at the poles the Sun would have been invariably on the horizon.

The weather would become more uniform, changes would only occur as a result of changes during the year, depending on the distance between the Sun and the Earth. The northern latitudes would be dominated by eternal winter, and at the equator there would be humid tropics and heavy downpours would occur. In a southerly or northerly direction from the equator, there would be regions with eternal summer, autumn or spring, and also winter. The earth would become less habitable as we approached the poles.

Many believe that the tilt of the Earth was caused by a collision with a large object, which also caused the formation of the Moon. According to the theory rare earth, this event had a wonderful impact on the development of life. Without axial tilt, the planet could be left without an atmosphere. Indeed, at the equator, gases will evaporate into space due to an excessive excess of sunlight, while at the poles they will freeze and settle.

If life survives under such conditions, they can be fatal to any intelligent species like ours. If there are no seasons, but constant tropical rains, it will be impossible to grow crops in the current way. It will be difficult for an intelligent species to start an industrial revolution. After all, it was due mainly to technologies that warmed our homes during the cold months of winter.

What if the planet had a different tilt or rotation?

A change in the inclination of the Earth's axis will significantly change the climate and the environment. After all, the difference in angle changes the amount of sunlight reaching the planet, as well as the severity of all seasons. Tilt the earth ninety degrees and the change of seasons becomes just extreme. In this case, as the planet rotates around the Sun, the poles in turn would be directly on the Sun, at right angles to it. While one of the hemispheres would be bathed in high temperatures and sunlight, the other would be in a state of extremely cold darkness.


 Three months later, the angle of the poles with respect to the Sun would decrease, and the regions of the equator would receive twelve hours of sun and darkness daily, while the Star, rising in the north, sets in the south.

It is unlikely that life could develop on such a world due to the annual cycles of summer radiation sterilization and winter deep freeze. True, there are organisms on Earth called extremophiles that can withstand such conditions. If extremophiles were able to develop in sufficiently difficult living conditions, they would very likely have an incredible ability to hibernate or adapt through migration.

Chris Vaillant, a conceptualist and artist, has studied several scenarios for changing the point around which our planet turns. In one scenario, called "Sea Pole", he tilted the Earth so that both poles were under water, then extrapolating this effect to the climate. It removed the ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica, creating a wetter, warm world with potentially active biomass as well as species diversity.

"Shiveria", the reverse scenario, implied a room ice caps at two ends of the earth: in North America and China. This is done to create a dry and cold world. True, Mediterranean tropics would appear in Antarctica.

Turning the globe upside down, you can completely reverse the winds, water flows, rain manifestations. A world will be created with deserts in place of North America and China, however, in general, with a more favorable situation for life.

What would happen if South America were an island continent?


 From the final jurassic until the period that started three and a half million years ago, South and North America were separated by water. On both continents, independent evolution lasted for almost 160 million years. Insignificant biotic exchange was through the emerging caribbean 80 million years ago, and also - through the Central American Peninsula - 20 million years ago.

In those days, America, like Australia, South America was inhabited by marsupials. In addition, there were unusual placental hoofed animals, among others, and the first camels. There were also toothless ancestors of anteaters, sloths and armadillos.

All living marsupials actually originate from South America, with the genetic ancestors of opossums and kangaroos common to all. Probably, among the South American marsupials there were many marsupial carnivorous borhyaenoid predators. They resembled saber-toothed tigers, dogs, weasels and bears. True, scientists are not yet sure that they bore cubs in bags.

After the connection of the two American continents, the mammals of North America spread throughout South America. At the same time, they replaced most of the marsupial species. Meanwhile, South American birds, reptiles and some mammals have moved north.

If these continents never connected, it is likely that many marsupials would have survived by now, creating an alien, wild Australia environment. If humans or a close analogue arrived on the southern continent, they would bring placental mammals from Eurasia, causing a potential crisis of extinction, similar to what is happening in the modern world with Australian marsupials.

What if the Mediterranean remained closed?

The Strait of Gibraltar closed about six million years ago. The Mediterranean turned out to be connected with the Atlantic only by a couple of small channels. The results were deplorable. Despite the fact that tectonic movement pushed Africa towards Europe, allowing the water to flow out the channel was sealed. However, salt water was still looking for a way out. Mediterranean water began to evaporate without an outlet, creating the widest, very salty Dead Sea. The layer of salt formed at the bottom reaches a height of one and a half kilometers. He provoked the extinction of the main part of marine life. This turned out to be the Messinian peak of salinity.

Hundreds of thousands of years later, after the Zunkleen Flood, the Mediterranean reconnected to the Atlantic. In the process, the sea quickly filled up, land crossings between North Africa and Europe were flooded, and animal species were isolated on the islands. Here they were speciated. The Atlantic sea waters forced them to quickly adapt to the new colonization of the Mediterranean.

If this never happened, and the Mediterranean remained a real frying pan with dried salt? It is possible that in this case people could have reached Europe much earlier by migrating through the salty lowlands without making a significant detour through the Middle East. Salt is a valuable resource. With the development of civilization, the cultures living in the region would probably use this resource for trade with remote territories of Asia and Africa. With salt essential for the survival of grain-eating people, the growing availability of salt could lead to more successful and faster development of agriculture in the Western part of the planet. Yet salt may not have been as valuable due to its abundance and symbolic value.

And if there were no significant metal deposits on the planet?

Animals and humans require metals to survive. And what would happen if metals such as copper were not concentrated in exploited deposits? Or if they were in regions inaccessible to the first people: on the polar caps or in the ocean?

Of course, the development of more advanced, efficient Stone Age technologies would not have been interrupted. But, apparently, the general vector of development would be closed to humanity or other intelligent life that would arise in such a world.

The transition from the Classical Neolithic era would have happened without metals. For an agricultural revolution would bring about a concentration of population and the creation of settlements. A wheel with a plow would have made a revolution in the life of the people of the Stone Age, however, the absence of any valuable metals can interrupt the development of trade, mining, even social classes. The presence in America of complex civilizations without metals suggests that something similar would be possible in Eurasia. And yet, if metals like silver and gold were not available, the art and economics of such cultures would not be bright enough.

The relative absence of metals in Mesoamerica led to a rather ingenious use of obsidian. After all, volcanic glass can be quite fragile, but also sharp, like a modern scalpel. The ancient Aztecs used obsidian to create double-edged swords, knives, arrowheads and spears. Volcanic glass also had the deepest religious significance. Its natural value became one of the reasons for the Aztec passion for total self-sacrifice. With such sharp blades, the process of cutting off someone's ear or tongue to bleed while performing religious rites was not as painful as we think.

Imported from the Middle East and Ethiopia, obsidian was also used in Egypt. Its use for making sickle blades and knives gradually declined in the pre-dynastic period as metallurgy developed. At the same time, everyone appreciated obsidian as an artistic material. In the absence of metals, the interest in obsidian could have increased in the Egyptian civilization, while expanding into East Africa and the Middle East in search of significant sources of volcanic glass. One of the richest European sources of obsidian was the region around the Carpathian Mountains. A whole culture of connoisseurs of glass swords could have appeared here.

We don't know how complex a culture using only ceramics, stone and glass could become. Many achievements in cooking, transport, engineering could become impossible. There is no question of the industrial revolution. True, such societies are able to make good progress in medicine or astronomy, they still would hardly be able to reach the moon.

What if the Sahara were still wet?

Five thousand years ago, the Sahara was a flourishing place with meadows and lakes, inhabited by giraffes and hippos. In those days there was a humid African period. But scientists still do not know the approximate dates of its beginning and end. Just such a climate made it possible for the first people from Africa to migrate. Otherwise, the Sahara would be a significant obstacle. The transition to real desert conditions apparently occurred about three thousand years ago, forcing local residents to migrate to regions that are more suitable for life.

What if this wet period never ended? In those days, there were several large lakes in the south of Libya. Yes, and Lake Chad was much larger. In the vicinity of these reservoirs, civilizations actively used tools, creating real works of primitive art. They left a lot of artifacts and bones now buried in impregnable sands. A group of paleontologists in 2000 was looking for dinosaur bones in the south of Niger, and came across the remains of dozens prominent representatives human kind. They also found beads, clay shards, stone tools, as well as the bones of an incredible number of fish, crocodiles, hippos, mollusks, turtles.

The expedition that followed three years later managed to discover at least 173 burial sites. According to the structure of the skull, these tribes were attributed to the now extinct tribes of the Tenerian and Kiffian cultures. As fossil evidence has shown, the Sudanese desert regions were once home to large herds of fairly large cattle.

Historically, the Sahara has become a barrier separating culture south of the desert from North African and Mediterranean cultures. And if the technologies of the fertile crescent did not allow crossing the Sahara without problems, most European developments might never appear south of the desert. I would have to create them myself.

But at the same time, with the “living” Sahara, settled cities, as well as centralized states, could have developed in this region for a very long time. The area occupied by civilized peoples would increase, the greatest ancient trade routes would grow. Moreover, the exchange between Eurasia and Africa would increase: cultural, linguistic and genetic. Tropical diseases would become a problem in some regions. Also, certain cultures of the wet Sahara could have different level development. But still, in general, the level of human civilization would become higher. The Sahara could be a real home to a whole significant civilization like China's. And this would have no less significant consequences for the development of European and Mediterranean civilizations.

What if there was no Gulf Stream?

The Gulf Stream is one of the most important ocean currents located in the northern hemisphere between Florida and Northwest Europe. Carrying warm Caribbean waters across the Atlantic, it warms Europe. Northern Europe without the Gulf Stream could be as cold as Canada at similar latitudes. This system is regulated by the difference in salinity and water temperature. The saltier, colder, denser waters of the North Atlantic flow south until they become less dense as they warm up. After that, they flow back towards the north. This system was repeatedly closed due to the influx fresh water and changes in the amount of solar energy reaching our planet. The Gulf Stream returned just over eleven and a half millennia ago, at the end of the last ice age. This might not have happened if there had been insufficient solar power. Northwest Europe would then be threatened by Ice Age conditions for a longer period of time, the Arctic ice cap would increase, as would the Alpine glaciers.

Perhaps this area would become unsuitable for the development of civilization and agriculture. The inhabitants of the European northwest might look more like the Inuit or the Sami than the historical civilizations of the present world. Western civilizations would be limited to the Middle East, North Africa and the Mediterranean. There is a plus in this, it could be too cold for the Central Asian tribes like the Mongols and Huns, who swept like a tornado and cut out literally everyone.

An equally curious scenario would occur if, after the development of a settled civilization, the Gulf Stream returned. At the same time, the ice would retreat, which means that a new frontier would open for the conquest and colonization of the cramped cities located along the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

What if Doggerland still existed?

Before the period that started 8200 years ago, there was a piece of lowland land in the North Sea, called British Atlantis, or Doggerland. It was the remnant of the great Doggerland, which covered almost the entire region of the North Sea with hilly vast lands, swamps, lowlands and valleys well covered with forests, which were inhabited by Mesolithic people. Its inhabitants migrated in conjunction with the seasons, gathered berries and hunted for survival. In the North Sea, along with the bones of animals, their artifacts are sometimes found. Changes in climate led to gradual flooding this region whose residents had to move on.

The last part of the large Doggerland was located on the site of the current Dogger Bank, which lies slightly below the waters of the North Sea. According to the results last analysis, this piece of sushi was the last. Its inhabitants were destroyed 8200 years ago by a five-meter tsunami called Sturegga, caused in turn by a landslide of three thousand cubic meters of sedimentary rocks.

What if the Dogger Bank had been higher or the Sturegg event never happened?

If people managed to survive in this region, they would greatly influence the development of civilization, but because of their isolation with some delay. Perhaps the inhabitants of the Mesolithic would have been forced out of the mainland by the Neolithic invaders, who, in turn, as in the British Isles, would have been driven out by the Celtic invaders.

Probably later the Celts could have been supplanted by the expansion of the German invaders. Indeed, in Doggerland the density of the Celtic population would be less significant than in mainland Europe or the British Isles. The northern German settlers of Doggerland could become cultural intermediaries between British and Norse cultures. The Balts could also colonize Doggerland, another group that existed, but died out or never existed at all in our world.

The surviving Doggerland, despite this, would become extremely susceptible to climate change. Global warming would represent for Doggerland a large number of the same problems as for the low-lying Pacific islands. However, a developed and healthy northern European country, facing the threat of extinction, could have a significant impact on European environmental policy.

And if it were less ice during ice ages?


 Stephen Dutch of the University of Wisconsin presented a study by the Geological Society of America in 2006 on the likely consequences of less "ice-filled" ice ages. He imagined what might have happened if the North American ice sheets had never gone beyond the Canadian border, and the Scandinavian and Scottish ice sheets had never united. The result would show up. The Missouri River would have retained its original course towards Hudson Bay. The Ohio River with the Great Lakes, in principle, would not have formed, and the English Channel would not have existed at all.

In the modern world, after the formation of the Scottish and Scandinavian ice caps, they created a huge periglacial lake that overflowed the Rhine-Thames river system and created the English Channel. If these two caps did not connect, the water would flow in a northerly direction and would leave a land bridge connecting continental Europe with England. The historical British defensive advantage over continental Europe would not exist in principle. This would have a significant impact on the settlement, migration, cultural spread of people throughout the West.

In North America, meanwhile, the absence of ice caps would change the algorithm of activity drainage systems. The pre-Pleistocene River Teys would still exist. The ancient advantage would have been retained by the Niagara River. In this case, the famous Niagara Falls would not exist. The easiest way to cross the Appalachians would be the St. Lawrence River. Thus, the structure of colonization would change greatly. Meanwhile, changes in the Missouri River would have wiped out the convenient waterways to the west from the east used by Clark and Lewis for expeditions.

A reduction in the number of waterways would lead to a significant slowdown in the expansion of the European invaders across the North American continent. They probably would have headed north. As a result, people could appear who resemble a mixture of two cultures: French and English. And perhaps we cannot even imagine such people!

Earth's climate has big amount patterns and is formed under the influence of many factors. At the same time, it is fair to attribute to it a variety of phenomena in the atmosphere. The climatic state of our planet largely determines the state of natural environment and human activities, especially economic.

The climatic conditions of the Earth are formed by three large-scale geophysical processes of a cyclic type:

  • Heat transfer- exchange of heat between the earth's surface and the atmosphere.
  • moisture circulation- the intensity of water evaporation into the atmosphere and its correlation with the level of precipitation.
  • General atmospheric circulation- a set of air currents over the Earth. The state of the troposphere is determined by the features of the distribution air masses, for which cyclones and anticyclones are responsible. Atmospheric circulation occurs due to the unequal distribution of atmospheric pressure, which is due to the division of the planet into land and water bodies, as well as uneven access to ultraviolet radiation. The intensity of the sun's rays is determined not only by geographical features, but also the proximity of the ocean, the frequency of precipitation.

Climate should be distinguished from weather, which is the state of the environment at the current moment. However, weather characteristics are often the subject of climatology, or even the most important factors in changing the Earth's climate. In the development of the earth's climate, as well as weather conditions heat level plays a special role. Also, the climate is influenced by sea currents and relief features, in particular, the proximity of mountain ranges. An equally important role belongs prevailing winds: warm or cold.

In the study of the Earth's climate, careful attention is paid to such meteorological phenomena, How Atmosphere pressure, relative humidity, wind parameters, temperature indicators, precipitation. They also try to take into account solar radiation in compiling a general planetary picture.

climate-forming factors

  1. Astronomical factors: the brightness of the Sun, the ratio of the Sun and the Earth, the features of the orbits, the density of matter in space. These factors affect the level of solar radiation on our planet, daily weather changes, and the spread of heat between the hemispheres.
  2. Geographic factors: Earth's weight and parameters, gravity, air components, atmospheric mass, ocean currents, character earth relief, sea level, etc. These features determine the level of heat received in accordance with the weather season, continent and hemisphere of the earth.

The industrial revolution led to the inclusion in the list of climate-forming factors of active human activity. However, all characteristics of the Earth's climate are largely influenced by the energy of the Sun and the angle of incidence of ultraviolet rays.

Earth climate types

There are many classifications of the planet's climatic zones. Various researchers take as a basis for separation, both individual characteristics and general circulation atmosphere or geographic component. Most often, the basis for distinguishing a separate type of climate is the solar climate - the influx of solar radiation. The proximity of water bodies and the ratio of land to sea are also important.

The simplest classification identifies 4 basic belts in each hemisphere:

  • equatorial;
  • tropical;
  • moderate;
  • polar.

Between the main zones there are transitional sections. They have the same names, but with the prefix "sub". The first two climates, together with the transitions, can be called hot. In the equatorial region, there is a lot of precipitation. The temperate climate has more pronounced seasonal differences, especially in the case of temperature. As for the cold climate zone, these are the most severe conditions caused by the absence of solar heat and water vapor.

This division takes into account atmospheric circulation. According to the predominance of air masses, it is easier to divide the climate into oceanic, continental, and also the climate of the eastern or western coasts. Some researchers define continental, marine and monsoon climate additionally. Often in climatology there are descriptions of mountainous, arid, nival and humid climates.

Ozone layer

This concept refers to a layer of the stratosphere with an increased level of ozone, which is formed due to the influence of sunlight on molecular oxygen. Due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by atmospheric ozone, the living world is protected from combustion and widespread cancer. Without the ozone layer, which appeared 500 million years ago, the first organisms would not have been able to get out of the water.

Since the second half of the 20th century, it has been customary to talk about the problem of the "ozone hole" - a local decrease in the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. The main factor of such change is anthropogenic in nature. The ozone hole can lead to increased mortality of living organisms.

Global changes in the Earth's climate

(Increase in mean air temperature over the past century since the 1900s)

Large-scale climate transformations are considered by some scientists as a natural process. Others believe that this is a harbinger of a global catastrophe. Such changes mean a strong warming of the air masses, an increase in the level of aridity and a softening of winters. Also we are talking about frequent hurricanes, typhoons, floods and droughts. The cause of climate change is the instability of the Sun, which leads to magnetic storms. Changes in the earth's orbit, the outlines of the oceans and continents, and volcanic eruptions also play a role. The greenhouse effect is also often associated with destructive human activities, namely: atmospheric pollution, deforestation, plowing land, burning fuel.

Global warming

(Climate change towards warming in the second half of the 20th century)

An increase in the average temperature of the Earth has been recorded since the second half of the 20th century. Scientists believe that this is due to high level greenhouse gases due to human activity. A consequence of the increase in global temperature is a change in precipitation, the growth of deserts, an increase in extreme weather phenomena, extinction of some species, rising sea levels. Worst of all, in the Arctic, this leads to a decrease in glaciers. All together, this can radically change the habitat of various animals and plants, move the boundaries natural areas and cause serious problems with agriculture and human immunity.

The climate within the Earth's surface varies zonal. Most modern classification, which explains the reasons for the formation of a particular type of climate, developed by B.P. Alisov. It is based on the types of air masses and their movement.

air masses- These are significant volumes of air with certain properties, the main of which are temperature and moisture content. The properties of air masses are determined by the properties of the surface over which they form. Air masses form the troposphere like lithospheric plates that make up the earth's crust.

Depending on the area of ​​formation, four main types of air masses are distinguished: equatorial, tropical, temperate (polar) and arctic (antarctic). In addition to the area of ​​formation, the nature of the surface (land or sea) over which air accumulates is also important. In accordance with this, the main zonal types of air masses are divided into maritime and continental.

Arctic air masses are formed in high latitudes, above the ice surface of the polar countries. Arctic air is characterized by low temperatures and low moisture content.

moderate air masses clearly divided into marine and continental. Continental temperate air is characterized by low moisture content, high summer and low winter temperatures. Maritime temperate air forms over the oceans. It is cool in summer, moderately cold in winter, and constantly humid.

Continental tropical air formed over tropical deserts. It is hot and dry. Sea air is characterized by lower temperatures and much higher humidity.

equatorial air, forming a zone at the equator both over the sea and over land, has high temperature and humidity.

Air masses constantly move after the sun: in June - to the north, in January - to the south. As a result, territories are formed on the surface of the earth where one type of air mass dominates during the year and where air masses replace each other according to the seasons of the year.

The main feature of the climate zone is the dominance of certain types of air masses. subdivided into main(during the year, one zonal type of air masses dominates) and transitional(air masses change seasonally). The main climatic zones are designated in accordance with the names of the main zonal types of air masses. In transitional belts, the prefix "sub" is added to the name of the air masses.

Main climatic zones: equatorial, tropical, temperate, arctic (antarctic); transitional: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic.

All climatic zones, except for the equatorial one, are paired, that is, there are both in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

In the equatorial climate zone all year round equatorial air masses dominate, low pressure prevails. It is humid and hot throughout the year. The seasons of the year are not expressed.

Tropical air masses (hot and dry) dominate throughout the year. tropical zones. Due to the downward movement of air that prevails throughout the year, very little precipitation falls. Summer temperatures are higher here than in the equatorial zone. Winds are trade winds.

For temperate zones characterized by the dominance of moderate air masses throughout the year. Westerly air transport prevails. Temperatures are positive in summer and negative in winter. Due to the predominance reduced pressure there is a lot of precipitation, especially on ocean coasts. In winter, precipitation falls in solid form (snow, hail).

In the Arctic (Antarctic) belt Cold and dry arctic air masses dominate throughout the year. Characterized by downward movement of air, north- and southeast winds, predominance of negative temperatures during the year, constant snow cover.

In the subequatorial belt going on seasonal change air masses, the seasons of the year are expressed. Summer is hot and humid due to the arrival of equatorial air masses. In winter, tropical air masses dominate, so it is warm but dry.

In the subtropical zone moderate (summer) and arctic (winter) air masses change. Winter is not only severe, but also dry. Summer significantly warmer than winter, with high rainfall.


Climatic regions are distinguished within the climatic zones With different types climates - maritime, continental, monsoon. Marine type of climate formed under the influence of sea air masses. It is characterized by a small amplitude of air temperature for the seasons of the year, high cloudiness, and a relatively large amount of precipitation. Continental type of climate formed away from the ocean coast. It is distinguished by a significant annual amplitude of air temperatures, a small amount of precipitation, and a distinct expression of the seasons of the year. Monsoon type of climate It is characterized by the change of winds according to the seasons of the year. At the same time, the wind changes direction with the change of season, which affects the precipitation regime. Rainy summers give way to dry winters.

Largest number climatic regions available within the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere.

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IN different countries different climate, from that every corner of the Earth has its own, sometimes unique nature, flora and fauna. This is due to the location of countries in different latitudes and belts on the planet. Therefore, the change of seasons in different countries occurs in different ways.

In the middle latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres, countries have pronounced four seasons with characteristic seasonal changes in nature. In the equatorial zone, almost all the time it is summer, giving way only to the rainy seasons. But at the poles, winter constantly lasts, where for half a year the polar day is replaced by a polar night.

World climate map:

(Click on the image to view it in full size 1765x1280 pxl)

In different countries in their own way amazing nature, vegetable and animal world which depends on the climate of their habitat. from the climate and natural conditions also depends on cultural characteristics, handicrafts and folk crafts of the population of each country in different parts of the world.

Europe is part of the continent of Eurasia, washed by the Atlantic and Arctic oceans, as well as their seas. Most of Europe has a temperate climate.

Western Europe has an oceanic climate. East - continental, which is characterized by snow Cold winter. northern islands- The climate is subarctic. South part Europe - Mediterranean climatic conditions.
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Seasons in Europe:

Asia is the largest territory of the Eurasian continent, washed by the Arctic, Indian and Pacific oceans, as well as their seas and seas Atlantic Ocean. Almost all types of climate are found throughout Asia.

Far North of Asia - arctic climate. East and South - monsoon, Southeast - equatorial. Western Siberia - the climate is continental, in Eastern Siberia - sharply continental. Central Asia has a semi-desert climate, while Southwest Asia has a desert tropical climate.
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Seasons in Asia:

Africa is a large continent that crosses the equator and is in hot weather. climatic zones. The equator passes through the central part of Africa and there is no change of seasons. The north and south of Africa are subequatorial belts, where the rainy season is in summer and the dry season in winter.

In the Northern and Southern tropical zones, which are north and south of the subequatorial belts, the climate is extremely hot and desert with minimal rainfall. North Africa is home to the largest desert, the Sahara. South Africa the Kalahari desert.
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Seasons in Africa:

North and South America

America consists of the continents of North and South America, which also includes the nearest islands along with Greenland. North America is located in the Northern Hemisphere of the globe, washed by the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic oceans and their seas with bays.

The climate in the Far North is arctic, subequatorial in the central part, oceanic near the coast, and continental in the interior of the mainland. South America is located for the most part in the southern hemisphere of the Earth, on the mainland, where the subequatorial and tropical climate with characteristic seasons and rainy seasons.
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Seasons in North and South America:

Australia and Oceania

In Oceania, in the western and central parts Pacific Ocean there is the largest cluster of islands, among which there is a large continent of Australia and the island of New Zealand.

Most of the islands have a tropical climate, Australia and nearby islands have a subtropical climate, most of the island of New Zealand has a temperate climate, while the southern islands of New Zealand, as well as New Guinea, have mountains with melting glaciers.

Climate (other Greekκλίμα (genus p. κλίματος) - slope) - long-term regime weather, characteristic of the area due to its geographical provisions.

Climate is a statistical ensemble of states through which a system passes: hydrosphere → lithosphere → atmosphere for several decades. Climate is usually understood as the average value weather over a long period of time (of the order of several decades), that is, the climate is the average weather. Thus, the weather is an instantaneous state of some characteristics ( temperature, humidity, Atmosphere pressure). Weather deviation from the climatic norm cannot be considered as climate change, for example, very cold winter does not speak of a cooling of the climate. Significant evidence is needed to detect climate change trend characteristics atmosphere over a long period of time of the order of ten years. The main global geophysical cyclical processes that shape climatic conditions on Earth, are heat circulation, moisture circulation and general atmospheric circulation.

In addition to the general concept of "climate", there are the following concepts:

    free atmosphere climate - studied by aeroclimatology.

    Microclimate

    macroclimate- the climate of planetary scale territories.

    Surface air climate

    local climate

    soil climate

    phytoclimate- plant climate

    urban climate

Climate is studied by science climatology. Climate change in the past studies paleoclimatology.

In addition to the Earth, the concept of "climate" can refer to other celestial bodies (planets, their satellites And asteroids) having an atmosphere.

Climatic zones and climate types vary significantly in latitude, ranging from the equatorial zone to the polar zone, but climatic zones are not the only factor, the proximity of the sea, the atmospheric circulation system and altitude above sea level also have an important influence. Do not confuse the concepts of "climatic zone" and " natural area».

IN Russia and on the territory of the former USSR used classification of climate types created in 1956 famous Soviet climatologist B. P. Alisov. This classification takes into account the features of atmospheric circulation. According to this classification, four main climatic zones are distinguished for each hemisphere of the Earth: equatorial, tropical, temperate and polar (in the northern hemisphere - arctic, in the southern hemisphere - antarctic). Between the main zones there are transitional belts - subequatorial belt, subtropical, subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic). In these climatic zones, in accordance with the prevailing circulation of air masses, four types of climate can be distinguished: continental, oceanic, the climate of the western and the climate of the eastern coasts.

Köppen climate classification

    equatorial belt

    • equatorial climate- a climate where winds are weak, temperature fluctuations are small (24-28 ° C at sea level), and precipitation is very plentiful (from 1.5 thousand to 5 thousand mm per year) and falls evenly throughout the year.

    subequatorial belt

    • Tropical monsoon climate- here in summer instead of the eastern trade wind between the tropics and the equator there is a western air transport (summer monsoon), which brings most of the precipitation. On average, they fall almost as much as in the equatorial climate. On the slopes of the mountains facing the summer monsoon, precipitation falls, the largest for the respective regions, the most warm month usually happens just before the onset of the summer monsoon. Characteristic for some areas of the tropics (Equatorial Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Northern Australia). East Africa and Southwest Asia also have the highest average annual temperatures on Earth (30-32 °C).

      Monsoon climate on tropical plateaus

    tropical belt

    • Tropical dry climate

      Tropical humid climate

    subtropical belt

    • mediterranean climate

      Subtropical continental climate

      Subtropical monsoon climate

      Climate of high subtropical highlands

      Subtropical climate of the oceans

    Temperate zone

    • temperate maritime climate

      temperate continental climate

      temperate continental climate

      Moderate sharply continental climate

      temperate monsoon climate

    subpolar belt

    • subarctic climate

      subantarctic climate

    Polar belt: polar climate

    • arctic climate

      Antarctic climate

Widespread in the world climate classification, proposed by the Russian scientist W. Köppen(1846-1940). It is based on the mode temperature and degree of moisture. According to this classification, eight climatic zones with eleven types of climate are distinguished. Each type has exact value parameters temperature, the number of winter and summer precipitation.. Many types of climates according to the Köppen climate classification are known by names associated with the vegetation characteristic of this type.

also in climatology The following concepts related to climate characteristics are used:

    continental climate- “climate, which is formed under the influence of large land masses on the atmosphere; distributed in the interior of the continents. It is characterized by large daily and annual amplitude air temperature."

    maritime climate- “climate, which is formed under the influence of oceanic spaces on the atmosphere. It is most pronounced over the oceans, but also extends to areas of the continents that are often exposed to sea air masses.

    mountain climates- "Climatic conditions in mountainous areas." The main reason for the difference between the climate of the mountains and the climate of the plains is the increase in altitude. Besides, important features are created by the nature of the terrain (the degree of dissection, the relative height and direction of mountain ranges, the exposure of slopes, the width and orientation of valleys), glaciers and firn fields exert their influence. Distinguish actually mountain climate at altitudes less than 3000-4000 m and alpine climate at high altitudes.

    Arid climate- “climate of deserts and semi-deserts”. Large daily and annual air temperature amplitudes are observed here; almost complete absence or low rainfall (100-150 mm per year). The resulting moisture evaporates very quickly.

    Humid climate- a climate with excessive moisture, in which solar heat enters in quantities insufficient to evaporate all the moisture coming in the form of precipitation

    Nival climate- "a climate where there is more solid precipitation than can melt and evaporate." As a result, glaciers are formed and snowfields are preserved.

    solar climate(radiative climate) - the theoretically calculated receipt and distribution of solar radiation over the globe (without taking into account local climate-forming factors

    Monsoon climate- a climate in which the cause of the change of seasons is a change in direction monsoon. As a rule, during the monsoon climate, summers are abundant in precipitation and winters are very dry. Only in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, where the summer direction of the monsoons is from land, and the winter direction is from the sea, the main amount of precipitation falls in winter.

    trade wind climate

Brief description of the climates of Russia:

    Arctic: January t −24…-30, summer t +2…+5. Precipitation - 200-300 mm.

    Subarctic: (up to 60 degrees N). summer t +4…+12. Precipitation - 200-400 mm.