Reveal the essence of the psychological theory of activity

Walter Buckley and the concept of morphogenesis

The genealogy of modern activity theory can be traced back to 1967 and the work of Walter Buckley. "Sociology andtheory of modern systems”. Based on the traditions of structural functionalism and general systems theory, Walter Buckley wanted to revise them using the views of representatives of other theoretical areas: the theory of exchange, symbolic interaction, game theory, models of collective behavior. The same system model served as the basis for such integration. According to Buckley, it is suitable "for the synthesis of interaction models into a coherent conceptual scheme - the basic theory of the sociocultural process" (62; 81). Buckley supplemented the structural-functional model of a self-regulating, homeostatic (or, as he calls it, “morphostatic”) system, permeated with negative, compensatory feedbacks, with a model of a “morphogenetic system” with positive, reinforcing feedbacks, in which structures are constantly built and transformed. “The model assumes a working system of interacting components with an internal source of tension, a system fully engaged in incessant activity with various external and internal environments, so that the latter tends to be selectively “mapped” structures” (62; 128). Buckley defined the central, strategic concept as follows: “Morphogenesis refers to those processes that tend to produce or change a given form, structure, or state of a system” (62; 58). The emphasis on the active, constructive side of social functioning was a significant breakthrough in theoretical thinking, even if Buckley was still trapped in the individual premises of a system that he himself deliberately denied, namely the organismic system.

and mechanistic models. His morphogenetic system "emerges", "becomes embedded", "generates, develops and restructures itself". In all this, some automatism is visible, as well as the rigid quality of the system itself. Activity has not yet been fully released from the system cage.

Amitai Etzioni and active society

A year later, Amitai Etzioni put forward the original theory of the "active society" (118), later called the "self-directed theory" (59). The key here is the concept of "mobilization", or "social activation".

“The theory of social orientation differs from other theories of modern social science in that it considers the mobilizing forces of collectives and societies as the main source of their own transformations and transformations of their relations with other social units. When a social unit mobilizes, it tends to change its own structure and boundaries, as well as the structure of the higher unit of which it is a member. (118; 393).

Human society is a "macroscopic and continuous social movement" involved in "an intense and constant self-transformation" (118; viii). The ultimate engine is found in the "self-starting transducer" (118; 121) and "creative responsiveness", that is, the ability to creatively respond to influences (118; 504); the focus of this ability is collectives, groups and social organizations; the mechanism is identified with collective action, mainly within the framework of the political process.

The theory of social orientation asks the question: how does this actor direct the process and change the structure or boundaries of the social whole? .. The theory of social orientation also raises the question of how this structure was modeled, how it was maintained, how it can be changed, where are the sources of driving forces who concentrate knowledge and who are capable of execution (118; 78).

Although Etzioni also derived his ideas from systems theory or cybernetics, he managed to avoid automatism - he found the true actors of social self-transformation in various types of collectives. The "hunt" for elusive action has become much more specific.

Alain Touraine, Michel Crozier and Erhard Friedberg: the contribution of the French

In the second half of the 1970s, the French made their contribution to the theory of action. “A quick break began with the materialistic view of society, which is very typical of the French version of structuralism” (75; 197). Probably the most prominent representative of this trend is Alain Touraine. Since he developed the image of a "self-producing society" (422; 1977), his main work has acquired a palpable critical tone. It was directed both against the theory of development and against structuralism, which "subordinate the feeling of collective action to the inevitable laws or requirements of historical reality" (425; 81). Consequently, they take the subject out of a sociological perspective, consider it as a mere emanation of the system.

“The evolutionist or historical concept appeals to comparative history or even to the philosophy of history. It seeks to show that societies follow each other along the path of progress, rationality and the strengthening of the nation-state. It does not apply to the study of social actors themselves: it is enough to analyze their actions, which are an expression of either positive tendencies or internal contradictions of the given system” (425; 91).

"The return of the doer" is necessary (424); “we must bring back the idea that people make their own history” (425; 88). This is possible only if we consider society as a continuous, constantly moving product of human efforts: “society is nothing but an unstable and, most likely, inconsistent result of social relations and social conflicts” (425; 85).

Society and history are created through collective action, the main carriers of which, according to Touraine, are social movements (425). They are interpreted as forms of collective mobilization that directly destroy the cultural foundations of society. “The social movement is the decisive agent of history, since historical reality is shaped through conflicts, as well as the demands put forward by social Movements and giving a specific social form to cultural orientations” (425; 87). Touraine associated the denial of evolutionism and the attribution of the role of the main mobilization forces to social movements with the emergence of a “post-industrial society”, in which the “capacity to

to self-activity” and expanded the range of possibilities and choices. Thus, "these societies are the product of their own actions, and not part of the process of historical evolution" (425; 84). The ability of a society to mobilize, to transform itself, to create structures - already noticed by previous authors - Touraine revealed much more concretely and correlated it with certain historical phases.

Two other French sociologists, Michel Crozier and Erhard Friedberg, uncovered the interdependence of actors and systems (85). Like Touraine, they began by denying the "laws of history." From their point of view, it is wrong to consider the forms of organization of people as completely determined by the external context - the social environment.

Social change, they believe, is a continuous structuring and restructuring of the arena in which people perform certain actions, seeking to find solutions to the problems and tasks that confront them.

Collective activity of this kind is characterized by its inherent creativity, since there is a mechanism of "collective learning" through which individual discoveries and innovations are introduced into social practice and built into the system. As a result, not only the features of the latter change, but the very mechanism of transformations is also transformed. There are no necessary, inevitable or "natural" changes, they are all the product of human ingenuity, creativity and exploration. The realization of this fact makes it possible to proclaim "organizational freedom", i.e., a real opportunity to resist structural conditions. The authors introduced the concept of "learning society", meaning by it one of the fundamental mechanisms of social self-transformation - collective learning. This is their main contribution to the development of activity theory.

Anthony Giddins and the idea of structuring

Participation in the discussion of the British was expressed primarily in the "theory of structuration" developed by Anthony Giddens* (147; 148; 149). He dissociated himself from all theories typical of "ortho-

* E. Giddens uses the concept of "structuration", which, in contrast to the well-known term "structuring", means "self-structuring". (Ed.)

doxal consensus”, which implies the materialization of social integrity and the social determinism of actors (considering them as “structural and cultural blockheads”). Combining such critiques of functionalism and structuralism with inspiration drawn from various branches of "understanding or interpretive sociology", Giddens went so far as to reject the notion of structure itself. Emphasizing the constantly changing nature of social reality, whose true ontological substrate lies in the actions and interactions of subjects - people, he proposed to transform the static concept of "structure" into a dynamic category of "structuration", meaning a description of the collective behavior of people. “Our life passes in transformation” (147; 3), and its main content is the constant production and reproduction of society. Thus, "to study the structuring of a social system means to study the ways in which this system - within the framework of the application of common rules and resources and in the context of unintended results - is produced and reproduced in interaction" (147; 6). “The structural properties of systems are both a means and a result of the practice in which the data of the system are formed” (147; 69). This is the "dual or dual structure" theorem.

The ultimate engine of "structuring" are people - actors (or "agents"), many individuals in their daily behavior. At the same time, “all social actors know a lot about the conditions and consequences of what they do in their daily lives” (149; 281). A scrupulous analysis of "practical" and "discursive" consciousness goes far beyond the early "interpretive sociology", but does not lead to one-sided absolutization. Some conditions are recognized as unknowable, and some consequences as unintended. It follows from this that even if we consider history as a continuous product of activity, as created from "events, the engine of which is the individual" (149; 9), this does not at all mean that the product coincides with the intentions: “Human history is created by purposeful activity, but is not a deliberate project, it constantly frustrates attempts to consciously lead it in a certain direction” (149; 27).

Another characteristic feature of human agents is their material (bodily, biological) constitution and, consequently, their inevitable subordination to time and space. “The corporeality of a person imposes severe restrictions on his ability to move and perceive” (149; 111). This very pro-

This statement turns out to be incredibly difficult, and sociologists rarely dare to accept it.

Thanks to Giddens, activity is finally recognized as the embodiment of individual human beings. Now no one doubts the fact that human society is shaped not by some kind of system trend or change-oriented collectives, classes, movements, but by the everyday behavior of ordinary people, often far from any reformist intentions. Undoubtedly, in the richness and depth of his detailed analysis of individual actors, Giddens goes much further than any other author in unraveling the mystery of activity.

Tom Berne and the Uppsala Group: The Theory of Rule Systems*

The other part of the activity-structure equation is derived by Tom R. Burns and Helena Flam in "rule system theory" (70). Although the authors state that they are pursuing the goal of “building bridges between the levels of structures and actors” (70; 9), nevertheless, they focus not on the actors who form, but on the structures that are formed. They regard the latter in normative terms as complex networks of rules. "Human activity - for all its extraordinary diversity and for all its originality - is organized and governed mainly by socially determined rules, as well as systems of rules" (70; viii). Since the authors work in Uppsala, Sweden, the question arises whether this is an unconscious echo or a conscious continuation of an important trend in Swedish sociology known as the Uppsala school, namely the normative ontology of the social world developed by Torgni Segerstedt (352) . “Each type of interaction and cooperation must assume some general norms. Only having general norms and universally valid symbols can we predict” (352; 12).

The main thrust of this theory is a complex analysis of the social rules that constitute the "deep

* P. Sztompka calls the theory of T. Burns "Rule-systems theory", that is, literally the theory of systems-rules. From the further presentation it is clear that Berne distinguishes between a system of rules and a system of modes of application of these rules as a whole. Accordingly, the expression “social rules of systems” is also found in the text of this translation. In any given system, there are many systems of rules related to different areas of activity (economics, management, etc.). (Ed.)

structures of human history” (70; ix). They are divided into three types of "modules": the rule system, the rule mode, and the grammar. Rule systems include rules that are “context-dependent and temporal, rules that are used to structure and regulate social interactions, the performance of certain activities, specific tasks, or interactions in socially determined forms” (70; 13). Regimes of rules are supported by social sanctions, networks of power and control, and therefore acquire an objective, external character in human perception. They are close to what is usually called instructions (in the normative sense of this general category). At the individual level, systems refer to a "grammar of social action" used to structure and regulate interactions with each other in certain situations or areas of activity (70; 14).

Such a complex and multidimensional normative network is seen not as a given, in the traditional Durkheimian sense, but as a product human activity. "Social systems of rules are human constructs" (70; 30). “People constantly form and change social systems of rules” (70; 206) in three ways: creating, interpreting and applying them. All this activity is an area of social conflict and struggle, a specific "politics" of the formation of rules. Originating in human actions, the rules of systems, in turn, influence them. In full accordance with Giddens, the authors speak of "relationship dualism". On the one hand, the social rules of systems organize and regulate social interactions such as exchange or political competition, determine who is allowed to participate, what interactions are considered legal, where and how they can be performed, and so on. On the other hand, interaction processes serve as the basis for the formation and modification of systems of rules, as well as for their interpretation and application (70; 10-11).

Thus, “by their actions people transform the conditions of these actions” (70; 3). The key to such “dualism” can be found in the historical dimension of human reality: “The systems that people follow today have been developed over a long time. Through interaction, social groups and communities maintain and propagate systems of rules for the future” (70; 29). Burns and Flam add to activity theory a rich analysis of normative structures, which is supported by a detailed analysis of empirical cases, most

characteristic of modern society. These include economic markets, bureaucracy, and technological complexes.

Margaret Archer and the theory of morphogenesis

Another British panelist, Margaret S. Archer, entered the activity controversy in 1982 in a somewhat destructive way, sharply criticizing Giddens' "structuration theory" (19). But soon she moved on to the constructive stage of her work, offering her own version - the "theory of morphogenesis"; This stage culminated in the work “.Culture and figureness"(1988). The main advantage of the morphogenetic perspective lies in the realization that "the unique feature that distinguishes social systems from organic or mechanical systems is their ability to undergo radical restructuring" (21; xxii), which they ultimately owe to man (19; 59).

The central concept of morphogenesis refers to "the complex mutual influence of structures and actions that occurs in a given form, structure, or in a given state of the system" (19; xxii). When studying such mutual influences, it is necessary to be guided by the principle of “analytical”, and not “conceptual duality”. According to the first, in the course of analysis, actions and structures are separated, since "the emergent * properties of sociocultural systems suggest discontinuity between the initial interaction and their final product" (19; 61). In contrast, the principle of duality is fraught with the loss of "central conflation" - the elision (connection) of two elements that lose autonomy from each other or independence from one of them or both at once"** (21; xxii).

* Emergent - lit.", occurring spontaneously. In a sociological sense, "emergent" means "responding to a given situation, or actively responding to influences (from within the system or from outside) in each this moment". Emergent properties are the ability of sociocultural systems to be active, reacting to the events of a given moment. (Ed.)

** Here M. Archer uses the term "conflation" (conflation), borrowed from linguistics and meaning the formation of a new word from two autonomous roots (for example, "interaction" is a combination of "mutual" and "action". The combination of these words is indicated by the linguistic term (elision ) "elision"). In this case, it means the following. The principle of conceptual duality of the agent structure, in contrast to the principle of epistemological duality, does not allow, from the point of view of M. Archer, to consider the process of combining the structure and the agent into something whole while maintaining their autonomy from each other and even from this neoplasm. (Ed.)

There are two arguments in favor of analytic duality. One is methodological. The idea of action and structure as elements that make up each other prevents "the study of their mutual play" and, therefore, does not allow one to discover "their mutual influence" (21; 13-14). Another, more explicit, argument is ontological: in this case, action and structure are indeed different, since "structural conditioning", "social interaction" and subsequent "structural development" occur at different time points (19; 61). “Structure is logically nourished by actions that transform it; and the “development of the structure” logically lags behind these actions in time” (19; 72). As far as culture is concerned, its future is shaped in the present from the heritage of the past thanks to current innovations” (21; xxiv). Thus the principle of duality leads to the second assumption, typical of the theory of morphogenesis, namely, the cyclical nature of action-structure interchanges.

In his latest work, Archer puts forward another thesis: “Activity not only contributes to structural and cultural changes, but also changes itself in the course of this process” (22; 2). This thesis opens up new possibilities for the study of the "morphogenesis of activity". In this context, the most important features of activity are also manifested - the ability to think, purposefulness, the desire for advancement and innovation, associated with the possibility of realizing the human "ability to know" or omniscience (22; 5). Two types of subjects - "corporate agents" and "primary agents" - also have different characteristics in terms of their morphogenesis. Thus, a third principle is added to the theory of morphogenesis. Archer calls it "double morphogenesis" and describes it as a process "in which the formation of both structure and activity is the result of their interaction. Structure is a jointly produced result of interaction: activity is formed and changes the structure in the process of its own change” (22; 33). Perhaps the most important tenet of Archer's theory is the linking of dialectics to historical time.

A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein are the creators of the Soviet school of psychology, which is based on the abstract concept of personality. It was based on the works of L. S. Vygotsky devoted to the cultural-historical approach. This theory reveals the term "activity" and other related concepts.

History of creation and main provisions of the concept

S. L. Rubinstein and A. N. activity was created in the 30s of the twentieth century. They developed this concept in parallel, without discussing or consulting with each other. Nevertheless, their work turned out to have much in common, since scientists used the same sources in developing psychological theory. The founders relied on the work of the talented Soviet thinker L. S. Vygotsky, and the philosophical theory of Karl Marx was also used to create the concept.

The main thesis of the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev briefly sounds like this: it is not consciousness that forms activity, but activity forms consciousness.

In the 1930s, on the basis of this provision, Sergei Leonidovich determined the main provision of the concept, which is based on a close relationship between consciousness and activity. This means that the human psyche is formed during activity and in the process of work, and in them it manifests itself. Scientists pointed out that it is important to understand the following: consciousness and activity form a unity that has an organic basis. Aleksei Nikolaevich emphasized that this connection should in no case be confused with identity, otherwise all the provisions that take place in the theory lose their force.

So, according to A. N. Leontiev, "activity - consciousness of the individual" is the main logical relationship of the whole concept.

The main psychological phenomena of the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein

Each person unconsciously reacts to an external stimulus with a set of reflex reactions, but activity is not among these stimuli, since it is regulated by the mental work of the individual. Philosophers, in their presented theory, consider consciousness as a certain reality that is not intended for human self-observation. It can manifest itself only through a system of subjective relations, in particular, through the activity of the individual, in the process of which he manages to develop.

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev clarifies the provisions voiced by his colleague. He says that the human psyche is built into his activity, it is formed thanks to it and manifests itself in activity, which ultimately leads to a close connection between the two concepts.

Personality in the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev is considered in unity with action, work, motive, operation, need and emotions.

The concept of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein is a whole system that includes methodological and theoretical principles that make it possible to study the psychological phenomena of a person. The concept of activity of A. N. Leontiev contains such a provision that the main subject that helps to study the processes of consciousness is activity. This research approach began to take shape in psychology Soviet Union in the 20s of the twentieth century. In the 1930s, two interpretations of activity were already proposed. The first position belongs to Sergei Leonidovich, who formulated the principle of unity cited above in the article. The second formulation was described by Aleksey Nikolaevich together with representatives of the Kharkov psychological school, who determined the commonality of the structure, affecting external and internal activities.

The main concept in the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev

Activity is a system that is built on the basis of various forms of implementation, expressed in the attitude of the subject to material objects and the world as a whole. This concept was formulated by Aleksey Nikolaevich, and Sergei Leonidovich Rubinshtein defined activity as a set of any actions that are aimed at achieving the set goals. According to A. N. Leontiev, activity in the mind of the individual plays a paramount role.

Activity structure

In the 30s of the twentieth century, in the psychological school, A. N. Leontiev put forward the idea of the need to build a structure of activity in order to complete the definition of this concept.

Activity structure:

This scheme is valid when read from top to bottom, and vice versa.

There are two forms of activity:

external;
internal.

External activity

External activity includes various forms, which are expressed in the subject-practical activity. In this form, the interaction of subjects and objects takes place, the latter are openly presented for external observation. Examples of this form of activity are:

the work of mechanics with the help of tools - this can be driving nails with a hammer or tightening bolts with a screwdriver;
production of material objects by specialists on machine tools;
games of children, for the implementation of which extraneous things are required;
cleaning the premises: sweeping the floors with a broom, wiping windows with a rag, manipulating pieces of furniture;
construction of houses by workers: laying bricks, laying foundations, inserting windows and doors, etc.

Internal activities

Internal activity differs in that the interactions of the subject with any images of objects are hidden from direct observation. Examples of this kind are:

the solution of a mathematical problem by scientists using mental activity inaccessible to the eye;
the actor's inner work on the role, which includes reflections, worries, anxiety, etc.;
the process of creating a work by poets or writers;
writing a script for a school play;
mental guessing of a riddle by a child;
emotions evoked in a person when watching a touching film or listening to soulful music.

motive

The general psychological theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein define the motive as an object of human need, it turns out that in order to characterize this term, it is necessary to turn to the needs of the subject.

In psychology, the motive is the engine of any existing activity, that is, it is an impetus that brings the subject into active state, or the goal for which a person is ready to do something.

Needs

The need for a general theory of activity A.N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein has two transcripts:

Need is a kind of "internal condition", which is a prerequisite for any activity performed by the subject. But Alexey Nikolaevich points out that this species needs is in no way able to cause directed activity, because its main goal becomes orienting-exploratory activity, which, as a rule, is directed to the search for such objects that would be able to save a person from an experienced desire. Sergei Leonidovich adds that this concept is a "virtual need", which is expressed only within oneself, so a person experiences it in his state or feeling of "incompleteness".
Need is the engine of any activity of the subject, which directs and regulates it in the material world after a person meets an object. This term is characterized as "actual need", that is, the need for a specific thing at a certain point in time.

"Objective" need

This concept can be traced on the example of a newly born caterpillar, which has not yet met with any particular object, but its properties are already fixed in the mind of the chick - they were transferred to it from the mother in the very general view on genetic level, so he has no desire to follow any thing that will be in front of his eyes at the time of hatching from the egg. This happens only during the meeting of the caterpillar, which has its own need, with the object, because it does not yet have a formed idea about the appearance of its desire in the material world. This thing in the chick fits on the subconscious mind under the scheme of a genetically fixed exemplary image, so it is able to satisfy the needs of the caterpillar. This is how the imprint of a given object, suitable for the desired characteristics, occurs as an object that satisfies the corresponding needs, and the need takes on a “subjective” form. This is how a suitable thing becomes a motive for a certain activity of the subject: in this case, in the following time, the chick will follow its "objectified" need everywhere.

Thus, Alexey Nikolaevich and Sergey Leonidovich mean that the need at the very first stage of its formation is not such, it is at the beginning of its development the need of the organism for something that is outside the body of the subject, despite the fact that it is reflected on his mental level.

Target

This concept describes that the goal is the directions for the achievement of which a person implements a certain activity in the form of appropriate actions that are prompted by the motive of the subject.

Differences between purpose and motive

Aleksey Nikolaevich introduces the concept of "goal" as a desired result that arises in the process of planning a person for any activity. He emphasizes that motive is different from this term, because it is that for which any actions are performed. The goal is what is planned to be done to realize the motive.

As reality shows, in everyday life the terms given above in the article never coincide, but complement each other. Also, it should be understood that there is a certain relationship between the motive and the goal, so they are dependent on each other.

A person always understands what is the purpose of the actions performed or proposed by him, that is, his task is conscious. It turns out that a person always knows exactly what he is going to do. Example: submitting documents to a university, passing pre-selected entrance exams, etc.

The motive in almost all cases is unconscious or unconscious for the subject. That is, a person may not guess about the main reasons for performing any activity. Example: an applicant really wants to apply to a particular institute - he explains this by the fact that the profile of this educational institution coincides with his interests and desired future profession, in fact, the main reason for choosing this university is the desire to be close to your beloved girl who studies at this university.

Emotions

The analysis of the emotional life of the subject is the direction that is considered the leading one in the theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein.

Emotions are a direct experience by a person of the meaning of a goal (a motive can also be considered the subject of emotions, because at a subconscious level it is defined as a subjective form of an existing goal, behind which it is internally manifested in the psyche of an individual).

Emotions allow a person to understand what are the true motives of his behavior and activities. If a person achieves the goal, but does not experience the desired satisfaction from this, that is, on the contrary, negative emotions arise, this means that the motive has not been realized. Therefore, the success that the individual has achieved is actually illusory, because that for which all the activity was undertaken has not been achieved. Example: an applicant entered the institute where his beloved is studying, but she was expelled a week before that, which devalues the success that the young man has achieved.

activity theory

Created in Soviet psychology. Significant contributions to it were made by L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, Leontiev, A. R. Luria, A. V. Zaporozhets, P. Ya. Galperin, and many others. Its basis is ideas about the structure of activity ( cm.), although they do not exhaust the theory completely.

One of the essential differences between the theory of activity and previous concepts is the recognition of the inseparable unity of consciousness and behavior. This unity is already contained in the main unit of analysis - action.

The main starting points, the principles of the theory of activity are as follows:

1 ) consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself, it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness);

2 ) behavior cannot be considered in isolation from consciousness: when considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and communication);

4 ) actions are objective, they realize social goals (the principle of objectivity of activity and the principle of social conditionality of activity).

The development of the theory of activity began with an analysis of external activity, but then turned to internal activity. With regard to these very important forms of activity, two main theses are put forward. ;

1. Internal activity has in principle the same structure as external activity, and differs only in the form of flow. This means that internal activity is also motivated by motives, accompanied by emotions (often even more acute), and has its own operational composition. The only difference is that actions are carried out not with real objects, but with their images, and the product is the image-result.

2. Internal activity originated from external activity through its internalization. So in order to successfully reproduce some action in the mind, it is necessary to master it realistically and get a real result. At the same time, during internalization, external activity, without changing its fundamental structure, is greatly transformed; this applies especially to its operational part: individual actions or operations are reduced, some of them drop out altogether, and the whole process goes much faster.

Through the concept of activity, the internal theory of activity has come very close to describing the stream of consciousness by its own means - however, this concept does not cover the entire content of the stream of consciousness. For a complete coverage, it is necessary to take another step after the theory of activity - in the direction of such traditional objects of psychology as individual mental processes or functions - perception, attention, memory, etc. The development of psychology within the framework of the activity approach made it possible to describe these concepts within the framework of the theory of activity and by her means.

Thus, in order to describe perception, it is necessary to introduce the concept of a perceptual action, and first it should be clarified whether there are perceptual goals. They undoubtedly exist and appear, for example, in the task of distinguishing two similar stimuli - tastes, smells, sound tones, etc. To solve all such problems, perceptual actions are performed, which can be characterized as actions of discrimination, detection, measurement, identification, etc. Ideas about the structure of activity are also applicable to the analysis of all other mental processes. The theory allows you to take a fresh look at these classical objects of psychology - they are comprehended as special forms of activity.

Dictionary practical psychologist. - M.: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 .

activity theory Etymology.

Comes from the Greek. theory - research.

Authors.

Kraiker, 1980; Herzog, 1984.

Category.

West German psychological direction

Specificity.

Relies on criticism of behaviorism for refusing to recognize a person's responsibility for their behavior and the ability to choose between different forms response. In contrast, it is postulated that human behavior is arbitrary, goal-oriented and conscious. It is believed that a person is an active being who behaves purposefully and intentionally, who chooses from alternatives, chooses his own goals and can decide on something, the actions taking place on this basis are thorough and rational. Due to the fact that the basis of this approach is operationalism, the criticism lies in the denial of the possibility of operationally describing the existential and transcendental components of human behavior, as well as the components of the unconscious.

Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000 .

activity theory

Another name for the theory of aging. According to this theory, being active and participating in society leads to greater life satisfaction and psychological health in old age. As a desirable measure, it is proposed to carry over many activities and interests from adulthood into later life. Since some of the main roles (and (for example, parents or employees) in society are lost with aging, it is proposed to replace them with new roles. The theory is often criticized for its simplistic approach, in the sense that continuing to be active and participating in natural affairs is itself cannot provide himself with life satisfaction and good health.

Psychology. AND I. Dictionary-reference book / Per. from English. K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR-PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000 .

See what "activity theory" is in other dictionaries:

activity theory- or the activity approach, the school of Soviet psychology, founded by A. N. Leontiev and S. L. Rubinshtein on the cultural and historical approach of L. S. Vygotsky. History Time of creation of the theory of activity 1920 1930 Rubinstein and Leontiev ... ... Wikipedia

ACTIVITY THEORY- THEORY OF ACTIVITY. Leading in Russian science direction of psychological research, dating back to the works of the school of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria and studying the nature and nature of activity, its structural organization, subject ...

Activity Theory- (from the Greek. theoria research) West German psychological direction, authors Kraiker, 1980; Herzog, 1984. Draws on behaviorism's critique of refusing to acknowledge that humans are responsible... Psychological Dictionary

activity theory- a system of scientific description of activity, created by domestic psychologists and teachers. It is based on ideas about the structure of activity, the recognition of its inseparable unity with consciousness. The starting points and principles of the domestic ... ... Fundamentals of spiritual culture (encyclopedic dictionary of a teacher)

A.N. Leontiev implementation of the activity approach to the analysis of psychological phenomena. Activity is considered here as the subject of analysis, since the psyche itself cannot be separated from the moments that generate and mediate it ... ... Psychological Dictionary

Etymology. Comes from the Greek. theory research. Author. A.N. Leontiev. Category. Implementation of the activity approach to the analysis of psychological phenomena. Specificity. Activity is considered as the subject of analysis here. Because the… …

Activity Theory Developed- S.L. Rubinshtein, the implementation of the activity approach to the analysis of psychological phenomena. The subject of analysis here is the psyche through the disclosure of its essential objective connections and mediations, in particular through ... ... Psychological Dictionary

Etymology. Comes from the Greek. theory research. Author. S.L. Rubinstein. Category. Implementation of the activity approach to the analysis of psychological phenomena. Specificity. The subject of analysis here is the psyche through the disclosure ... ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY OF ACTIVITY- the system of ideas put forward in domestic psychology about the origin and development of the psyche, the essence of mental processes as a special form of activity of the product of the development of material life, external material activity, which ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary in psychology and pedagogy

THEORY OF CONTEXT LEARNING- THEORY OF CONTEXT LEARNING. Learning theory developed by A. A. Verbitsky (1991, 1999) and assuming such an organization educational process V high school, at which various forms learning activities student is held ... ... New dictionary methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

The psychological theory of activity was created in Soviet psychology in the 1920s and early 1930s. of the last century and developed for about 50 years by Soviet psychologists: S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, P.Ya. Galperin.

Using activity category − distinguishing feature national psychology.

Activity- specifically human, consciousness-regulated activity, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

Human activity is of a social, transformative nature and is not limited to the simple satisfaction of needs, being largely determined by the goals and requirements of society.

The problem of activity is organically connected with the problem of personality and consciousness. These three categories in psychology act as the 3 basic principles of psychology (see principles of psychology). Personality is both formed and manifested in activity. Activity is a process of human interaction with the world, but the process is not passive, but active and consciously regulated by the individual.

Human activity is manifested and continues in creations, it is productive, and not just consumer in nature.

The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that, thanks to it, he goes beyond his natural limitations, i.e., surpasses his own genotypically conditioned capabilities. As a result of the productive, creative nature of human activity, man has created sign systems, tools for influencing the world around him and himself, material and spiritual culture. The historical progress that has taken place over the past few tens of thousands of years owes its origin to the activity that improved the biological nature of people.

Having generated and continuing to improve consumer goods, a person, in addition to abilities, develops his needs. Once connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, the needs of people acquire a cultural character.

Human activity is fundamentally different from animal activity.

1. Animal activity is caused natural needs, human activity is mainly generated and supported by artificial needs that arise due to the appropriation of the achievements of the cultural and historical development of people of the present and previous generations. These are the needs for knowledge (scientific and artistic), creativity, moral self-improvement, and others.

2. The forms and methods of organizing human activity differ from the activity of animals, almost all of them are associated with complex motor skills and abilities acquired as a result of conscious purposeful organized learning, which animals do not have.

3. Animals consume what is given to them by nature. Man, on the other hand, creates more than he consumes.

So the main differences activities person from activity animals are as follows:

social conditioning. Human activity in its various forms and means of realization is a product of socio-historical development. The objective activity of people from birth is not given to them. It is "given" in the cultural purpose and way of using the surrounding objects. Such activity must be formed and developed in training and education. The activity of animals acts as a result of their biological evolution.

Purposefulness. Human activity, unlike the instincts of animals, is conscious. People are always guided by consciously set goals, which they achieve with the help of carefully thought out and tested means or methods of action. Any activity consists of individual actions united by a unity of purpose and aimed at achieving the results programmed by this purpose.

Planned activity. Activity is not the sum of individual actions or movements. In any type of activity, all its components are subordinate to a certain system, are interconnected and are carried out according to a meaningful plan. Higher animals solve two-phase tasks in order to satisfy needs that are more or less stable in nature and are limited mainly by biological needs.

objectivity. Human activity is associated with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects for satisfying needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.

Subjectivity. Activity is determined by the personal characteristics of a person and transforms him, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in external conditions their lives.

Creation. Human activity is productive, creative, constructive. A person in the process of performing an activity transforms himself. The activity of animals has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new, in comparison with what is given by nature.

Activities differ not only from activity, but also from behavior.

- behavior is not always purposeful, and activity is always purposeful;

- behavior does not involve the creation of a specific product, and the activity is aimed at creating a certain product;

- behavior is often passive, activity is always active;

- behavior can be impulsive, activity is arbitrary;

- behavior can be spontaneous, activity is organized;

- behavior can be chaotic, activity is systematized.

There are two forms of activity: external (practical, objective, visible to other people) and internal (psychic: gnostic - perceptual, mnemonic, imaginative, mental; emotional and volitional). For a long time psychology dealt exclusively with internal activities. It was believed that external activity only expressed internal (or "activity of consciousness"). It took a long time to come to the conclusion that both of these forms of activity represent a community through which a person interacts with the world around him. Both forms have a fundamentally identical structure, i.e., they are motivated by needs and motives, accompanied by experiences, and guided by goals. The only difference between internal activity and external activity is that it includes not real objects, but their mental images; results internal activities also expressed in perfect shape(image), which may or may not become a real product.

The unity of these two forms of activity is also manifested in their mutual transitions through the processes interiorization And exteriorization.

Process interiorization expresses the ability of the psyche to operate with images of objects and phenomena that are currently absent in a person's field of vision.

exteriorization activity characterizes a person's ability to carry out external actions (operations) on the basis of the transformation of internal patterns that have developed due to internalization, due to the previously formed internal ideal plan of activity. exteriorization - the embodiment of previous experience in physical external actions.

Activity structure

Activity - active interaction of the subject with the environment, in which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the appearance of a certain need in him.

S.L. Rubinstein in psychological structure included: motive–target – way(actions and operations), result.

The main function of activity is the development of personality, which is reflected in the principle of personality development in activity.

Psychological analysis of activity, including mental activity, makes it possible to characterize its structural elements:

– need - a reflection of the needs of the body or personality in something and the source of the activity of the personality;

– motive - reflection of needs, motivation of the subject to activity;

– target - the predicted result of the activity. Activity begins with the realization of an objective goal as a reflected one, because the goal of activity as a mental phenomenon is not mirrored, but personally reworked on the basis of the defining role and needs of a particular person;

– way of doing the activity - actions and operations with the help of which the activity is implemented;

– result - an ideal product or a “reified” (A.N. Leontiev) materialized goal.

The process of activity begins with setting goals based needs and motives (or a person's awareness of the task assigned to him). The main component of the activity is action, which has its own: target , motive , method (operation) and result .

The need is not experienced as such - it is presented as an experience of the discomfort of dissatisfaction and manifests itself in search activity. In the course of the search, the need meets its object, fixation on the object that can satisfy it. From the moment of the “meeting”, activity becomes directed, the need is objectified - as a need for something specific, and not “in general” - and becomes a motive, it is now possible to talk about activity. It correlates with the motive: the motive is that for which the activity is performed, and the activity is the set of actions that are caused by the motive. As a result of motivation, a goal is determined, which will act as a regulator of activity. Target - This is an image of the desired result that should be achieved in the course of the activity.

Activity comprises action, A actions - from operations. If a person does not own operations, characteristic of a particular type of activity, he cannot successfully perform it.

Action - an element of activity in the process of which a specific, not decomposable into simpler, conscious goal is achieved.

The goal sets the action. The sequence of actions ensures the realization of the purpose of the activity. Action - unit of activity analysis . Action is one of the defining components of human activity, which is formed under the influence of its goal.

Each action has its own psychological structure: the purpose of the action, motives, operations and the end result .

Operation- a specific way to perform an action . Each action can be performed by several operations. The choice of this or that operation is determined by the specific situation and the individual characteristics of the subject of activity (see Individual style of activity). For example, the female way of threading a needle is that the thread is pushed into the eye of the needle, and men, on the contrary, pull the eye onto the thread.

Operations characterize the technical side of the action. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed. If the action meets its own goal, then the operation meets the conditions in which this goal is set. In this case, the conditions are understood as external and internal circumstances. A goal set under certain conditions is called a task.

Operations are fundamentally different from actions that involve both a conscious goal and conscious control over the course; that they are little or not realized at all.

Any complex action consists of a layer of actions and a layer of operations “underlying” them. The boundary between actions and operations is fluid. Moving it up means turning some actions (mostly the most elementary) into operations. In such cases, it happens consolidation of units of activity . The downward movement of the border means the transformation of operations into actions, or breaking down activities into smaller units.

Definition of "skill",
"skill", stages of their formation

Operational structure of activity: knowledge, skills And skills.

Knowledge- facts learned and summarized in a system, their generalizations in the form of concepts, terms, conclusions, scientific theories. Knowledge contains a generalized experience that reflects the laws of the objective world. Knowledge must have inextricable links with life practice, with constant readiness to carry out the desired activity.

Skills - the ability to perform arbitrary automated actions performed with great precision, economically and with optimal speed. In the process of learning, sensory-perceptual, attentional, mnemonic, gnostic, imaginative, communicative, professionally significant and other skills are formed. Professionally significant skills characterize the ability to successfully perform professionally necessary actions related to psychomotor acts in various types of professional activities.

Types of human activity.

A person becomes a person in the process of socialization. Socialization in a broad sense refers to the appropriation of experience accumulated by mankind in the process of education and upbringing. In domestic psychology, it is customary to distinguish four types of activity: communication, play, teaching and work, each of which at a certain stage of ontogenesis plays a leading role in the development of a person, personality and subject of activity.

Leading activity- the type of activity, the implementation of which determines the formation of the main psychological neoplasms; direction mental development a person of his personality in a specific age period of life.

6. Describe attention. Types and properties of attention.

Attention- this is the selective concentration of consciousness on some object, the focus of the psyche on a certain activity while being distracted from everything else. With the help of attention, the selection of the necessary stimuli entering the zone of consciousness is performed.

The physiological basis of attention is the stimulation of some optimal focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, enhanced by subcortical structures, and, according to a number of physiologists, by the reticular formation located in the brain stem. In this case, the mechanism of formation of the dominant focus of excitation (dominants according to A.A. Ukhtomsky) is of great importance.

Not being a proper mental cognitive process, attention determines the possibility of the other mental processes, reflecting them.

Thus, the main attention functions are:

– selection of significant (sensory, mnemonic, mental) influences in the performed activity and rejection of insignificant ones - selectivity of attention;

– retention the activity performed (preservation in the mind of the images necessary to complete the activity, achieve the goal);

– regulation And control implementation of activities.

Attention is classified according to a number of parameters.

Attention as a manifestation selective focus and intensity mental activity (consciousness) is divided into kinds:

– external attention (external) is determined by focusing the attention of the subject on external objects

– inner attention (internally directed), the object of which is the subject's own thoughts, experiences, mental (mnemonic, logical) activity.

depending on participation volitional process consider voluntary, involuntary and post-voluntary attention:

- arbitrary attention motivated, consciously regulated by the requirements of the activity performed, mediated and directed by appropriate volitional efforts. Achieving the goal of the activity determines the active, but requiring significant energy expenditure, the nature of voluntary attention;

- involuntary attention arises without a consciously set goal and is retained on the object without volitional efforts, is determined by the characteristics of the stimulus. Of several stimuli, the strongest one acts, for example, the coloring of an object, its novelty, expressiveness, unusualness, appealing to the internal state of the subject, etc. It is based on an orienting reflex;

- post-voluntary attention is retained on the object after the termination of the stimulus due to its significance for a person: failure to solve any task that aroused emotional interest, even when switching to another activity, leads to its preservation in consciousness, contributing to the subsequent solution. Post-voluntary attention does not require the application of volitional efforts, it has no less stability than voluntary, but does not require high energy expenditure, since, in fact, it is involuntary, arising from voluntary, due to interest in the activity being performed. This is the most productive type of attention, characterized by stability, complexity of switching and accompanying the intellectual activity of the subject.

Basic properties of attention

attention span- the number of objects or elements of the stimulus perceived by the subject per unit of time. The average indicator, according to the NIL VIFK, is an image of 5 ± 2 simple geometric shapes(circle, cross, square, etc.) with an exposure of 1s (there are recommendations to use an exposure equal to 1/10s).

Concentration of attention is determined by the ability to focus as much as possible on any one chosen object, arbitrarily distracted from the rest (for example, when aiming). An indicator of concentration of attention is its noise immunity, determined by the strength of an extraneous stimulus that can distract the subject from the object of activity.

Sustainability of attention- the ability to hold attention for a long time on a chosen object. Let us repeat, the higher the subject's interest in the activity being performed, the longer he is able to keep his attention on the object of activity.

The intensity of attention is its stable concentration on the object, characterized by the ability to resist fluctuations (fluctuations).

Switching attention characterized by a rapid arbitrary transfer of attention from one object to another, a rapid transition from one activity to another (for example, from defense to attack in boxing and other martial arts).

Distribution of attention- holding several objects in the field of consciousness at the same time (one of them is brighter than the others). With additional stimulation, it is possible to quickly switch attention to any other object. The distribution and switching of attention have some common psychophysiological mechanisms.

fluctuations in attention- the property of attention to involuntarily move from object to object, usually at least 1 time every 5 s, so the intensity of attention does not remain unchanged, especially with a dual image of figures (for example, in a special drawing, silhouettes of two faces are perceived - two profiles, then a flower vase located between them.

Distractibility- a property opposite to stability and not distinguished by all researchers, it is characterized by involuntariness, which determines the inability to concentrate when exposed to extraneous stimuli.

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Plan

1. General provisions of the "theory of activity" in domestic psychology

2. Definition of activity and its main characteristics

3. Structure of activity

4. Skills and skills as components of human activity

5. Classification of activities. Activities

1. General provisions of the "theory of activity" in domestic psychology

Views on activity and its components in domestic psychology were considered in the theory of activity, the main provisions of which are most fully set out in the work Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev "Activity. Consciousness. Personality".

Main consisted in the fact that the authors of the theory of Activity adopted the philosophy dialectical materialism- the theory of K. Marx, the thesis that it is not consciousness that determines being, activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determines his consciousness.

The main provisions of the theory of activity:

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself; it finds its expression in the activity of the subject;

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness;

3. Activity is an active, purposeful process;

4. Human actions are objective; they realize social production and cultural goals;

5. Thus, activity - human activity aimed at achieving consciously set goals related to meeting the needs and interests of a person, or to fulfill the requirements for him from society and the state

2. Definition of activity and its main characteristics

Activity - specific type of human activity aimed at the knowledge and creative transformation of the surrounding world and oneself (Atlas of psychology by M. V. Gamezo, I. A. Domashenko)

However, activity and activity are not identical concepts.

Activity - active (dynamic) state of living organisms, as a condition for their existence in the world, for example, instinctive behavior.

The concept of activity should also be distinguished from the concept of behavior.

psychology exteriorization induction

Thus, consideration of the differences between activity and animal activity and behavior allows us to determine main characteristics of human activity:

1. The activity is of a socio-historical nature;

2. Conscious character;

3. Productive nature;

4. Creative nature

3. Activity structure

(Students are given schemes: The structure of activity according to A. N. Leontiev, Components of the action and its main functions)

From the point of view of the theory of activity, human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several layers or levels:

1) Macro level - the level of special activities ( special types activities: communication, play, teaching, work)

2) The level of actions (objective, actions, physical, mental)

3) Level of operations

4) The level of psychophysiological functions (sensory, mnemonic, motor function)

Consider these levels starting from action level.

Action- a relatively completed element of activity aimed at achieving a certain intermediate conscious goal. D. can be both external, performed in an expanded form with the participation of the motor apparatus and sensory organs, and internal, performed in the mind.

Action characteristic:

1) the first feature is that actions as a necessary component include an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal

2) the second feature of the action is at the same time an act of behavior, and external actions are inextricably linked with consciousness

3) the third feature - through the concept of "action" the principle of activity is affirmed

4) the fourth feature - actions can be external, involved and domestic mental.

At the same time, the action is objective, even if it is a mental action, it still has its own imagined result.

Action types:

1. By main functions:

a) motor;

b) central;

c) sensory

2. By direction:

A)Psubject actions- these are actions aimed at changing the state or properties of objects in the external world (for example, a person hits a nail with a hammer and changes its properties). They are made up of certain movements. An analysis of diverse objective actions shows that in most cases they all consist of three relatively simple ones: take (raise), move, lower. In addition, in psychology it is customary to distinguish other types of movements: speech, somatic, expressive, locomotor etc.

In all cases, coordination of movements and their consistency with each other is necessary.

B) actions - actions directed at other people;

B) physical actions aimed at external actions with objects, for example, manipulation with a ball

D) atmental actions - various actions of a person performed in the inner plane of consciousness. It has been experimentally established that mental action necessarily includes motor motor components.

Human mental activity is often divided into:

perceptual, through which a holistic image of the perception of objects or phenomena is formed;

mnemonic, which is part of the activity of memorizing, retaining and recalling any material;

mental, with the help of which the solution of mental problems occurs;

imaginative(from image - image), i.e., the activity of the imagination in the process of creativity.

Any activity includes both internal and external components (see activity structure diagram)

By its origin, internal (mental, psychic) activity is derived from external (objective) activity.

Initially, objective actions are performed, and only then, as experience accumulates, a person acquires the ability to perform the same actions in the mind, ultimately directed outward, to transform objective reality, and undergo the reverse transformation (exteriorization).

exteriorization- the transition from the internal, mental plan of action to the external, implemented in the form of techniques and actions with objects. Interiorization - the process of transforming external, objective actions into internal, mental ones.

The inextricable connection between external and internal actions expands the cognitive capabilities of a person, a person acquires the ability to operate with images of objects that are currently absent in his field of vision.

The next level of activity structure -- operations.

Operation - way to perform an action. For example, such an action as subtraction can be implemented by several operations, such as, mentally or in writing. The action of threading a needle can be realized by the female and male ways: female - the thread is threaded into the eye, male - the eye is pushed onto the thread (an example from the Gippenreiter textbook "Introduction to Psychology")

Each action consists of a system of movements or operations subordinated to a specific goal. Operations characterize the partial side of the performance of actions, they are little realized or not realized at all. Operations can arise as a result of adaptation, direct imitation, or by automating actions.

At the level of psychophysiological functions physiological support of the activity process is provided.

These include a number of body abilities, such as the ability to sense - touch function, to the formation and fixation of traces of past influences - a mnemonic function, motor or motor ability - motor function. Congenital Mechanisms Enshrined in Morphology nervous system, and those that mature within 1 month of life and constitute the level of psychophysiological functions.

difference psychophysiological functions in that they come to the subject by nature, he does not have to "do" anything in order to have them, he finds them in himself ready for use. They form the prerequisites and means of activity.

So where does our activity begin?(see activity structure diagram)

The origin of activity occurs due to the presence of needs and motives.

Need- the state of the organism's objective need for something that lies outside it and constitutes necessary condition its normal functioning.

In addition to biological needs (for food, nutrition, etc.), a person also has specifically human needs:

The need for contacts with their own kind (in communication);

The need for external impressions, cognitive need

The objectification of a need leads to the birth of a motive. The stimulus for action is motive.

It is the motive that gives the activity a certain specificity in relation to the choice of means and ways to achieve the goal. Motives can be a variety of needs, interests, attitudes, habits, emotional states. The variety of human activity gives rise to a variety of motives. However, there is a leading motive that determines this activity that a person is engaged in and motives - incentives, which are additional incentives for action. Depending on the motives, people have different attitudes towards their activities. After a person has a motive, he has target - something that realizes a human need and acts as an image of the final result of activity. The purpose of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and purpose coincide.

As the activity develops, new motives are formed, and this contributes to what works. mechanism for shifting the motive to the goal. The goal, previously impelled to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, i.e. becomes its own motive.

For example, a student is engaged in a subject, because likes to communicate with the teacher. But over time, his interest deepened and no longer for the sake of the teacher, but for the sake of the subject itself, the student studies it and chooses it as a future specialty. The transformation of a goal into a motive occurs only if positive emotions are accumulated.

4. Skills and skills as components of human activity

The mechanism of planning, control and regulation of actions was studied by domestic and foreign physiologists and psychologists - ILK. Anokhin, P.A. Bernstein, E.A. Afatyan, W. Ashby and others. Their studies show that the goal of any action is represented in the mind in the form of a psychological image - a kind of neuropsychological model. Feedback provides for corrective actions in the course of its implementation. This mechanism, as P.K. Anokhin, is called an action acceptor.

P.A. Bernstein proposed a completely new principle of motion control; he called him the principle of sensory correction, referring to corrections made to impulses based on sensory information about the course of movement. In this connection, this author identifies various structural elements of activity -- skills, habits, habits.

Skills - these are ways of successfully performing an action that correspond to the goals and conditions of the activity. Skills are always based on knowledge.

Skill are fully automated action components formed in the process of exercises. From the physiological point of view, skill means the formation of diseased hemispheres in the cortex and the functioning of a stable system of temporary neural connections, called a dynamic stereotype.

Skills and abilities, as methods of action, are always included in specific activities. They can be divided into educational, sports, hygiene, etc.

There are such skills and abilities that are used in different types of activities, for example:

motor skills are formed in the process of physical labor, sports, in the educational process;

mental skills are formed in the process of observation, planning, making oral and written calculations, working with a book, etc.

The vital importance of skills and abilities is very great. They facilitate physical and mental efforts in work, study, introduce a certain rhythm and stability into the activity of each person, creating conditions for creativity.

There are three main stages in the formation of a skill: analytical, synthetic And automation stage ( see the condition scheme and the main stages of skill formation).

Skills are formed as a result of exercises, i.e., targeted and systematic repetition of actions. As the exercise progresses, both quantitative and qualitative indicators of work change.

The success of mastering a skill depends not only on the number of repetitions, but also on other reasons of an objective and subjective nature.

Skill development indicators:

1. The action is carried out as a single act. No extra action, fast pace and high quality performance;

2. Change touch control. If the skill is controlled by vision, then the skill is controlled by kinesthetics (movement) Offer a small illustrative experience: close your eyes and on the next line in a notebookand write your first and last name;

3. Control methods are changing. If at the beginning of mastering an action a person controls the correctness of the performance of actions, their sequence, then when the skill is formed, control is aimed at the environment.

Skills and abilities acquired by a person influence the formation of new skills and abilities. This influence can be both positive induction (transfer), as well as negative (interference). The essence of induction-transfer is that a previously developed skill facilitates the acquisition of a similar skill.

Skill interference -- the weakening of new skills under the influence of previously developed ones, due to their similarity.

To preserve the skill, it should be used systematically, otherwise deautomatization, when speed, ease, smoothness and other qualities characteristic of automated actions are lost. And a person again has to pay his attention to his every movement, consciously control the way it is performed.

A skill can be formed in many ways: through a simple display; through explanation; through a combination of demonstration and explanation.

In all cases, it is necessary to realize the scheme of action and the place in it of each operation.

The conditions that ensure the successful formation of skills include the number of exercises, their pace and distribution over time. Knowledge of the results is important in the conscious mastery of skills and abilities.

habits- the third component of activity, unproductive. habits-- is an action component based on a need. They can be consciously controlled to a certain extent, but they are not always reasonable and useful (bad habits).

Ways to form habits: through imitation; as a result of repeated repetition of the action; through conscious purposeful efforts, for example, by positively reinforcing the desired behavior through a material object, verbal assessment, or emotional image.

In contrast to skills and habits, habits are an inflexible element of activity, often unreasonable, which is performed by a person purely mechanically and does not have a conscious goal or a clearly expressed productive completion.

5. Classification of activities. Main activities

R. S. Nemov sees 2 ways in the approach to the classification of activities:

1. Description of activities in accordance with human needs and basic parameters (strength, quantity, quality);

2. Generalization and allocation of the main types of activities characteristic of all people, in which each person is inevitably included in the process of his individual development (compendium of Nemov R. S. Kn 1 pp. 129 - 133)

Application

Activities