Japanese team chi ha tank. Combat use. Use in battle
16-05-2017, 15:24
Good day to all and welcome to the site! Our guest today is an unusual vehicle for its class of equipment, a Chinese light tank of the third level, in front of you Type 2597 Chi-Ha guide.
As you can imagine, this unit stands at the origins of the Chinese tree for the development of light tanks, but running ahead I will say that it has little in common with the classical understanding of "fireflies". Nevertheless, it is a rather powerful machine with a number of its advantages and disadvantages, which are important to know about if you want to show yourself worthily in battle.
TTX Type 2597 Chi-Ha
We will begin our acquaintance with this unit with the fact that it has a margin of safety, which is quite standard for its level, and a very decent basic viewing radius of 330 meters, which will help you more than once in battle.
Like most light tanks, our Type 2597 Chi-Ha characteristics Reservations are frankly weak, because even in the frontal projection in most areas, the thickness of the metal is equal to the declared 25 millimeters, which is easily penetrated by almost every enemy encountered.
The only place we can tank at least some of our classmates is in the upper frontal part. This site in case Type 2597 Chi-Ha WoT has a good slope, the armor here smoothly flows from 47 to 58 millimeters of the reduced, this gives a chance to withstand the hits of machine-gun cannons and periodically catch ricochets from other weapons of classmates.
The lateral projection does not differ in any strength, so that even at an angle, everything is punched into the side, what can we say about cases when the enemy was able to go around you and shoots at your side at a right angle.
The stealth figures of the car are not very encouraging either. The fact is that the Chinese man has impressive dimensions both in height and in length. For this reason Type 2597 Chi-Ha World of Tanks not only "shines" at impressive distances, but it will not always be possible to hide behind any obstacle.
The last thing worth mentioning in terms of overall performance is mediocre mobility. Type 2597 Chi-Ha tank received at its disposal a low by the standards of the LT-3 maximum speed, but our maneuverability and dynamics are absolutely terrible, the car is very sluggish and clumsy.
Cannon
If, in terms of general characteristics, it is very difficult to call this device even somewhat strong or comfortable, then with the armament the situation is fundamentally different, the gun is really the dignity of the Chinese.
First of all, Type 2597 Chi-Ha cannon has a powerful alpha-strike for the third level and at the same time has a good rate of fire, thanks to which you will be able to inflict about 1400 damage per minute.
It is even more pleasant to realize the fact that Chinese light tank Type 2597 Chi-Ha has excellent penetration rates, thanks to which he can easily inflict damage on most of the enemies he encounters. As for the wonderful sub-calibers, you also need to have them with you, but only in case of collisions with armored vehicles of the fifth level.
Of course, it is somewhat frustrating that for powerful damage and excellent penetration you have to pay with indicators of accuracy. Scatter Type 2597 Chi-Ha WoT got big, our gun is reduced slowly and its stabilization is bad, but you have to put up with it.
But we have another trump card up our sleeve, I would even say the joker - these are excellent elevation angles. Cannon Type 2597 Chi-Ha tank capable of as much as 15 degrees down, so that the game from the relief turns into a real fairy tale.
Advantages and disadvantages
The most important role in battle is played by how well you have learned the tank on which you are playing. Of course, analyzing the general characteristics and parameters of weapons allows you to get a lot of information, but understanding the strengths and weaknesses Type 2597 Chi-Ha World of Tanks will allow you to get to know the car even better and succeed on the battlefield.
Pros:
Good basic overview;
High one-time damage;
Decent rate of fire and DPM;
Excellent penetration rates;
Excellent elevation angles.
Minuses:
Large silhouette and weak disguise;
Weak armor in all projections;
Mediocre mobility (dynamics, agility, maximum speed);
Poor accuracy (flattening, stabilization, spread).
Equipment for Type 2597 Chi-Ha
The advantages of this unit are undeniable, playing correctly, you can seriously influence the outcome of the battle. But there is no limit to perfection, in addition, among the shortcomings there are points that also need to be adjusted with additional modules, so for maximum effect it is worth putting on Type 2597 Chi-Ha Equipment in this form:
1. - as you know, this module provides a complex boost of characteristics, that is, this is a good opportunity to improve several important parameters at once.
2. - our gun has serious problems with accuracy, they can only be compensated for by accelerating the aiming.
3. - despite a very good viewing range, this parameter also needs improvement.
However, given the peculiarities of our car, there is a good alternative to the third point -. With this change to the kit, you can achieve maximum visibility and get a serious advantage over the enemy, but you have to sacrifice mobility.
Crew training
Correct prioritization in learning skills for crew members, as well as the sequence of their leveling is another extremely important and crucial moment. When choosing, try to take into account the peculiarities of the tank, it is better not to make mistakes here, because it will take a lot of time to fix them, but in general for Type 2597 Chi-Ha perks it is better to download according to the following principle:
Commander -,,,.
Gunner (loader) -,,,.
Driver mechanic - , , , .
Radio operator -,,,.
Equipment for Type 2597 Chi-Ha
In the acquisition of consumables, things are much simpler, but this does not mean that this aspect should be neglected. Of course, if you do not have extra silver or you are saving up for some kind of tank, it is better to buy,,. But in cases where there is no need for savings and you can afford to install on Type 2597 Chi-Ha equipment premium, better take,,. In addition, our Chinese rarely burns, and the boost of characteristics has not bothered anyone yet, so the fire extinguisher can be replaced with.
The tactics of playing the Type 2597 Chi-Ha
Let's move on to the tactical side of the guide and when playing on this device, the first thing you should remember is light tank Type 2597 Chi-Ha has large dimensions, that is, it is a desirable target for all enemies, but at the same time it is devoid of armor that could save you from losing precious points of strength.
Add to this the fact that we have a powerful and very penetrating weapon, which, despite its poor accuracy, is capable of excellent damage. From this it follows that the vehicle is not suitable for close combat, moreover, for Type 2597 Chi-Ha tactics involves firing at long distances.
Thus, at the beginning of the battle, we take a convenient position on the second line, from which a good cross will open, but it will be more difficult for the enemy to find you, and because of the distance, and to hit too. In such conditions Type 2597 Chi-Ha World of Tanks relatively safely and without hindrance, it will be able to inflict damage, realizing its powerful DPM, and the problem in the form of mediocre mobility will be less pronounced.
It is only important to understand that in case of difficulties Type 2597 Chi-Ha tank must be able to retreat, so think about escape routes or at least about having a reliable cover that can protect not only from the ground enemy, but also artillery shots.
Otherwise, the mechanics of the game are not so difficult, try not to engage in close combat, do not let yourself go around and watch the mini-map in order to avoid unpleasant surprises. In addition, it is ineffective to stay in one place for the whole fight, so on Type 2597 Chi-Ha WoT try to move as needed and look for footholds of fire, positioning on which, you can bring maximum benefit to your team.
Combat use
In the battles on Khalkhin Gol in the spring and summer of 1939, the Chi-ha were not used, but precisely after the defeat suffered there from Soviet troops, the implementation of the program for the construction of medium tanks received a new impetus, and three companies of the 4th tank regiment, which were then armed with light "Ha-go", were soon rearmed with medium "Chi-ha".
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched an invasion of the Philippines and Malaya. On December 10, the advance units of General Homm's 14th Army began to land on Luzon Island, and on December 22-24, the main forces of the army landed. In the Philippines, Japanese tanks first encountered American tanks - from November 1941 a tank group of 180 M3 "Stuart" tanks and 50 75-mm T12 self-propelled guns were deployed on Luzon. The Japanese landed here units of the 4th and 7th tank regiments and several tank companies. The tanks were delivered to the shore on landing barges and immediately left them ashore. From the first clashes on December 22 and 31, 1941 until last fight On April 7, 1942, the main role here was played by the light "Ha-go", although the medium "Chi-ha" also took part in the hostilities. Usually, tanks led the infantry attacks, sometimes making quick throws to objects already captured by paratroopers for the final breakdown of enemy resistance. Units of the 7th Panzer Regiment captured several light "Stewarts". Trophies for the Japanese were the T12 self-propelled guns (on the chassis of half-track armored personnel carriers), which they used in the Philippines against the Americans in 1944-1945. The withdrawal of the American-Philippine group of forces to the fortifications on the Bataan Peninsula brought the Japanese actions to an assault on the peninsula and the island-fortress of Corregidor. In the battles on Bataan, "Chi-ha" acted more actively, sometimes using smoke grenade launchers. After the capture of Bataan, an amphibious force was formed to land on Corregidor. Previous battles showed low efficiency of 57-mm guns "Chi-ha" in tank battles with highly mobile, maneuverable "stewarts", moreover, capable of firing from long distances. Therefore, in addition to the "Chi-ha" company, the detachment included two "Shinhot Chikha", delivered earlier to Bataan and introduced into the 7th tank regiment. It is curious to note that the commander of this tank company, Major Matsuoka, operated on the captured Stuart. The landing on May 5, 1942 on Corregidor was the combat debut of the Shinhoto Chi-ha.
Column of tanks "Chi-ha" before the march.
The Japanese 25th Army of Lieutenant General Yamashita, which invaded Malaya and had 211 tanks in the 1st, 6th and 14th Panzer Regiments, was rapidly advancing towards Singapore. An attack on the island from the north, that is, from the land side, was considered impossible by the British, especially with the use of tanks. The Japanese thought differently. The rugged, jungle-covered terrain really made it difficult for the machines to operate, they had to move mainly in columns along rare roads. Under these conditions, tanks were also used as a vehicle for transporting property. As a camouflage, the crews used "skirts" made of palm leaves or other vegetation, reinforcing them on the hulls and towers.
The losses of tanks were insignificant, which was aided by the enemy's lack of anti-tank weapons and the dominance of Japanese aviation in the air.
The operation began on December 7, and already the 11th 1st Panzer Regiment successfully attacked the Jitra line of defense. According to the British, the appearance of the Japanese medium tanks of the 6th Panzer Regiment on January 7, 1942 at Kuala Lumpuru in Silanogre "caused indescribable confusion." Japanese tanks crossed the river and not only broke through the British defenses, but also captured rich trophies, including serviceable armored vehicles and light armored personnel carriers. To support the units that crossed the 9 * February to Singapore, the Japanese led tanks across the Johor Strait along the railway dam. On February 15, Singapore was captured by Japanese troops, and tanks played a big role in this.
In the battles in Burma (January 21 - May 20, 1942), General Ida's 15th Japanese army used tanks of the 1st, 2nd and 14th tank regiments. On April 29, they cut the Burma road, and on April 30 they entered the city of Lashio, an important communications hub. In Burma, Japanese tankers took part in battles with the Stuarts of the British 7th Hussars. In addition, the T-26s of the Chinese 200th Mechanized Division operated here, but they did not participate in tank battles with the Japanese.
After the landing on August 7, 1942 of the 1st Division marines USA on about. Guadalcanal (in the Solomon Islands group) and its advance into the interior of the island, the Japanese on October 16 landed Sumimoshi's troops on the island, reinforced by the 1st separate tank company, which was manned by veterans of the 4th company of the 2nd tank regiment. After a series of local skirmishes on October 26, the Japanese attempted to cross the Matenika River and attack US Marine positions on the opposite bank. Of the 12 Chi-ha that tried to wade across the river, most were lost to the fire of 37-mm anti-tank guns. Actually, this was the end of the tank battles. The Japanese did not manage to transfer reinforcements from Rabaul, and on February 1-7, 1943, they secretly evacuated from Guadalcanal.
1943 was a turning point - both Germany in Europe and Japan in Asia and the Pacific were forced to go over to strategic defense. Japanese garrisons on the Mariana Islands, which were part of inner belt defenses of the Land of the Rising Sun and those of strategic importance were reinforced by the units of the 9th tank regiment of Colonel Hideki G oto: the 1st and 2nd companies (29 tanks "Ha-go" and "Chi-ha") were on about. Guam, 3rd, 5th and 6th - on the island of Saipan. In addition, on the latter were deployed "Ha-go" of a separate tank company of the airborne detachment, and on Guam - the 24th separate tank company (9 tanks). There were also floating Ka-mi, and the anti-tank system used 47-mm Type 1 cannons.
Medium tanks "Chi-nu" in the assembly shop of the plant.
On June 15, 1944, an American assault force landed on Saipan as part of the 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions with amphibious tanks, on June 16 - the 27th Infantry Division. The Japanese used their tanks for counterattacks in conjunction with the infantry, but suffered heavy losses from infantry anti-tank weapons and M4 Sherman tanks. On June 16, Vice Admiral Nagumo ordered another counterattack. Under the command of Colonel Goto, 44 tanks were sent to the island together with the 136th Infantry Regiment: "Ha-go", "Chi-ha", "Shinhoto Chi-ha" from the 9th Panzer Regiment and "Ka-mi" from the airborne tank company. The tanks secretly landed in the rear of the American Marine Corps entrenched on the west coast, but on the pebble beaches of the Garapan they made a lot of noise with their caterpillars. The Marines managed to call a platoon of "Shermans" and several self-propelled anti-tank installations M3. The Japanese lost 11 tanks on the beach. Nevertheless, at 2 a.m. on June 17, 40 Japanese tanks with armored infantry (rare for the Japanese tactical technique) went on the attack. They had to move in open areas. Some of the tanks reached the positions of the Marine Corps, but by the light of illuminating shells fired from the ships, the Americans knocked out several tanks with the fire of Bazooka rocket-propelled grenade launchers and 37-mm anti-tank guns. The rest, trying to bypass the wrecked cars, got stuck in swampy places and soft ground and turned out to be motionless targets. After a counterattack by the American marines with tanks and self-propelled guns, the Japanese had only 12 tanks - 6 "Chi-ha" and "Ha-go" each. Some of them died on June 24 in an unequal battle with the "Shermans" (company "C" of the 2nd Tank Battalion of the Marine Corps), the rest - a little later in clashes with the M5A1 "Stuart" army units (according to other sources - from 37-mm fire anti-tank guns). Saipan was captured by the Americans only by 9 July and cost both sides heavy losses.
Commanding variant "Chi-ha" with an imitation of a cannon in the tower.
"Shinhoto Chi-ha" captured by the Americans on an island in the Pacific Ocean.
When the 3rd Marine Division and the 77th US Infantry Division landed on Guam on June 21, Japanese forces on the island included 38 tanks "Ha-go" and "Chi-ha", concentrated off the western coast, where the Americans landed. Only "Ha-go" participated in the first clashes, although "Snee" would have been more useful - light tanks were quickly knocked out. 11 "Chi-ha" of the 2nd company of the 9th regiment, which was at the beginning of the landing as part of the 48th separate mixed brigade at Agana, was pulled to Taraga on the northern coast. They were used to support infantry in night attacks. A successful attack was carried out, for example, by five Chi-ha on the night of August 8-9 at the position of the marines, whose bazookas were disabled due to the rain. But the very next day the American Shermans attacked a Japanese strongpoint, knocked out two tanks and captured seven, either they were out of order or had no fuel. On August 10, the Japanese stopped resistance in Guam.
Saipan and Guam became the site of the most intensive use of Japanese tanks in the Pacific theater of operations. On June 16, they carried out their last massive attack on Saipan. The battles here also demonstrated the complete inadequacy of the Chi-ha to the requirements of the time - these tanks were easily knocked out by the fire of American bazookas, tank and anti-tank guns, there were cases of destruction of these vehicles by the fire of large-caliber machine guns and rifle grenades.
Medium tanks Chi-ha and Shinhoto Chi-ha arrived in the Philippines from Manchuria in January 1944 as part of the 2nd Panzer Division at the disposal of the 14th Army (14th Front). Soon the 11th Tank Regiment was reinforced with the Shinhoto Chi-ha, renamed the 27th Separate Tank Regiment, and sent to Okinawa. Thus, three tank regiments remained on Luzon Island (each with one light company and one with two medium tank companies) - a total of 220 tanks, including the Shinhoto Chi-ha, as well as the Ho-ni and Ho -ro ". On Leyte Island there were light "Ha-go" and several outdated medium "Type 94" of the 7th separate tank company. These forces were to face more than 500 American tanks and self-propelled guns.
October 20, 1944, four infantry divisions of the 6th American army landed on Leyte Island, and by December 28 the fighting there had already ended. Medium Type 94s were lost while trying to recapture the runways. It is worth noting here that the struggle for the Pacific islands was not so much an attempt to take control of key points of sea communications, but rather to seize airfields. After the Japanese tanks on Leyte Island could not carry out a single more or less successful counterattack and were mostly knocked out, General Yamashita decided to use them on Luzon as stationary firing points, distributing infantry units to strong points and setting the task to delay the advance American parts. The tanks were dug in and carefully camouflaged; several reserve positions were prepared for them. For camouflage, the crews pulled wire nets over the hull and tower, onto which branches, leaves, and grass were attached. The protection of the frontal part of the turret was increased by hanging spare tracks, which, in principle, was uncharacteristic for Japanese tankers. Machines prepared in this way served as the core of strong points that differed from each other in size and strength. So, the point near Urdanet had 9 combat units, the Shigemi detachment near San Manuel - 45 (7th tank regiment, mainly "Shinhoto Chi-ha"), Ida detachment near Munoz - 52 (6th tank regiment).
Padded "Chi-ha". Noteworthy is the characteristic shape of the turret hatch cover.
Japanese "Ferdinand" - self-propelled gun "Ho-ri".
The landing of the 1st and 14th corps of the 6th American army on Luzon began on January 9, 1945. On January 17, a tank battle took place near Linmangansen - the Shermans of the C company of the 716th American tank battalion knocked out 4 Shinhot Chi-ha of the 7th Japanese tank regiment. On January 24, the same American tank company attacked the Shigemi detachment near San Manuel with the support of 105 mm self-propelled howitzers M7.
In the early morning of January 28, the 30 remaining vehicles of this detachment, accompanied by infantry, launched a counterattack, but most of them were hit by the fire of tanks and self-propelled guns, and the Americans themselves lost only three Shermans and one M7. On January 30, a convoy of 8 Chi-ha and 30 vehicles breaking through from the encirclement was shot at Umungan.
Ida's squad has also fought surrounded since February 1. The attempt to break through was stopped by the fire of American artillery and light tanks - "Stuarts". All Japanese tanks were hit. The 10th tank regiment was also unlucky - on January 29, its column came under fire from the M10 self-propelled guns of the 637th American anti-tank battalion, which knocked out four Shinhoto Chi-ha.
By May 5, the Americans had destroyed in the Philippines 203 Chi-ha and Shinhot Chi-ha, 19 Ha-go, 2 Ho-ro. The 2nd Panzer Division complied with the order, delaying the advance of the Americans into the interior of the island, but paid too high a price for it - it simply ceased to exist.
After the capture of the Philippines, the focus of the American command shifted to the islands of Formosa, Okinawa and Iwo Jima, which could serve as air bases for a direct attack on the Japanese islands. On February 19, 1945, the 5th US Airborne Corps, supported by 200 amphibious tanks, began landing on Iwo Jima. The 27th Japanese tank regiment was stationed here, which had 28 tanks - mainly "Chi-ha" and "Shinhoto Chiha". Lieutenant Colonel Nishi, who commanded them, intended to use the Shinhoto Chi-ha as nomadic anti-tank guns, which generally corresponded to the situation and the capabilities of the tanks. However, more often they were used in dug-out stationary positions. Unable to retreat, these tanks were soon hit by artillery or bazooka fire from the American Marine Corps. However, at least one strong point, in which there were three "Shinhot Chi-ha", showed very stubborn resistance. It is no coincidence that battles on the small island continued until March 26. Following this, on April 1, the Americans landed four divisions of the 3rd Airborne and 24th Corps on the west coast of Okinawa. Landing force included more than 800 tanks and self-propelled guns, as well as a large number of amphibious tanks and armored personnel carriers. The Japanese 32nd Army had only units of the 27th Tank Regiment already mentioned above, stationed in the northern part of the island - only 13 Hago and 14 Shinhoto Chi-ha. Almost all of these vehicles were lost in an attempted counterattack on 5 May. The fighting in Okinawa went on until June 21, but the tanks no longer took part in the most fierce battles.
"Chi-ha" of the 1st separate tank company, shot down on Guadalcanal in October 1942. Most of the combat vehicles of this unit were the victims of the fire of the 37-mm American anti-tank guns.
"Ha-something."
After the defeat of the 2nd Panzer Division in the Philippines, the Japanese command did not risk the remaining units and transfer additional tanks to Okinawa (and the very possibility of this, due to the complete domination of the Americans at sea, was more than doubtful), although the island was considered ethnically Japanese territory. This is how it ended fighting Japanese tank forces in the Pacific.
On the continent, hostilities unfolded in Burma and China. In Burma, after several "trial" operations in 1943, the Allies went on the offensive early the following year. By the beginning of the battles with the British-Indian and American-Chinese troops, the tank forces of the Japanese were only the 14th Panzer Regiment. Moreover, his 4th company was armed with captured "Stuarts", but after battles with British tanks, the company was reinforced with "Shinhoto Chi-ha". In this composition, this unit participated in the battles with the Americans near Mit'kin in the first days of August 1944. In March 1945, the last Japanese tanks in Burma were lost in clashes with the Shermans on the Mitkina-Mandalay road. By May 6, the Allies had completely recaptured Burma.
In China, the 3rd Japanese Panzer Division was based, which included the 5th (8th and 12th regiments) and 6th (13th and newly formed 17th regiments) tank brigades. In 1942-1943, the Japanese used tanks sporadically in counter-guerrilla operations, in private offensives against the 8th People's Liberation Army of China in the Border District, against the Kuomintang troops in the Yichang area. The 8th regiment was transferred to New Britain in 1942.
During the autumn offensive of 1943 in China, units of the 3rd Panzer Division were used to capture airfields, from which at that time B-29 bombers began raids on industrial facilities in Manchuria and Kyushu. In 1944, the 6th tank brigade was withdrawn from the division and sent to the Mongolian border, so that from the actual tank units The 3rd division retained only the 12th regiment. In this form, it was attached to the 12th Army. After the inclusion of two more motorized infantry regiments in its composition, the division turned into a mechanized or reinforced motorized one rather than a tank one. But it was at this time that decisive tasks began to be posed before the tank units.
At least six Chi-ha of the 9th Panzer Regiment were destroyed during the night attack on June 16, 1944 on Saipan. In the armor of this tank, numerous holes are visible from 37-mm shells fired from the guns of the M5A1 light tanks of the 762th American tank battalion.
Another "Chi-ha" shot down in Saipan. Noteworthy is a folding frame with a net at the rear of the hull, intended for the transport of infantrymen.
In April 1944, an offensive against the Kuomintang troops began in the direction of Luoyang, Xin'an and along the Hankou - Changsha - Henyang - Canton railway. Its task was to seize the highway leading to the Korean coast and in the direction of Hanoi, the subsequent defeat of the Chinese troops and the connection of the Northern, Central and Southern fronts of the Japanese expeditionary forces. Within the framework of this "Operation No. 1" the 12th Army was operating. The 3rd Panzer Division, following the infantry together with the 4th Cavalry Brigade, took part in a number of battles. At the same time, tanks, motorized infantry and cavalry conducted maneuvering actions, made envelopes, long (up to 60 km per day) roundabout marches. With their active participation, on May 5, Linzhou was captured, on May 25, Loyang. By the middle of autumn, the Japanese occupied more than 40 cities, including Changsha, Henyang, Guilin, Shaozhou, Nanying, airfields near Henyang, Liuzhou, and Gangxiang. This success was largely due to the weakness of the enemy's anti-tank defense system. During the assault settlements tanks were used to bombard gates or breaches in the walls surrounding most Chinese cities from machine-gun range. After the infantry entered the city, some of the tanks acted in front of it, while others were sent around to cut off the enemy's escape route. The 3rd Panzer Division and the 4th Cavalry Brigade also took part in the attack on the American air base near the Laohahe River in the spring of 1945. In the operation that began on March 22 and the capture of airfields, the 3rd Panzer Division was solving rather auxiliary tasks, but the tankers played an important role in consolidating the success and repelling Chinese counterattacks (for example, in April in Sichuan). After that, the 3rd division with the rest of the forces was pulled to the north, to Peiping (future Beijing). Interestingly, after the surrender of Japan, the 3rd Panzer Division was not completely disarmed - the Americans and the Kuomintang used it to protect Peiping from being captured by the People's Liberation Army, until the 109th Kuomintang Division replaced it in November 1945. It is quite typical for the situation in China at that time - the disarmament of Japanese troops here ended only in February 1946.
To the beginning of the Manchurian offensive operation Soviet troops in 1945, the Kwantung Army under the command of General Yamada, numbering more than 1 million people, included the 1st and 9th separate tank brigades, based, respectively, in the areas of the cities of Shahe (south of Mukden) and Tieling (north-west of Mukden), the 35th Tank Regiment, together with the 39th Infantry Division, was stationed near the city of Sypingai. The 9th Brigade served as the tank reserve of the Kwantung Army. These areas were in the zone of the 3rd West Manchurian Front. Japanese tank forces were significantly weakened by losses in the autumn offensive of 1944 in China and the transfer of part of units and equipment to the Japanese islands.
Tanks "Chi-ha" 34th Tank Regiment, captured in Manchuria by the Red Army. 1945 year.
Soviet soldiers and officers inspect Japanese tanks at the Red Army trophy exhibition at the Gorky Central Park of Culture and Leisure in Moscow in 1945. In the foreground there are two "Chi-ha", in the background - three "Ha-go".
In total, the Kwantung grouping, together with the 17th Korean Front, had 1215 tanks by August 1945. Soviet troops numbered 1.7 million people and 5200 tanks and self-propelled guns.
On August 9, the Soviet troops of the Transbaikal, 1st Far Eastern and part of the forces of the 2nd Far Eastern fronts went on the offensive. In the battles with the Red Army in August - September, Japanese tanks practically did not show themselves in any way and were captured mainly in parks. The troops of the Trans-Baikal and 1st Far Eastern fronts, for example, got, thus, up to 600 serviceable Japanese tanks.
"Chi-ha" and "Shinhoto Chi-ha" of the 11th Panzer Regiment, together with units of the 91st Infantry Division, were located on the Shumshu and Paramushir Islands of the Kuril ridge, which was occupied by the troops of the 5th Japanese Front. They took part in the battles with the Soviet troops of the 2nd Far Eastern Front, who were conducting the Kuril landing operation... In addition, the Japanese had two separate tank companies in the Kuril Islands. To counter the Soviet landing (101st rifle division with a Marine Corps battalion) to Shumshu Island on August 18 - 20, 1945, the Japanese additionally transferred tanks from Paramushir Island. Artillery support for the Soviet landing was provided by the ships of the Pacific Fleet. The fierceness of the fighting is evidenced by the remains of "Shinhoto Chi-ha", which are still rusting on the island. Shumshu and Paramushir were cleared of the Japanese on 23 August, and all the Kuril Islands by 1 September. On September 2, Japan surrendered.
A few words about the tanks intended for the defense of the Japanese islands. In the spring of 1945, the United National Defense Army had 2,970 tanks in two divisions, six brigades and several separate companies. The 1st and 4th Panzer Divisions formed a mobile reserve stationed north of Tokyo. The American-British landing on the island of Kyushu was planned for November 1945, on Honshu - for the spring of 1946. It was to include three armored divisions, as well as a significant number of separate tank battalions. Surely, superiority would again be on the side of the Americans, but the Japanese tank units stationed in the metropolis, fully equipped and well equipped, apparently would have put up more serious resistance than in other places. However, this is pure speculation - the surrender prevented these battles. The Japanese tanks were handed over to the American occupation forces.
After the surrender of Japan, "Chi-ha" and "Shinhoto Chi-ha" continued their military service - during the Third civil war in China (1945-1949). Serviceable vehicles taken from the Kwantung Army, including 350 Chi-ha, were handed over to the People's Liberation Army by the Soviet troops. On the other hand, Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang troops received a significant number of Japanese tanks, with the assistance of the Americans. The limited number of combat vehicles on both sides led to their use for direct support of the infantry when attacking individual strongpoints. In Peiping (Beijing) on January 31, 1949 and in Nanjing on April 23, the People's Liberation Army of China entered the Japanese tanks- including on "Chi-ha".
In Japan itself, the surviving "Chiha" and "Chi-he" remained in service until the 60s. However, in these years they played rather the role of training machines, since the basis of the armament of the "security corps", and then of the "self-defense forces" of Japan were then American-made tanks.
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From the book Medium Tank "Chi-ha" the author Fedoseev Semyon LeonidovichCombat use In the battles on Khalkhin Gol in the spring and summer of 1939, the Chi-ha were not used, but it was after the defeat suffered there by the Soviet troops that the implementation of the program for the construction of medium tanks received a new impetus, and three companies of the 4th tank regiment, who had
From the book Heavy Tank IS-2 the author Baryatinsky MikhailCombat use In February 1944, the breakthrough regiments of the Red Army, equipped with KV tanks, were transferred to the new states. At the same time, the formation of new parts began, equipped with IS machines, which began to be called heavy tank
From the book Medium Tank T-34-85 the author Baryatinsky MikhailOfficial designation: Type 1 "Chi-ha"
Alternative notation:?
Start of design: 1936
Date of construction of the first prototype: 1937
Stage of completion: serially produced in 1938-1945, used by the Japanese army until the early 1960s.
Prolonged hostilities in China and the general world trends in tank building, implemented in the mid-1930s, made it very clear to the General Staff of the Japanese Army about the inconsistency of Type 89 \ Type 94 tanks. modern requirements... In this regard, in 1936, a new specification was developed, providing for the creation of a medium tank with increased combat qualities.
During this period, the relations between the two military-industrial groupings within the Japanese army sharply deteriorated. The first of these, consisting of General Staff officials and arsenal specialists in Osaka, argued that the ground forces needed as many inexpensive and easy-to-use pain machines as possible. The second group, which included frontline officers and arsenal specialists at Sagami, was convinced that "herds of tankettes" would not solve the problem and it would be better to develop more powerful tanks, even if in smaller quantities. Thus, the discussion about what the medium tank should be was at an impasse, although the General Staff then played a dominant role. As a result, it was decided to order two prototypes of two different tanks for comparative tests. Arsenal in Osaka began to develop a tank under the designation "Chi-no"("Fourth average"), distinguished by a rather modest mass. In parallel, Mitsubishi began designing a heavier machine, later known as Type 97 "Chi-ha"("Third middle").
The first, at the end of 1936, to enter the tests "Chi-no". Structurally, this tank combined both foreign and domestic experience in tank building. The Osaka arsenal specialists chose a chassis scheme, partially borrowed from the British Vickers Mk.E (6-ton) tank, which saved some weight and made the ride smoother. The armament, although it did not fully meet the requirements (one 37-mm cannon and one 7.7-mm machine gun), was considered quite sufficient. The tank's protection was also acceptable - the frontal armor of the hull and turret was up to 25 mm thick. On paved roads, a maximum speed of up to 34 km / h was shown.
Since at this time Mitsubishi was just finishing work on its own project, the Japanese command gave a clear preference for "Chi-no. However, after the outbreak of another war with China in the summer of 1937, opinions regarding the Osaka arsenal project changed. It turned out that the army needs a slightly different tank, equipped with reinforced weapons and having better protection. It was not possible to modify the "Chi-no" according to the changed requirements - the turret was not designed for the installation of a larger caliber gun, and the increase in the thickness of the armor inevitably led to an increase in the mass and deterioration of the tank's running characteristics. In addition, the crew of "Chi-no" consisted of only three people and the commander had to combine the duties of the gunner and loader.
Thus, the Mitsubishi project was now considered more promising. However, one should not think that "Chi-ha" was innovative in a constructive sense. Rather, on the contrary, Japanese engineers actively used the developments on the light tank "Ha-go", borrowing from it a number of elements both in the structure of the hull and the chassis.
The layout of the Chi-ha did not differ much from the original light tank. The hull had a mixed design, but almost all the armor plates were attached to a steel frame with bolts and rivets, which was an obvious anachronism, but it made it possible to replace individual components in field conditions... Reservation was differentiated and varied from 8.5 to 27 mm - in this respect, "Chi-ha" practically did not differ from "Chi-no". In the front part of the hull, which had a stepped shape, transmission units were installed (consisting of a 4-speed gearbox, a multi-plate main clutch, a planetary swing mechanism, single-stage final drives and final drives) behind which there were places for the driver (in the protruding wheelhouse on the right side) and machine gunner. The upper gable armor plate, with two hatches for servicing the transmission, had an inclination of 80 °, the lower one - 62 °.
The fighting compartment occupied the middle part of the corps. The sides were vertical and were made of armor plates with a thickness of 20-25 mm, but the turret box received the shape of a truncated pyramid and had an armor thickness of 20 mm and a slope of the sides of 40 °. The frontal sheet of the fighting compartment was installed at an angle of only 10 °. On the roof of the box, a conical tower was installed with a stern niche shifted to the left and a squat commander's cupola with a mushroom-shaped cap. An escape hatch was made in the rear wall of the tower. In the front of the turret, a rectangular cutout was made for the installation of a 57-mm Type 97 gun with a barrel length of 18.5 calibers. Its guidance sectors turned out to be very modest - from -9 ° to + 15 ° in the vertical plane and 5 ° in the horizontal plane. Despite the insufficient armor penetration characteristics, the 57-mm gun had a small mass and a short barrel recoil, which was critically important in the limited turret space. The tank commander's seat was on the right side of the gun, the loader's seat was on the left. The thickness of the walls of the tower was 25 mm with the angles of their installation 10 ° -12 °. Additional armament included course and turret 7.7 mm Type 97 machine guns.
The tank "Chi-ha" was equipped with a V-shaped diesel engine Mitsubishi with 170 hp The cooling system is air, with an oil air cleaner. The engine was started from an electric starter. Fuel tanks for 120 and 115 liters were located along the sides of the engine compartment. Exhaust pipes were taken out on both sides and were equipped with mufflers, protected by armored shields in front. Also, shutters were installed in the sides, closed in a combat position by armored covers, which rose on the march and were fixed in a horizontal position.
The chassis of the Chi-ha tank was not particularly original. Applied to one side, it consisted of the following elements:
- six double rubberized rollers; four middle ones were blocked in pairs and equipped with a Hara-type suspension, and the outer rollers were equipped with an individual spring suspension;
- three supporting rollers;
- rear steering wheel;
- driving wheel front location;
- fine-link caterpillar: 96 tracks with one ridge 330 mm wide and 120 mm pitch.
Thus, the process of unification of individual elements, which began with the "Ha-go" light tank, was continued on the "Chi-ha" medium tank. In general, this process made rational sense, since the serial production of tanks of various types was greatly facilitated.
Both prototypes of the tank were built in early 1937. The first of them was equipped with a standard undercarriage, and the second received a chassis. The number of support wheels has been increased to eight, which has a positive effect on the smoothness of the ride. At the same time, the outer wheels retained the individual suspension, and the six middle ones were locked in pairs in a checkerboard pattern (front spoked on the left, rear with a cast disc on the right). Also, instead of three supporting rollers, four were installed. Certain advantages in such a scheme were undoubtedly present, but from an operational point of view, the Hara-type suspension was still more acceptable.
Having compared the technical characteristics obtained during the tests of the prototypes "Chi-ha" and "Chi-no", the choice was made in favor of the former. The Mitsubishi tank did not have any definite advantages, but the more powerful armament and better distribution of duties between the crew members affected. In addition, the landing and landing of tankers could be carried out through the turret hatch or through the hatch above the machine gunner's head. At the same time, the fighting compartment turned out to be too cramped, because of which the fenders had to be used like that of the "Ha-go" tank, and the booking remained bulletproof. In addition, the tank lacked any means of external communication.
Despite the obvious inconsistency with the current world requirements, "Chi-ha" were adopted by the Japanese army. Production was launched in 1938, when 110 pre-series and serial tanks... Further, the release of "Chi-ha" continued in larger series:
1938 - 110
1939 - 202
1940 - 315
1941 - 507 (some of the tanks were equipped with a 47-mm gun)
1942 - 28.
Thus, medium tanks "Chi-ha" have become one of the most widespread in history. Japanese tank building... However, this was not the end of their release.
Having received new tanks, the General Staff demanded to improve their tactical and technical characteristics. Minimal changes were made to the design of the Chi-ha serial tanks. In particular, the command vehicles began to be equipped with radio stations with a handrail antenna, but all the tanks did not fully radio. It was necessary to carry out a more serious modernization, which was largely accelerated by the battles on Khalkhin Gol, where the advantage of Soviet tanks and armored vehicles equipped with 45 mm 20K cannons was revealed in a very sharp form. The three-month battle more than convincingly showed that Japanese medium tanks were less effective than the light Soviet BT-7 and T-26. The most pressing issue was equipping the Chi-ha with a more powerful armored artillery system. The 47 mm Type 97 gun was chosen as a replacement, which had much better performance. So, with a barrel length of 48 calibers, an armor-piercing projectile weighing 1.4 kg received initial speed 825 m / s. At a distance of up to 500 meters, it pierced a vertically installed sheet of armor 50 mm thick, which was considered a good indicator. The gun was installed in a mask with a wall thickness of 30 mm. The ammunition load included 120 armor-piercing and fragmentation-armor-piercing rounds. Ammunition for machine guns was increased from 3825 to 4025 rounds.
In connection with the installation of new weapons, it was necessary to change the design of the tower. It became noticeably higher and wider, and also received a developed feed niche. In the roof of the tower, they left the commander's cupola and the upper hatch (on the left side) and installed a periscope observation device in front of it. There was also an aft hatch for loading ammunition and dismantling the gun. Next to it, with an offset to the left side, a 7.7 mm machine gun was installed. The rest of the tank has not undergone any changes.
The first prototype of the improved tank, known as Type 97 Kai or "Shinhoto Chi-ha"("Third medium with a new artillery turret"), was presented for trials in 1940. The success of the updated design was obvious, and from the next year the re-equipment of the Chi-ha serial tanks began with new turrets with 47-mm guns. Full production of "Shinhoto Chi-ha" was only developed in 1942, when 503 vehicles were assembled. In 1943, the Mitsubishi factories produced 427 more tanks, after which the assembly of the Shinhoto Chi-ha was discontinued.
The vehicles of the new construction received a modernized ventilation system for the engine compartment, full-fledged armored muffler boxes were installed, and a spare parts box was attached to the rear of the hull. A 12-button light alarm was also introduced for communication inside the tank. Late production tanks began to be equipped with smoke grenade launchers. Initially, the four-barreled grenade launcher was mounted on a frame on the side of the turret, but their installation above the maxi of the gun turned out to be more successful.
Despite the rather mediocre fighting qualities, the Chi-ha tank has become a good base for tracked vehicles, which can be divided into two categories: special and repair and technical.
Special armored vehicles:
- a unique modification of the machine for the destruction of wire communication lines, which has a name in foreign sources High-Voltage Dynamo Vehicle "Ka-Ha"... The modifications to the tank were reduced to dismantling the gun and installing a dynamo with a 10,000-volt DC generator. According to the plan of the creators, the electrical impulse sent through the telegraph wire was supposed to destroy the means of communication and enemy signalmen, who had the misfortune of negotiating these devices at the same time. A total of four "Ka-Ha" were built, which were transferred to the disposal of the 27th Independent Engineering Regiment, stationed in Manchuria. No data could be found about their use.
"Ka-so"- armored vehicle of artillery observers without weapons in the tower.
- armored felling machine, produced in a limited series for use in Siberia, but eventually they found use in the jungle of New Guinea.
"Chi-ki"- a command tank, featuring a modernized turret with a modified commander's cupola and a second sunroof, as well as an improved radio station, navigation devices, additional signaling devices... In addition to the absence of a 57-mm gun, the command tanks were distinguished by a handrail antenna on the turret. At the same time, to compensate for the weakened composition of weapons, instead of a course machine gun, a 37-mm or 57-mm gun in a frame was installed in the frontal sheet of the hull. Later, they still had to return to the turret gun mount, and a horizontal antenna was mounted on two high rods. Work on the modification of "Chi-ki" was carried out in parallel with the design of a medium tank, and the first prototype was equipped with an experimental chassis with three two-stroke bogies. Only after testing was unification carried out and the tank was equipped with a standard suspension.
"Chi-yu"- modification of an armored mine trawl. The tower and weapons were not dismantled, but a frame was attached to the front of the hull, in front of which a striking mine sweep was installed. The number of samples collected is unknown.
Repair and technical armored vehicles:
"Seri"- armored recovery vehicle. Instead of the standard turret, a small conical turret with a 7.7-mm Type 97 machine gun was installed, and a crane boom with a lifting capacity of 5 tons was installed in the stern. The forced Mitsubishi Type 100 engine installed on the ARRV developed a power of 240 hp, which, in combination with a winch, made it possible to repair and evacuate medium tanks in the field. This car did not become serial - the release was limited to 2 or 3 copies.
- quite an original modification of the armored bridgelayer. In order to reduce the laying time, a unique bridge drop design was developed using two missiles. In fact, the bridge flew several meters ahead, resulting in the entire process taking a few seconds. Another positive side, oddly enough, was its low carrying capacity. The bridge could easily withstand any Japanese light tank, but not an American one. However, the serial production of the T-g bridgelayers was not established.
"S-K"- exact data are not available. Presumably the designation Experimental Trench Excavator S-K meant a trencher equipped with a steel plow fixed in the bow of the hull.
In addition, many models of improved medium tanks and self-propelled guns, the story of which is beyond the scope of this article.
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Sources:
P. Sergeev "Tanks of Japan in the Second World War". 2000
S. Fedoseev "Medium tank Chi-ha" (Armored collection MK 1998-05)
S. Fedoseev " Armored vehicles Japan 1939-1945 "(" Historical Series ", supplement to the magazine" Technology-Youth "). 2003
Steven Zaloga, Tony Bryan "Japanese Tanks 1939-45"
Axis History Forum: Knocked out Japanese tanks
TACTICAL AND TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A MEDIUM TANK
"Chi-ha" sample 1938
| COMBAT WEIGHT | 14000 kg |
| CREW, pers. | 5 |
| DIMENSIONS | |
| Length, mm | 5730 |
| Width, mm | 2330 |
| Height, mm | 2420 |
| Clearance, mm | 420 |
| WEAPON | one 57-mm cannon Type 97 and two 7.7-mm machine guns Type 97 |
| AMMUNITION | 120 shots and 3825 rounds |
| AIMING DEVICES | telescopic gun and optical machine gun sights |
| RESERVATION | body forehead - 25 mm board - 22 mm feed - 25 mm tower - 20 mm gun mask - 25 mm roof - 12 mm bottom - 8 mm |
| ENGINE | Mitsubushi Type 100, 12-cylinder, diesel, air-cooled; power 170 HP at 2000 rpm |
| TRANSMISSION | mechanical type: gearbox, gearbox with underdrive (8 + 2), propeller shaft, final clutches, single-row final drives |
| CHASSIS | (on one side) four road rollers with Hara-type suspension, two rollers with individual spring suspension, three supporting rollers (all rubberized); small-link caterpillar, with one ridge, 330 mm wide |
| SPEED | 44 km / h on the road |
| HIGHWAY RUNNING RESERVE | 210 km |
| OVERCOMING OBSTACLES | |
| Ascent angle, deg. | 30 ° -35 ° |
| Wall height, m | 0,76 |
| Ford depth, m | 1,00 |
| Moat width, m | 2,50 |
| MEANS OF COMMUNICATION | ? |
Medium Japanese tank
九七式中戦車
Starting in 1937 in the second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese warriors quickly realized that their thin-armored tanks could not withstand not only the shells of anti-tank guns, which, by the way, the Kuomintang army did not have so many, but sometimes harrow-piercing bullets conventional rifles. The fact is that in those days it was fashionable to introduce armor-piercing incendiary bullets into the ammunition of rifles, and such bullets really pierced something and set something on fire. In particular, they pierced and set fire to the Japanese tanks Ha-go, which at that time were the main tanks of the Japanese army. And already bullets from the 12.7-mm Vickers machine guns on the British tankettes supplied to China, when hitting the side, completely pierced Ha-go right through and through.
Therefore, in addition to a light tank of the Ha-go type, the military wanted to have something less vulnerable and more formidable on the rice fields.
The designers of the Osaka Arsenal immediately offered the soldiers the Chi-no tank they developed (literally - the middle fourth), but that did not suit the military with its speed qualities. The military liked Chi-ha (middle third), developed by Mitsubishi, more. It was he who was put into service under the designation 2597 or simply Type 97. The tank repeated the basic design solutions used on the Ha-go, in particular, it had the same suspension system designed by engineer Hara, but was better armed and stronger armored.
Like Ha-go, Chi-ha had a layout with a rear engine and front-mounted transmission units, the control compartment was combined with the combat one. The tank's crew consisted of four people: driver, gunner, loader and commander, who also served as a gunner.
Type 97 had poorly differentiated bulletproof armor protection with limited use of rational tilt angles. The hull and turret were riveted. The hull had side niches, an inclined gable upper frontal plate. The body was assembled on a frame made of backing strips and corners using bolts and rivets with bullet-resistant heads. Welding was practically not used during assembly.
The tower was carried out with l
A two-stroke V-shaped diesel engine was installed longitudinally in the stern. Access to it was provided by hatches in the sides and hatch-louvers in the roof of the hull. In combat conditions, the blinds in the sides were covered with armored covers. On the march, they rose and were fixed in a horizontal position. Fuel tanks with a capacity of 120 and 115 liters were located along the sides. The exhaust pipes were brought back from both sides. The four-speed gearbox with sliding gears and a reduction gear had eight forward and two reverse gears. Chassis, made, as on Ha-go according to the scheme Tomio Hara, was supplemented by front and rear rollers with independent suspension: the outer rollers were connected via crank arms to inclined coil springs, openly fixed on board. The support rollers and outer support rollers were doubled. There were no shock absorbers in the suspension.
Initially, the tank was armed with a 57 mm Type 97 semi-automatic tank gun with a barrel length of 18.4 caliber. The gun was located in the frontal part of the tower on horizontal and vertical trunnions, which allowed it to be guided in the vertical plane within the range of −9 ... + 21 ° and in the horizontal plane within ± 10 °. There were no aiming mechanisms; the gun was guided by free swinging it using a shoulder rest. The ammunition load of the gun consisted of 120 unitary rounds, which were housed in racks in the fighting compartment. The standard ammunition included 80 fragmentation and 40 armor-piercing shells. However, after the defeat at Khalkhin Gol, the Japanese, impressed by our and its tank version, decided to implement something similar.
The result of this decision was the emergence of a new modification of the tank called "Shinhoto Chi-ha" with an enlarged turret, created under the obvious influence of a Soviet tank, which housed a 47-mm gun with a barrel length of 48 calibers. Such a gun could easily cope with armor. American tanks
The auxiliary armament of all Chi-ha modifications consisted of two 7.7 mm machine guns, which were also called Type 97. The machine guns were placed in a purely Japanese manner: one machine gun in the turret aft niche and one on the left in the frontal hull sheet. The Chi-ha machine gun paired with the cannon did not have it. I must say that the first series of tanks were equipped with Czech ZB vz / 26 machine guns, many captured from the Kuomintang army, and only when the shortage of 7.7 mm cartridges, new for the Japanese, was over, they began to install native Japanese machine guns on the tanks, which, however were almost exact copy the same ZB vz / 26.
In 1943, the Japanese introduced an improved model into production, calling it Chi-he Type 1... The model had a welded hull and a modified gun mask 50 mm thick, with a better armored turret and a 12-cylinder 240-horsepower diesel engine. The crew of the new car increased to five people, the weight increased to 17.2 tons, and the speed was 44 km / h. The armament of the tank remained the same.
Chi-ha of the People's Liberation Army of China at the Chinese Military History Museum against the backdrop of a diorama dedicated to the Chinese Civil War.
Medium tanks Chi-ha took part in battles in China, Malaya, Singapore, Guadalcanal, Saipan, Guam. "Shinhoto Chi-ha" first entered the battle on the Bataan Peninsula in May 1942, fought in Saipan, Luzon, Iwo Jima and Okinawa, in Manchuria and the Kuril Islands. In total, from 1938 to 1942, 1220 Chi-Ha-type vehicles were produced, including 757 pieces of the Shinhot modification. After the war, 350 Chi-Ha medium tanks were transferred to the People's Liberation Army of China, in which they successfully defeated the Chiang Kai-shek troops until their expulsion to Taiwan.
Type 97 Chi-Ha Kai
Main characteristics
Briefly
In detail
2.0 / 2.0 / 2.0 BR
5 people Crew
Mobility
15.0 tons Weight
4 forward
1 year ago
Armament
104 rounds ammunition
15 ° / 20 ° UHN
uniplanar
vertical
3,000 rounds ammunition
20 rounds clip size
499 rounds / min rate of fire
Economy
Description
The Type 97 Chi-Ha Kai is a WWII Japanese medium tank based on the Chi-Ha tank in 1939-1941. Partially changed the base tank in production; in addition, much of the Chi-Ha Kai was reworked from the regular Chi-Ha. The name of the tank translates as "Chi-Ha (middle third) with a new artillery turret."
In-game, it also differs from the original Chi-Ha with a new turret and a different 47mm cannon.
Main characteristics
Armor protection and survivability
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Mobility
Armament
Main weapon
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Additional weapon
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Machine gun armament
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Use in battle
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Advantages and disadvantages
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Disadvantages:
Historical reference
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Media
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see also
- reference to a family of technology;
- links to approximate analogues in other nations and branches.
- topic at the office. game forum;
- Wikipedia page;
- page on Aviarmor.net;
- other literature.
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