Questions for the exam in the history of Russia for part-time students

1. History as a science. Subject, method, functions of history.

2. The identity of Russia as a scientific problem.

3. Eastern Slavs in the VI - IX centuries. Formation of the Old Russian state. Norman theory.

4. The adoption of Christianity by Russia and its significance.

5. Fragmentation of Rus' XII - XIII centuries. Rus' in the fight against Swedish and German aggression.

6. Mongol invasion. The problem of Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde. The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the political, economic and cultural development Rus'.

7. Formation of the Muscovite state at the beginning of the XIV - XV centuries.
Strengthening of the Moscow principality. Ivan III.

8. Moscow State in the 16th century Economic and socio-political development. Ivan IV the Terrible. Oprichnina.

9. Russian Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. The reign of the Romanov dynasty.

10. Social movements in Russia in the 17th century. Church reform
Nikon. Reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

11. The reign of Peter the Great. assertion of absolutism. Foreign policy of Russia. Reforms in the economy and the administrative-state sphere.

12. Russian Empire in the middle and second half of the 18th century.

13. Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Patriotic War of 1812
years and a trip abroad. Formation of the Holy Alliance.

14. Movement of the Decembrists.

15. The reign of Nicholas I. Political reaction and persecution of free thought. Westernizers and Slavophiles. Caucasian and Crimean wars.

16. The era of the great reforms of Alexander II. Causes and consequences of the abolition of serfdom. revolutionary democratic movement.

17. Reasons for strengthening the autocratic system in the early 80s.
Counter-reforms of Alexander III. Development of capitalism

18. Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. War with Japan. The first Russian revolution of 1905-1907, its results.

19. Reforms P.A. Stolypin.

20. The First World War and the participation of Russia in it.

21. National crisis. February Revolution and its results.
Russia from February to October 1917

22. October Revolution of 1917. The first events of the Bolsheviks. Civil War and its results.

23. USSR in the 20s - 30s. The results of the NEP, industrialization and collectivization.

24. The Great Patriotic War and its main stages. Causes
and the price of victory. Influence of the USSR on world politics. The world after the Potsdam conference. Beginning of the Cold War.

25. Restoration of the destroyed economy. Reforms N. S. Khrushchev "Thaw". foreign policy course. Years of stagnation.

26. Perestroika in the USSR. New political thinking.

27. Formation and collapse of the USSR. Consequences of the collapse.

28. Changing the economic and political system in the country. Liberal reforms in Russia. "Shock therapy". The constitutional crisis of October 1993.

29. Social consequences of reforms. Chechen war. Foreign policy of Russia at the turn of the century.

30. Russia in the XXI century. Russia and CIS. The place of the new Russia in international relations. Prospects for further socio-economic
development of the country.

History as a science. Subject, method, functions of history.

First of all, what is history? History is one of the most ancient sciences. History in the ancient tradition was perceived as an entertaining story about the lives of great people: rulers, generals, philosophers. In such biographies, reality was often intertwined with fiction, events were described without regard to chronology and without connection with each other.

Chronicle writing was extremely widespread in the Middle Ages. A certain stereotype of perception of the past was formed. The history of this or that people was interpreted as the history of its rulers, while the people themselves acted as a faceless mass. As a science, history was formed in the Renaissance and Modern times. History is the science of the development of human society in all its diversity. The subject of the study of history is the actions of people and the totality of relations in society, both in the past and in the present.

History (from the Greek. historia) means narration, a story about the past, learned, researched. Interest in history, which has long existed among all peoples, is explained by the need of a person to know the past of his family, clan, country, humanity. It has long been recognized that without knowledge of history it is impossible to understand the present and foresee the future.

Initially, the subject of history was famous heroes, rulers of states, the history of royal dynasties and wars. With the enrichment of historical knowledge, ideas about the tasks and subject of science also changed. History, being formed as a science, seeks to comprehensively reflect the past. In the process of studying the past, in order to reconstruct its complete picture, historians study not only events and facts, but also archival documents, household items, the natural environment, and even colloquial speech. The history we are now studying is the history of people and ideas. The life and development of ideology are inseparable from the history of mankind.

Analyzing historical events, historical science uses the following methods:

1) comparative-historical. This method makes it possible to identify the general and particular in historical phenomena, as well as to establish their regularity, typicality, development trend;

2) statistical and mathematical, which allows us to consider human society as a single complex system of relationships;

3) structural-systemic, which allows you to establish the relationship of socio-economic, cultural and other phenomena of public life;

4) retrospective. This method is based on the creative search of a research scientist who, in his search, goes from later historical materials to earlier ones, reconstructs the past with the help of archaeological, linguistic and other data.

The study of the course "History of Russia" is determined by the important social functions of history as a science. The most significant of them are: cognitive, or intellectual development; educational; political, or practical-political; worldview.

The cognitive function consists in the very study of various aspects, phenomena, facts and events of the origin and functioning of the Russian state at various stages of its history in the chronological framework from the 9th to the 20th centuries. inclusive. Only by knowing the history of your country, you can understand its place and role in world history.

The educational function of studying the past is expressed in the aphorism of the ancients: "History is the mentor of life." Based on historical examples, people are brought up in respect for goodness and justice, freedom and equality, and other enduring human values. Knowledge of the history of the Fatherland forms high moral, moral and civic qualities and at the same time helps to understand the vices of society, their influence on the fate of countries and peoples.

The political function of history makes it possible to determine the trends in the development of Russian society and the state; on the basis of theoretical understanding of the experience of previous generations, it helps to develop a sound political course and make correct, optimal decisions of a political nature.

The ideological function of history is determined by the fact that its factual side is the foundation on which the science of society is built. Knowledge of the past equips people with an understanding of the historical perspective, forms a truly scientific view of the world, society, and the laws of its development.

Modern historical science is organically connected with such special historical sciences as archeology, paleography, heraldry, numismatics, and so on. The historical sections include all other sciences and arts. Their development makes the total historical knowledge more complete and objective.

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INTRODUCTION

1. The subject of history.

The sciences are divided into natural and social or humanities, history is one of the humanitarian or social disciplines. The roots of history go back to ancient times. Even then, there was a need to remember events, facts and pass on the lessons of life to the next generation. motherland historical science considered to be Ancient Greece. One of the first professional historians Herodotus (481 - 425 BC) is called the "Father of History". All science is based on facts, just like historical fact is a fundamental category of historical knowledge. A fact is an event or phenomenon of historical reality.

Definitions:

Story it is the science of the past.

Story This is the activity of a person pursuing his goals.

As a science, history is interested in questions: What happened, when, how and why? It studies events and phenomena in the past.

History as a science is multifaceted. It includes:

    study of the development process of the entire human society ( The World History);

    study individual regions, countries, continents(history of Europe, history of Asia, history of cities, etc.);

    studying various directions of the historical process, life and activities of human society (the history of the economy, art, science and technology, etc.);

Her subject is study of human activities, as well as the relations of human society.

2.History functions.

a) The function of social memory.

The function of social memory largely reflects the purpose of history in society. Its content was formed by Herodotus when he wrote: “Herodotus of Halicarnassus collected and recorded this information, so that the events that happened over time do not fall into oblivion and great and admirable deeds of both Hellenes and barbarians did not remain in obscurity ... "(Herodotus. History. - L .: 1972, p. 12).

modern science defines the functions of social memory more broadly. The purpose of history is seen in the accumulation and preservation in the memory of mankind, the experience of previous generations, the achievements of world culture, information about the most significant events of the past. History is a mediator between generations. Nowadays, in conditions of rapid changes, interest in the history of our fatherland, the history of the development of mankind is growing immeasurably. It is no coincidence that the outstanding historian of the twentieth century, Fernand Braudel, asks: “Is not the present more than half dominated by the past, stubbornly striving to survive? And does not the past, through its differences and its similarities, represent the key necessary for any serious understanding of the present? (Braudel F. Material civilization, economy and capitalism of the 15th - 18th centuries. In 3 volumes. Vol. 3. Time of the world. - M.: Progress, 1992, p. 11).

Turning to history helps us understand the present, find answers to the pressing questions of the time: who are we, where did we come from, where are we going, in the name of what?

The function of social memory includes not only the accumulation and preservation of the experience of generations. It is called upon to evaluate historical events, facts, phenomena, and personalities. It is very important, at the same time, to observe balance, truthfulness, and maintain scientific objectivity.

b) Scientific and cognitive function.

Scientific and cognitive function is an integral property of any science. The central task of history is to provide the knowledge necessary for society to learn from the lessons of the past. A deep analysis of the main directions of social development acts as a prerequisite for the scientific management of society. “Without knowledge of history,” wrote V.O. Klyuchevsky, “we must recognize ourselves as accidents, not knowing how and why we came into the world, how and why we live in it, how and what we should strive for ...” (Klyuchevsky V O. Letters, Diaries, Aphorisms and Thoughts on History, Moscow: 1968, p. 332).

Comprehension of the past will help to make fewer mistakes in the present and choose the most correct guidelines for the future.

V) predictive function.

Historical research is the basis for social forecasting. Ignoring the historical past can lead to negative consequences. However, predictions often do not come true. For example, the forecast about building communism in the USSR. Forecasting is a complicated matter, since too many factors related to the activities of individual subjects operate in public life. Therefore, any social forecast is of a probabilistic nature. Individual social and economic processes are easier to account for and analyze, and forecasting their development is widely used. This is done mainly by sociologists, psychologists, and economists.

In the Marxist methodology of history, the predictive function of history was singled out as the most important one. At the same time, a significant reservation was made that we are talking about foresight at the level of events of a world-historical scale or about “probabilistic knowledge of stable types”.

As for specific examples of accurate forecasting by means of historical science, virtually no author can give them. From the pages of one work to another, one and the same example about F. Engels' foresight of the First World War passes, 27 years have passed between his appearance and the war.

Cases of successful prediction of certain features of the future are nothing more than probabilistic. Therefore, the historian, based on the need for serious research in the field of social forecasting, cannot but admit that his forecast is different from the prediction of a natural scientist. Historiography is contraindicated to operate with conjectural values. As A. Stern points out, “only what has become real can be explored, and that is exactly how things are with the past. The history of the future is impossible; it would be just a product of the imagination: a fable, a novel.”

Forecasting the future cannot be regarded as an obligatory function of historical science. Foresight is not within the purview of history, even if its research in individual cases contributes to the success of social forecasting.

d) Educational function.

History has a huge educational impact. Already historians of antiquity saw the task in developing high morality and civic qualities in the members of the community. In all subsequent periods, the educational functions of history were assigned exclusively important role. So Plutarch's "Comparative Lives" were called upon to serve as an example and a role model. the best people and to correct bad morals. (See Plutarch. Comparative biographies. V.3. - M .: Nauka, 1964, p. 194) During the Enlightenment, Diderot and D. Alembert noted in their "encyclopedia" that the purpose of history "is to compare the laws and customs of others countries with their own ... This (comparison) encourages modern nations to compete with each other in the arts, trade, agriculture ... It is impossible to remind again and again of the crimes and misfortunes caused by senseless strife. There is no doubt that the reminder of them prevents their repetition. (History in the encyclopedia. Diderot and D. Alamber. - L .: Nauka, 1978, p. 13). Enlighteners paid special attention to the historical education of a sovereign or other statesman. (see Bolinbrock G.S. - D. Letters on the study and benefits of history. - M .: Nauka, 1978, pp. 13-15)

Events, facts, actions and activities of historical figures have educational significance. Without knowing the past of your people and humanity as a whole, you cannot consider yourself a cultured person. “You can not know, not feel attracted to the study of mathematics, Greek or Latin languages, chemistry,” N.G. Chernyshevsky wrote, “you can not know thousands of sciences and still be an educated person, but only a completely undeveloped person can not love history mentally". (Chernyshevsky N.G. Complete works in 15 volumes. Vol. 2, p. 546).

3. Basic principles and methods in historical knowledge.

    Historicism is an approach to reality that changes and develops over time.

    Objectivity - ensures the receipt of true knowledge (impartiality).

    Value - the studied past correlates with generally recognized values.

Basic methods in historical nuk.

a) Historical-genetic method - a method through which historical phenomena are studied in the process of their development, from birth to death or the present state. It gives a "biography" of a historical object (state, nation, etc.).

b) Historical-genetic method aimed at analyzing the dynamics of historical processes. It allows you to identify their cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of historical development.

c) Descriptive (ideographic ) method. The essence of the ideographic method G. Rickert reduced to the description of individual features, unique and exceptional features of historical facts.

d) Historical-comparative method consists in comparing historical objects in space and time and in identifying similarities and differences between them. The historical-comparative method involves the use of various techniques to compare the essence of heterogeneous historical phenomena. The use of comparison in combination with the historical-genetic method makes it possible to explain the similarity of objects by their kinship in origin and to record the mutual influence of various historical phenomena.

e) Socio-psychological method. A whole branch of science called psychohistory. This approach is based on the studies of the Austrian scientist Z. Freud. genre of psychobiography. In 1958, psychologist E. Erickson published the book Young Luther: Psychoanalysis and History.

Thanks to K. Jung, the concept appeared collective unconscious, which manifests itself in mass unrest, uprisings, revolutions, etc.

f) Quantitative or statistical method.

Used in almost all sciences. Appeared in history in ser. XX century. Associated with the use of the achievements of mathematics and computer science, and primarily the computer (demographic history).

Tema 1

    Stone and bronze age.

The first practice of a chalavek on the territory of Belarus was about an hour 100 - 40 thousand years ago. Such an inconsistency in the designated terminus of darkness, that the old Belarusian lands were occupied by a ledavik. The Ledavikovy epoch was buried kalya 500 thousand years ago and died only ў 9 thousand years ago. e. Ledavik did not know about hellish months. It is collapsing in the fallow land of the climate change from early in the afternoon and towards the end. The most powerful greens radiate out: biarezinskaya (480 - 390 thousand years ago), day-time (320 - 250 thousand years ago) and paazerskae (105 - 85 thousand years ago). The archaeologists were aware of the pralady (Eastern, scrabbles, rubles) of the most ancient people in the days of Belarus, kalya vesak Kleyavychy and Abidavichy. Kalya 40 - 10 thousand years ago, people of a modern physical type appeared on the territories of Belarus. There is a camping site for vesak Yuravichy (more than 26 thousand years ago) and Berdyzh (more than 23 thousand years ago). The most characteristic pakazchyk developed chalavchay dzeynasts lіchatstsa materials, from which prylady pratsy was worked out. The Age of Stone Age (end of 3 thousand BC), Bronze Age (end of 2 thousand - part 1 thousand BC) and Iron Age (part 1 thousand BC) yes AD - yes VII-VIII centuries AD). At piles of charga, stone age falls on palealite (old stone - and the advent of ledavik), mesalith (sered stone - 9 - 5 thousand da AD) and neoalite (4 - 3 thousand da AD). The main occupations in the era of the palealite were selection, fishing and scorching. Only the mesalite of the territory of Belarus was inhabited by the people. The first pastels were the most important on the banks of the river and the azer. Zhytly were terrestrial and pauzemlyankavy. Adna syam’ya was thumping at the skin vein. The zhykhars of the adnago pastelishcha laid down the abshchyna, which was often the most violent step of the tribe. For an hour, people poked at bows, arrows, shakers and pressed from stone plates. Then the first native life appeared - a dog. At Nealitse, there were a lot of acts of vykarystoўvats slihtavannya stone pralady, pottery, zarazzіlі arable farming and zhivelagadoўlya. The most old names of Azeris, rek and pastels of Belarus are evidence that the first people of today were financial tribes. Alekans 3 thousand da. e. Yanas are vytsisnuty Baltami, from the passage of such times the century of copper and bronze is dying. Medz and oxen, from which bronze is worked out, were not obtained in Belarus. They were imported because of the yarn, there were metal plaids, which were rare.

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History was considered the teacher of life. More M.V. Lomonosov wrote that history “gives sovereigns examples of government, subjects - obedience, soldiers - courage, judges - justice, the wise - old mind, the elderly - extreme firmness in advice, each gentle entertainment with inexpressible benefits combined"

However, there was and still is another opinion, the essence of which is that history cannot teach us useful lessons and therefore has no real meaning.

The development of historical science is influenced by the social order, in connection with which historical science is called upon to perform a number of functions: cognitive, educational, analytical and prognostic, social memory, practical recommendatory, etc.

Among functions of historical knowledge it is necessary to highlight the functions that have theoretical meaning:

Scientific and educational– study of the process community development, accumulation, deepening of knowledge about the historical process, identification of patterns of historical development.

epistemological- creation of concepts and theories of knowledge of the historical process on the basis of scientific research.

heuristic- the discovery of particular patterns in social development in the process of searching for truth.

To the functions of historical knowledge that have applied value, include:

Function social memory- preservation in memory of the experience of previous generations, traditions that ensure the continuity of generations and national self-identification.

The formation of national identity occurs on the basis of the study historical life people and is one of the actual functions of historical knowledge.

worldview- the formation of the intellectual basis of a person, which determines his position in life.

Educational- the formation of moral and civic qualities.

Political and ideological- development of a common view of history on the basis of the "project of the future".

Analytical and predictive– providing material for predicting the future.

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The ideological function of philosophy is integrating, as it solves the issues of space and man, God and the world, development and creation, death and life, the meaning of history and human existence. In this regard, philosophy is sometimes identified with a worldview.

outlook- this is a complex phenomenon in the spiritual life of a person and society, includes a set of views, thoughts, ideas, feelings, experiences, assessments and principles, thanks to which human activity becomes organized and orderly. His life positions become meaningful, and the activity itself becomes purposeful.

Alignment levels:
- vital and practical (ordinary);
- theoretical (intellectual)

Life-practical is formed on the basis of traditions and experience.

Feelings, emotions, experiences, appropriate living conditions, nationality prevail here.

The theoretical basis is various forms knowledge that involves the theoretical development of the world.

As a result of these 2 levels, there is a worldview (attitude) and worldview.

The worldview carries various forms of vital-practical and theoretical knowledge of the worldview and worldview. THE FOUNDATION OF THE WORLD VIEW IS KNOWLEDGE, EVALUATIONS, VALUES, IDEALS.

Knowledge in the worldview- the totality of knowledge about the world and man.

Ratings- express the attitude of people to the world and to themselves.

Value Orientations- form ideals.

Ideal- a general form of goal-setting activity of people, characteristic of all spheres of human life (i.e. ideals can be moral, aesthetic, religious).

The worldview embodies the unity of the cognitive, moral, sociological, in each of which its corresponding function is manifested.

Worldview function is that philosophy, giving people a holistic view of the world, allows them to determine their place and role in this world, makes each person a conscious participant in social progress, sets before him universal goals and objectives social plan. The German thinker Hegel rightly wrote that philosophy is an epoch captured in thoughts.

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History as a science and academic discipline.

History is a science that studies the trends and patterns of social development associated with the activities of people, as well as the objective prerequisites and results of this activity. History as an academic discipline is the core of social science courses in the system of humanities and social sciences, studied by students of non-humanitarian faculties of higher educational institutions. The value of teaching history at a university lies in deepening scientific knowledge, revealing the main patterns of the development of society, in the further formation of skills and abilities independent work with historical material, its systematization and analysis.

In the process of teaching history at the university, along with other humanitarian and technical disciplines, social adaptation and the formation of the student's personality take place. Functions of historical science in society: 1. Scientific and cognitive (consists primarily in a specific study of the historical path of development of human society, in a theoretical generalization of facts and events, as well as in identifying the main trends in the history of the development of world civilizations and their features. 2. Predictive (materials sciences are used by politicians for forecasts) (history helps to develop a scientifically based political course, to avoid subjective decisions. History is designed to facilitate self-awareness for society and a person and show ways to self-improvement. 3. Functions of social memory (accumulation and preservation of the experience of previous generations in the memory of mankind) 4 .Educational function (educates people in military affairs, in science and technology, in industry, contributes to the formation of civic qualities, helps to realize such categories as honor, duty to society, good and evil, and in general the moral values ​​of mankind in their development. ) 5. Worldview (consists in the fact that a worldview - a view of the world, society, the laws of its development can be scientific only when it is based on objective reality, that is, historical facts. The history of world civilizations, its factual side, is the foundation for science. One of the most important ideological aspects of studying the course is the formation of historicism of thinking, because it teaches one to think in historical categories, to see society in development, to evaluate the phenomena of social life in relation to their past and to correlate with the subsequent course of development.)

Subject - methods and functions of historical science.

Principles and methods of historical science. The process of formation of historical science was inextricably linked with the improvement of the methodology of history, i.e.

the entire complex of principles and methods within which historical research is carried out.

The main principles of scientific historical research include:

– principle of objectivity , which implies the reconstruction of historical reality based on true facts and knowledge of the objective laws of historical development. Each phenomenon must be investigated, taking into account both its positive and negative sides, regardless of the subjective attitude towards it, without distorting or adjusting the available facts to previously developed schemes;

– principle of determinism - a scientific approach, according to which all observed phenomena are not accidental, but have a cause, are determined by certain prerequisites, and all reality appears as a tangle of cause-and-effect relationships;

– historicism principle, requiring consideration of the phenomenon under study, taking into account specific chronological framework and specific historical context. In this case, it is necessary to consider the phenomenon in development, i.e. take into account what reasons gave rise to it, how it was formed and how it changed over time. It is also necessary to study each phenomenon in conjunction with other phenomena that took place in that period and developed over time, in their interconnection and interdependence ( the principle of the unity of the historical process );

– principle of social approach , implying the need to take into account the interests, traditions and psychology of certain classes, estates, social strata and groups, the correlation of class interests with universal ones, a subjective moment in the practical activities of governments, parties, individuals;

– principle of alternativeness , allowing for the possibility of multivariate historical development. Guided by it, the researcher creates models of alternative development by comparing with similar phenomena in world history, determines the degree of probability of the implementation of an event. Recognition of historical alternatives allows us to see untapped opportunities and learn lessons for the future.

The methods used in historical research can be divided into two groups: general scientific and special (private scientific). General scientific methods are divided into empirical (observation, description, measurement, comparison, experiment) and theoretical (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, abstraction, generalization, analogy, inversion, modeling, system-structural approach, hypothesis building). To special historical methods relate:

– concrete-historical or ideographic method its essence is in the description of facts, phenomena and events, without which no historical research is possible;

– comparative historical method ; implies that the phenomenon is studied not in itself, but in the context of similar phenomena, separated in time and space; comparison with them makes it possible to better understand the phenomenon under study;

– historical genetic method ; associated with tracing the genesis - i.e. the origin and development of the phenomenon under study;

– retrospective method ; consists in a consistent penetration into the past in order to identify the causes of events;

– historical-typological method ; associated with the classification of objects of knowledge according to a chosen feature (features) to facilitate their analysis (it appears in its pure form, for example, in archeology, where extensive classifications and chronologies are based on certain types of tools, ceramics, jewelry, the form of burials, etc.)

–chronological method ; provides for the presentation of historical material in chronological order.

In addition, historical research uses the methods of other sciences that come to the aid of history within the framework of interdisciplinary interaction: linguistics, anthropology, biology, medicine, sociology, psychology, geography, geology, physics, chemistry, mathematics (statistics). A significant part of these methods is used through source studies, in the process of expanding the source base.

History features . History is traditionally the basis of humanitarian education and the most important factor in the formation of people's self-awareness. It performs a number of functions, often beyond the world of science. These include:

– descriptive (narrative) function , which boils down to fixing what is happening and the primary systematization of information;

– cognitive (cognitive, explanatory) function , the essence of which is the understanding and explanation of historical processes and phenomena;

– prognostic function (prediction of the future) And practical-recommendatory (practical-political) function . Both involve using the lessons of the past to improve the lives of human communities in the near and distant future;

– educational (cultural and ideological) function, function of social memory . These functions are responsible for the formation of historical consciousness, self-identification of society and the individual.

The existence and further development of any nation is inextricably linked with its historical past. people without historical memory doomed to inevitable degradation and extinction. In addition to forgetting history, there is another threat - the distortion of the historical past. The reason for this may be the absence scientific research on the history of the people, and the complete rejection or lack of interest in these studies among the majority of the population. As a result, all historical events are perceived at the level of ordinary consciousness, the facts are distorted or forgotten, and a fragmentary semi-mythical picture is created, leading to the loss of the true historical memory of the people. Another reason may be the deliberate distortion of the historical past. As a rule, this is done with certain political goals in the interests of individual political parties and population groups. In order to avoid such transformations, a balance of cognitive, practical and social principles must be maintained in historical knowledge.

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It is no secret that without knowledge of the past, which gives the necessary experience, human society would stop in its development. Over time, such a sphere of knowledge as historical science was formed. Functions, methods and stages of its development will be considered in this article.

The concept of historical science

History or historical science is a sphere of social knowledge, the object of study of which is the past of mankind. As scientists like to say: "History is the social memory of man." This whole complex Sciences, considering history both in a broad sense, for example, universal, and in a narrower sense - the ancient world, newest Russia, military, and so on.

Despite the fact that historical science, the subject and functions of which is the study of the past, is not at all static, because the base of sources is constantly changing - new ones appear, old ones are criticized. The economic and political situation in the state is changing, which also has a huge impact on historical science (as an example, the assessment of historical events in tsarist Russia and the Soviet government that replaced it differ radically).

How it all began

It is officially believed that historical science originated in the 5th century BC. Everyone remembers from the course school curriculum philosopher Herodotus, who is still considered Thucydides and his work "History of the Peloponnesian War", Xenophon and Polybius. The ancient Greeks preferred to describe the events of which they were contemporaries - the priority was wars, biographies of politicians and politics itself, as well as other peoples and religion.

The works "Annals" and "History" of the Roman historian Publius made a great contribution to the development of historical science. Guided by the motto - "Without anger and predilection" (that is, objectively and with the aim of establishing the truth), he studied the biography of Roman emperors.

Over time, the principles and functions of the historical science of ancient times found their continuation in the works of Byzantine scholars. Chronicles appeared in Europe in the Middle Ages - a description of events over the years, everything that happens is explained by "divine providence", and the history of the church becomes a priority for study. The most famous thinker of this time is St. Augustine the Blessed.

Renaissance and Enlightenment

The era of the Renaissance (Renaissance) brought such innovations to the methods and functions of historical science as source criticism. Scientists in their works had to refer to sources, and the more references and citations, the better. Famous thinkers of this time are Benedict Spinoza, Francis Bacon (the work "New Organon", which was written using the method of induction developed by him - from the particular to the general).

The Age of Enlightenment was a great leap forward for the development of all sciences, including history. New sources are opened, they are systematized, deciphered. For the first time, the idea is put forward that the development of the functions of historical science is influenced by such a factor as the form of government. In addition to the above, he also identified the following factors:

  • physical (geographical location, climate);
  • social (religion, population) factors.

The outstanding French thinker Voltaire believed that people should study "the achievements of the human mind and morality", thereby laying the foundations for the study of culture.

Further development

In the 19th century, within the framework of the philosophy of positivism, the functions of historical science consisted in a significant increase in the role of historical sources, source study began to develop as an independent discipline, and the written source as the only reliable one.

The following works deserve special attention:

  • Spengler's "The Decline of Europe" (history - cyclical cultures that are born, flourish and then die);
  • Arnold Toynbee "Civilization", the scientist singled out five existing civilizations and twenty since their inception, which are also born, grow, decline and die.

The twentieth century is a time when the historical scope of research is expanding geographically, covering more countries and peoples, as well as chronologically - from primitive man to the present. This is the time of the dominance of the formational approach in history, the founders of which were Karl Marx and They believed that the determining factor in the life of society was material conditions, both social aspects and the worldview of people depended on them. Thus, history is a process of changing socio-economic formations.

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries are the times when the main functions of historical science are blurred, the lines between history and other social sciences - sociology, psychology - are erased. Scientists conduct new research and experiments, develop new directions, for example, counterfactual history (studies alternatives to historical events and processes).

Cognitive and social functions

Another name for the cognitive function is informational. Its essence is to consider and analyze the past of mankind, to understand the essence of the phenomena that took place and the impact they had on the further course of history, that is, the laws of historical development.

The social function of historical science or the function of social memory is the study of the experience of previous generations, their preservation in the memory of the people. It aims to ensure the promotion of the national self-identification of peoples. The formation of historical memory is extremely important, the stability of society depends on it, the ability to survive in critical situations. As scientists say: "A people dies when it becomes a population, when it forgets its history."

A classic example of why social memory is extremely important for the people - the rejection of the outcome and results of the First World War in Germany led to the unleashing of the Second World War in just two decades.

Methods of historical science

The subject, principles and functions of historical science include both general methods of cognition - analysis, induction, synthesis, deduction (since almost any science uses them, it is not worth dwelling on them in detail), and special methods inherent only to it. These methods include:

  1. Retrospective - in order to identify the true cause of an event, a scientist penetrates into the past with the help of successive actions.
  2. Historical-comparative - comparison of historical objects by comparing them in time and space, identifying similarities and differences.
  3. Historical and typological - consists in compiling classifications of events and phenomena, identifying common features and differences in the objects under consideration.
  4. Historical and genetic - consideration of the phenomenon under study in dynamics, from birth to death, that is, in development.

It should be said separately that the functions of historical science exclude the method of experiment - it is impossible to accurately recreate the phenomena and processes that once occurred.

Principles of Science

Principles in general are ideas, fundamental rules. The main principles of historical science are:

  1. Historicism. Any fact, phenomenon or event is considered in the context of the historical situation, in dynamics, in time and space.
  2. Objectivity. It assumes, firstly, reliance on genuine facts, taking into account both positive and negative aspects of the phenomenon under consideration. Secondly, the historian must be independent of his desires and preferences, which may distort historical research.
  3. Alternative. It assumes the existence of a different path of development, in addition to the one that occurred. Using this principle allows you to see unaccounted for resources and unrealized opportunities, allows you to learn lessons for the future.
  4. social approach. It means that social interests play a significant role in the development of certain processes. It is important to be guided by it when evaluating the programs of political parties, in the domestic and foreign policy of the state.

Auxiliary historical disciplines

Speaking about the functions of historical science in modern world it is necessary to touch on those disciplines that go hand in hand with it in their research and are divided into special and auxiliary. The main ones are the following sciences:

  1. Historiography. In a broad sense, it is an auxiliary (special) historical discipline that studies the history of historical science. In a narrower sense, these are studies carried out by historians in a certain area of ​​historical science or a set of scientific works.
  2. Source study. This is an auxiliary historical discipline that comprehensively studies historical sources, uses the analysis of phenomena and events. Source science is theoretical, deals with determining the origin of sources and their reliability, as well as applied (concrete) - studies individual branches and periods of history.

Special historical sciences

There are several special historical disciplines that help historical science to most fully reveal and study the event or phenomenon in question. These are numismatics (studies coins), heraldry (coats of arms), paleography (writing). But the most significant of them are archeology and ethnography:

  1. The term "archaeology" is derived from the ancient Greek words "archeo" - ancient and "logos" - science. This is a discipline that studies the history of mankind on material monuments (buildings, structures, weapons, tools, household items). The role of this discipline especially increases in the study of those periods of history when there was no written language, or those peoples who did not have a written language at all.
  2. The term "ethnography" is also ancient Greek, "ethnos" - people, "grapho" - I write. From here one can understand the essence of this historical discipline - it studies the origin of peoples (ethnic groups), their composition, resettlement and resettlement, as well as culture and way of life.

historical sources

Historical source - any thing, a document that contains information about the past and can be used to study historical processes. There are several classifications of these documents, dividing them into groups (according to the purpose of creation, according to the degree of proximity to historical fact).

The most common is the division of sources into:

  • Material - buildings, structures, clothing, weapons, tools and household items - in a word, everything that is created by human hands.
  • Ethnographic - customs, traditions, all kinds of rituals, beliefs.
  • Linguistic - speech, dialect inherent in a person, people.
  • Oral (folklore) - songs, fairy tales, legends.
  • Written - all kinds of manuscripts, archival documents, letters, regulations, memoirs. They may be originals or copies.

Science, history

The functions of historical knowledge that predetermine the human concept of historical events are as follows:

  • intellectual-developing, cognitive - knowledge of historical processes as a social branch of scientific knowledge and theoretical generalization of the facts of history;
  • practical-political - helps in the development of a scientifically based political course by identifying patterns in the development of society and options for managing the masses;
  • ideological - influences the formation of scientific worldviews by providing accurate, documented, data on the events of the past;
  • educational - knowledge of historical facts has an impact on the formation of a civic position.

The subject and functions of historical science is the study of the development of human society in time and space, that is, the historical process. Without this knowledge, society would not be able to develop and move forward.

Civilization approach

The shortcomings identified in the formational approach are taken into account to some extent by the civilizational approach. In the 20th century in social science a firm place was occupied by the concept of "civilization", many philosophers tried to understand the nature of human society, the driving forces of its development, certain trends.

The concept of "civilization" originally appeared in French in the middle of the 18th century in line with the theory of progress. Used only in the singular.

The term "civilization" (from Latin - civil, state) still does not have an unambiguous interpretation. Since the second half of the 20th century, three approaches to the interpretation of civilization have been established:

  • World-historical - civilization is the ideal of the progressive development of mankind as a whole. Supporters - Jaspers, Wilkins, Leonid Vasiliev.
  • Historical-stage - civilization as the stages of the progressive development of mankind as a whole. Supporters - Morgan, Engels, Rosto, Bell, Tofler.
  • Local-historical - civilization as qualitatively different unique ethnic or historical social formations. Supporters - Danilevsky, Spengler, Toynbee.

History performs social, scientific, educational and educational functions.

Social memory function. The function of social memory largely reflects the purpose of history in society. Its content was formulated by Herodotus when he wrote: “Herodotus of Halicarnassus collected and recorded this information so that the events that took place over time would not fall into oblivion and the great and surprisingly worthy deeds of both the Hellenes and the barbarians would not remain in obscurity ... ".

Modern science defines the functions of social memory more broadly. The purpose of history is seen in the accumulation and preservation in the memory of mankind, the experience of previous generations, the achievements of world culture, information about the most significant events of the past. “Without knowledge of history,” wrote V.O. Klyuchevsky, “we must recognize ourselves as accidents, not knowing how and why we came into the world, how and why we live in it, how and what we should strive for ...”. History is a mediator between generations. Nowadays, in the conditions of rapid changes, interest in the history of our Fatherland, the history of the development of mankind is growing immeasurably.

The history of Russia as a state has a little over a thousand years. If we take into account that the species Homo sapiens (reasonable man) appeared more than 30 thousand years ago, then a thousand years is a very short period of time. However, during this period, Russia has gone through an extremely complex, contradictory and dramatic path of development. The forms of its state-political structure, the name of the state, the laws by which this state existed were repeatedly changed. It can be argued that there are few states in the world that have had to endure as many trials as our Fatherland. But it is precisely because of the originality, inconsistency and drama of the past historical path that Russia has made a unique contribution to the development of world civilization. Turning to the history of Rus', Russia helps us understand the present, find answers to the pressing questions of the time: who are we, where did we come from, where are we going, in the name of what? Social memory function includes not only the accumulation and preservation of the experience of generations. It is called upon to evaluate historical events, facts, phenomena, and personalities. It is very important, at the same time, to observe balance, truthfulness, and maintain scientific objectivity.


Scientific and educational function. The scientific-cognitive function is an integral property of any science. The central task of history is to provide the knowledge society needs to learn from past experience. A deep analysis of the main directions of social development acts as a prerequisite for the scientific management of society. It is no coincidence that the outstanding historian of the twentieth century, Fernand Braudel, asks: “Is not the present more than half dominated by the past, stubbornly striving to survive? And does not the past represent, through its differences and its similarities, the key necessary for any serious understanding of the present? With all the originality, dissimilarity, and uniqueness of the events currently taking place in our Fatherland, one can find in them features similar to the past or arising from it. Their comprehension and generalization will help to make fewer mistakes in the present and choose the most correct guidelines for the future.

educational function. History has a huge educational impact. Already historians of antiquity saw the task in developing high morality and civic qualities in the members of society. In all subsequent periods, the educational functions of history were given an exceptionally important role. So Plutarch's "Comparative Lives" were called upon to serve as an example and a model for imitation of the best people and for correcting bad morals. During the Enlightenment, Diderot and d'Alembert noted in their Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts that the purpose of history “is to compare the laws and customs of foreign countries with their own ... This (comparison) encourages modern nations to compete with each other in the arts, trade, agriculture ... It is impossible not to remind again and again about the crimes and misfortunes caused by senseless strife. There is no doubt that the reminder of them prevents their repetition. Enlighteners paid special attention to the historical education of a sovereign or other statesman.

Events, facts, actions and activities of historical figures have educational significance. Without knowing the past of your people and humanity as a whole, you cannot consider yourself a cultured person. An educated person cannot be indifferent to human suffering, injustice, and heroic deeds their ancestors.

He cannot but condemn the crimes, the policy of terror and violence.

IV. The main sources on the "History of the Fatherland". Auxiliary historical disciplines

The content of the course "History of the Fatherland" includes the main features, trends and contradictions in the historical path of Russia, the main patterns of development. Among them: - the process of creating the Russian state and turning it into a mighty empire; - the nature of the liberation struggle of the Russian people, the conquest of independence; - the formation of the main nationalities that make up the base of the people of Russia: Great Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian; - the process of accession of other peoples to Russia, the creation of a multinational state; - the formation of the feudal serf system and the peculiarities of the transition to capitalism; - the dynamics of the revolutionary changes of the twentieth century and the creation of a socialist state; - the development of an original culture and the formation of a Russian civilization enriched with Eastern and Western culture; - historical portraits of state, political and military figures of Russia who contributed to its development; - features of internal and foreign policy on present stage; - features of the development of the Russian textile industry. The literature on the history of Russia is extremely diverse. It includes:

1) historical monuments, such as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of Bygone Years", "Zadonshchina";

2) documents and materials concentrated in collections of documents, anthologies;

3) memoirs of politicians and eyewitness accounts of events, such as the writings of Catherine II, diaries of Nicholas II, memoirs of the Decembrists, etc.;

4) scientific works of Russian and Soviet historians. Among them: M. Karamzin. History of Russian Goverment; V. Klyuchevsky. Russian history course; S. Solovyov. History of Russia since ancient times; N. Kostomarov. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures; modern scientists: B. Grekova, B. Rybakov, M. Nechkina and others;

5) literary works such outstanding writers as N. Lazhechnikov, K. Valishevsky, G. Danilevsky, V. Yan, L.N. Tolstoy, A.N. Tolstoy, M. Sholokhov and others.

Modern documents and materials, articles and books, memoirs and research will tomorrow become the most important historical sources that can help in understanding the modern period.

Closely related to history auxiliary historical disciplines (source study, historical geography, paleography, numismatics, onomastics, heraldry, genealogy, etc.) , without which the very accumulation of historical knowledge would be impossible. The collection and analysis of knowledge regarding the early stages of human history, pre-literate history, is due to such sciences as archeology And ethnography.

occupies a special place in the study of history. historiography .

Historiography - scientific discipline studying the history of historical science, the emergence and accumulation of historical knowledge. The main task of historiography is to reveal the regularities of the various stages of historical knowledge. Theoretical generalization of historical research. Historiographic research traces the path of development of historical knowledge and makes it possible to identify the driving forces behind the progress of historical science.

Plan
1. History as the memory of mankind (function of social memory).

2. The educational function of history.

3. Use of historical experience - the lessons of history (prognostic function).
Literature
Kovalchenko I. D. The place of history in the system of social sciences // Questions of history. 1987. No. 7.

Mogilnitsky BG Introduction: On the benefits of history // Historical science and historical knowledge. Tomsk, 2000.

Nietzsche F. On the benefits and harms of history for life // Works: T. 1. M., 1997.

Schiller F. What is the study of world history and what is the purpose of this study // Sobr. cit.: In 7 volumes: T. 4. M, 1956.
In the 1960s, a dispute broke out between representatives of the natural sciences ("physics", "techies") and the humanities ("lyricists"). "Physicists" referred to their unconditional usefulness: it is precisely with their activities that the radical acceleration of the pace of development in the age of scientific and technological revolution is connected, while "lyricists", historians, first of all, have nothing to do with this; history is dealt with by untalented people who, they say, know how to remember, but not think, moreover, history is not only useless, but also harmful: it is a servant of the powerful of this world, distorting the past according to the principle “what do you want?”. "Physicists" accused historians of being thoughtless, unscientific, opportunistic, dishonest, useless and even harmful.
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Is it so? Did the applicant make a mistake when he came to the Faculty of History? Why do people need history? What is the role of history in the life of society, that is, what are its social functions?

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1. History as the memory of mankind (function of social memory)

All social functions of historical science proceed from the main one: history is the memory of mankind. A person who has lost his memory loses his accumulated knowledge, life experience, becomes a child, ceases to be a person in his own eyes and in the eyes of society. The place of individual memory in the life of society is occupied by history: without knowledge of the past, it is incapable of self-knowledge and normal activity; "a person deprived of the past is like a one-day insect" 1 . (In Ch. Aitmatov’s story “Stormy Station”, or “And the Day Lasts Longer than a Century”, in order to turn the prisoners into mindless mankurt robots, they were tortured to deprive them of their memory.)

The flaws of human memory and the flaws of history as social memory are no argument against studying the past..

Historians tell about the past for quite earthly, subjective and objective reasons: out of curiosity, a thirst for knowledge - and according to the "social order", that is, at the request of society or part of it, undertaken in a direct or indirect form, to investigate a certain problem in order to extract useful information for the customer conclusions. Not every social order is unfair (for example, the Italian fascists sought to justify their colonial conquests by publishing A. Marsskotti's memoirs "The Diplomatic War", but the order to A.S. Yerusalimsky called to the Kremlin was to edit the translation and write an introductory article to Bismarck's "Thoughts and Memoirs" - was justified). Grants are an undisguised form of modern social contracting provided by the state, various funds and other organizations.
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2. The educational function of history

All humanitarian sciences designed to educate people, to make them more humane. So, the main thing in the ethical teaching of I. Kant is the categorical imperative, that is, the unconditional command to fulfill one's moral duty (“... from the first moment to the last,” R. Rozhdestvensky will say later); Pushkin's Tatyana Dmitrievna Gremina remembered her duty ("... I have been given to another and I will be faithful to him for a century"), and L. N. Tolstoy "repaid" her wife and mother Anna Arkadyevna Karenina, who had forgotten her duty, by throwing her under the wheels of a train.

The educational task of “humanizing humanity” has always been present in History, although the nuances have changed. In ancient times, this was a direct call to follow specific positive examples, for example, the feat of the warriors of Leonidas who fought to the death at Thermopylae:

Wanderer, you came to Sparta, to build up to the people, That, fulfilling your duty, here we perished with bones.

Voltaire saw the moral meaning of his "History of Charles XII" in the cure of sovereigns from the "madness of conquest." Later, the task of History in a broad sense began to be interpreted as the education of historical optimism.

In the work “On our vocation”, G. Ya. Baklanov proves that “the vocation of the writer is to promote humanity”, and V. A. Kaverin in “Illuminated Windows” reasonably convinces us that it is necessary to teach not literature, but literature and equally not as much history as history. One cannot but agree with the history teacher of the 39th Moscow school A. E. Timofeev: “The general goal schooling and education ... not so much in the transfer of knowledge, but in teaching humanism, in inculcating the humanistic imperative, the humanistic ideal as a life concept” 1 .

Mankind is threatened with dehumanization as a result of the fall of morality, due to the deepening gap-chasm between scientific and technological progress and the state of morality..
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I. Ehrenburg in the journal version of his memoirs “People, Years, Life” cites the thought of V. Mayakovsky: you need to put a humanistic muzzle on technology, otherwise it will bite a person (remember: the Nazis were close to creating an atomic bomb, and modern terrorists).

The powerful educational charge inherent in history is obvious, but it is important to determine what and how to educate. What should be educated? Patriotism is love and respect for one's homeland, for great people and ordinary workers who contributed to its prosperity, created material and cultural values ​​and protected it from enemy invasions; universal values ​​- humanism (humanity), tolerance (tolerance) towards peoples and individuals who hold different views. It is necessary to educate on love for progressive phenomena and hatred for the dark manifestations of the past. It is impossible, out of imaginary patriotism, to hush up the negative moments of one's history, like a five-year-old boy picking raisins from a roll (K. M. Simonov's example).

But in order for the historian who tells about the past to really sow the rational, the good, the eternal, he himself must be honest. The need for "moral access" to the study of history should be an axiom (perhaps the most convincing considerations about this we find in the 18th-century educator Mably).

The study of historical experience is of great importance for theoretical and methodological preparation modern specialists in all sectors of economic and social life. History expands horizons, provides moral guidelines for assessing and understanding modern political, economic, cultural processes in the context of the experience of Russian and world history.

History is one of the most important forms of people's self-consciousness, a means of their "orientation" in the social space, and is also one of the main ways of self-identification of society.

One of the most important functions of history in high school It seems educational, since the study of the historical past forms the civic qualities of a person, helps to realize such categories as the honor of the country, duty to society, and allows you to correctly assess current events.

When implementing the educational function in higher education, the question naturally arises: what qualities need to be educated? At present, in the face of external challenges, three main qualities are clearly emerging that are most in demand by society and the state. This is patriotism, interethnic harmony and the ability to overcome difficulties.

The process of patriotic education in history should include the impact on the student audience through the conscious perception of historical knowledge about the traditions of the Russian people, their exploits, talents, moral qualities of the heroes of the Fatherland. "The emotional experience by a person of the heroic deeds of his ancestors affects the formation of the personality, its moral qualities." . It is also necessary to educate a respectful attitude to the symbols of our state: to the coat of arms, flag, anthem of the country.

Among the factors contributing to patriotic education, one can single out an objective presentation of the historical past. At present, in the conditions of the information war, there are a lot of articles in various media. mass media discrediting not only our present, but also the past. The authors are trying to distort historical facts in favor of their customers, slander the leaders of our state, and focus on the negative aspects of the historical past. There are especially many such lies around the return of Crimea. The task of the teacher is to discuss such articles with the student audience, expose false information, and disseminate historical knowledge about the heroic struggle of the Russian people against the invaders, about the heroes of various wars, about talented compatriots.

Patriotic education also includes the formation of high moral qualities in the student audience. In historical literature, the moral side of an act, behavior, event or fact is rarely traced. And if students even know well the merits to the Fatherland of great rulers or statesmen such as Peter I, Alexander II, M. Speransky, S. Witte, P. Stolypin, etc., they do not always represent the moral foundations and motives of their activities. Therefore, the teacher in the classroom should not only show the contribution of the great sons of the Fatherland, but also pay attention to their moral motivation.

Patriotic education does not exaggerate the successes of its people, does not allow its undeserved praise. At the same time, one should not underestimate the opposing side in peaceful or war time, to despise a perceived or real enemy. This thesis seems especially relevant at the present time, when our country is fighting international terrorism and is participating in military operations on the territory of Syria. Students should be aware of how important this task is, that international terrorism is a global threat, from the attack of which no state is immune. The student audience should also clearly represent Russia's national interests in the 21st century. The task of the teacher is not only a good knowledge of the concept state security, foreign policy and military doctrine, the realities of international and domestic life, but also sharpening right problems to the level of conscious perception by students.

An equally important educational task is the upbringing of interethnic and social harmony. For several centuries, Russia has been a multinational country in which more than 100 nationalities and nationalities live. Therefore, the education of a tolerant attitude towards different nations, their customs and traditions remains relevant and in demand. Russian society. The teacher should become the main conductor of the policy of interethnic harmony among the student audience, talking about centuries of experience Russian state in the formation and strengthening of a single multinational state, considering Foreign experience peaceful coexistence of peoples in one geopolitical space and the policy of other countries to ensure friendliness between citizens and peoples in extreme conditions. Suffice it to recall the experience of the Great Patriotic War when all the peoples of the USSR stood shoulder to shoulder, giving their lives for their Fatherland.

Teaching students the ability to overcome difficulties based on the historical experience of the past is one of the priority areas of the educational idea of ​​history. Overcoming difficulties is not a new state for Russia. Its history has known many destructive wars, epidemics, famines. All this entailed huge sacrifices and the disorder of the lives of many millions of people. A similar situation is observed in modern Russia, when foreign economic sanctions and the energy crisis have dramatically worsened the situation of many Russians. The task of a history teacher is to convince the student, using historical examples, that even in conditions no less difficult than at present, Russians patiently and successfully overcame difficulties, which will bring faith in the possibility of solving the problems facing modern Russian society.

At the same time, I would like to point out that government bodies should be paid Special attention to the educational function of history. As the historian Seleznev Yu.V. "Patriotic education turned out to be divorced from historical consciousness." . The modern political elite underestimates historical knowledge, as evidenced by the insufficient number of hours in historical disciplines in state programs at various levels - from school to university. Once again, I would like to emphasize that it is precisely historical education that forms the civic qualities of a person, makes him a patriot and a fighter for the interests of his Fatherland.

Bibliography

1. Business and patriotism: problems of compatibility / edited by Zavrazhin A.V. – M.: MESI, 2014.-214 p.

2. Kovrigin V.V. The ratio of historical science and the content of school historical education // Scientific Review. 2008. No. 1. pp.200-202

3. Seleznev Yu.V. Formation of professional consciousness of the historian. Sat: The Image of the Past: Historical Consciousness and Its Evolution. - Voronezh, 2009. P.5-9.

4. Udaltsov V.G. The functions of history in the life of society. Public service. 2014. №3. pp. 106-109.