All substances that contain a carbon atom, in addition to carbonates, carbides, cyanides, thiocyanates and carbonic acid, are organic compounds. This means that they are able to be created by living organisms from carbon atoms through enzymatic or other reactions. Today, many organic substances can be synthesized artificially, which allows the development of medicine and pharmacology, as well as the creation of high-strength polymer and composite materials.

Classification of organic compounds

Organic compounds are the most numerous class of substances. There are about 20 types of substances here. They are different in chemical properties, differ physical qualities. Their melting point, mass, volatility and solubility, as well as state of aggregation under normal conditions are also different. Among them:

  • hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkynes, alkenes, alkadienes, cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons);
  • aldehydes;
  • ketones;
  • alcohols (dihydric, monohydric, polyhydric);
  • ethers;
  • esters;
  • carboxylic acids;
  • amines;
  • amino acids;
  • carbohydrates;
  • fats;
  • proteins;
  • biopolymers and synthetic polymers.

This classification reflects the features of the chemical structure and the presence of specific atomic groups that determine the difference in the properties of a substance. IN general view the classification, which is based on the configuration of the carbon skeleton, which does not take into account the peculiarities of chemical interactions, looks different. According to its provisions, organic compounds are divided into:

  • aliphatic compounds;
  • aromatic substances;
  • heterocyclic compounds.

These classes of organic compounds may have isomers in different groups substances. The properties of the isomers are different, although their atomic composition may be the same. This follows from the provisions laid down by A. M. Butlerov. Also, the theory of the structure of organic compounds is the guiding basis for all research in organic chemistry. It is put on the same level with Mendeleev's Periodic Law.

The very concept of chemical structure was introduced by A. M. Butlerov. In the history of chemistry, it appeared on September 19, 1861. Previously, there were different opinions in science, and some scientists completely denied the existence of molecules and atoms. Therefore, in organic and inorganic chemistry there was no order. Moreover, there were no regularities by which it was possible to judge the properties of specific substances. At the same time, there were also compounds that, with the same composition, showed different properties.

The statements of A. M. Butlerov in many ways directed the development of chemistry in the right direction and created a solid foundation for it. Through it, it was possible to systematize the accumulated facts, namely, chemical or physical properties certain substances, the patterns of their entry into reactions, and so on. Even the prediction of ways to obtain compounds and the presence of some common properties made possible by this theory. And most importantly, A. M. Butlerov showed that the structure of a substance molecule can be explained in terms of electrical interactions.

The logic of the theory of the structure of organic substances

Since, before 1861, many in chemistry rejected the existence of an atom or a molecule, the theory of organic compounds became a revolutionary proposal for the scientific world. And since A. M. Butlerov himself proceeds only from materialistic conclusions, he managed to refute the philosophical ideas about organic matter.

He managed to show that molecular structure can be recognized empirically through chemical reactions. For example, the composition of any carbohydrate can be determined by burning a certain amount of it and counting the resulting water and carbon dioxide. The amount of nitrogen in the amine molecule is also calculated during combustion by measuring the volume of gases and releasing the chemical amount of molecular nitrogen.

If we consider Butlerov's judgments about the chemical structure, which depends on the structure, in the opposite direction, then a new conclusion suggests itself. Namely: knowing the chemical structure and composition of a substance, one can empirically assume its properties. But most importantly, Butlerov explained that it is found in organic great amount substances that exhibit different properties but have the same composition.

General provisions of the theory

Considering and investigating organic compounds, A. M. Butlerov deduced some of the most important patterns. He combined them into the provisions of the theory explaining the structure chemical substances organic origin. The provisions of the theory are as follows:

  • in molecules organic matter atoms are interconnected in a strictly defined sequence, which depends on valency;
  • chemical structure is the direct order according to which atoms are connected in organic molecules;
  • the chemical structure determines the presence of the properties of an organic compound;
  • depending on the structure of molecules with the same quantitative composition, different properties of the substance may appear;
  • all atomic groups involved in the formation of a chemical compound have a mutual influence on each other.

All classes of organic compounds are built according to the principles of this theory. Having laid the foundations, A. M. Butlerov was able to expand chemistry as a field of science. He explained that due to the fact that carbon exhibits a valence of four in organic substances, the variety of these compounds is determined. The presence of many active atomic groups determines whether a substance belongs to a certain class. And it is precisely due to the presence of specific atomic groups (radicals) that physical and chemical properties appear.

Hydrocarbons and their derivatives

These organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen are the simplest in composition among all the substances of the group. They are represented by a subclass of alkanes and cycloalkanes (saturated hydrocarbons), alkenes, alkadienes and alkatrienes, alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons), as well as a subclass of aromatic substances. In alkanes, all carbon atoms are connected only by a single C-C connection yu, because of which not a single H atom can be built into the composition of the hydrocarbon.

In unsaturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen can be incorporated at the site of the double C=C bond. Also, the C-C bond can be triple (alkynes). This allows these substances to enter into many reactions associated with the reduction or addition of radicals. All other substances, for the convenience of studying their ability to enter into reactions, are considered as derivatives of one of the classes of hydrocarbons.

Alcohols

Alcohols are more complex than organic hydrocarbons. chemical compounds. They are synthesized as a result of enzymatic reactions in living cells. The most typical example is the synthesis of ethanol from glucose as a result of fermentation.

In industry, alcohols are obtained from halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons. As a result of the substitution of a halogen atom for a hydroxyl group, alcohols are formed. Monohydric alcohols contain only one hydroxyl group, polyhydric - two or more. An example dihydric alcohol is ethylene glycol. The polyhydric alcohol is glycerol. The general formula of alcohols is R-OH (R is a carbon chain).

Aldehydes and ketones

After alcohols enter into reactions of organic compounds associated with the elimination of hydrogen from the alcohol (hydroxyl) group, a double bond between oxygen and carbon closes. If this reaction takes place at the alcohol group located at the terminal carbon atom, then as a result of it, an aldehyde is formed. If the carbon atom with alcohol is not located at the end of the carbon chain, then the result of the dehydration reaction is the production of a ketone. The general formula of ketones is R-CO-R, aldehydes R-COH (R is the hydrocarbon radical of the chain).

Esters (simple and complex)

The chemical structure of organic compounds of this class is complicated. Ethers are considered as reaction products between two alcohol molecules. When water is separated from them, a compound is formed sample R-O-R. Reaction mechanism: elimination of a hydrogen proton from one alcohol and a hydroxyl group from another alcohol.

Esters are reaction products between an alcohol and an organic carboxylic acid. Reaction mechanism: elimination of water from the alcohol and carbon groups of both molecules. Hydrogen is split off from the acid (along the hydroxyl group), and the OH group itself is separated from the alcohol. The resulting compound is depicted as R-CO-O-R, where the beech R denotes radicals - the rest of the carbon chain.

Carboxylic acids and amines

Carboxylic acids are called special substances that play an important role in the functioning of the cell. The chemical structure of organic compounds is as follows: a hydrocarbon radical (R) with a carboxyl group (-COOH) attached to it. The carboxyl group can only be located at the extreme carbon atom, because the valency C in the (-COOH) group is 4.

Amines are simpler compounds that are derivatives of hydrocarbons. Here, any carbon atom has an amine radical (-NH2). There are primary amines in which the (-NH2) group is attached to one carbon (general formula R-NH2). In secondary amines, nitrogen combines with two carbon atoms (formula R-NH-R). Tertiary amines have nitrogen attached to three carbon atoms (R3N), where p is a radical, a carbon chain.

Amino acids

Amino acids are complex compounds that exhibit the properties of both amines and acids of organic origin. There are several types of them, depending on the location of the amine group in relation to the carboxyl group. Alpha amino acids are the most important. Here the amine group is located at the carbon atom to which the carboxyl group is attached. This allows you to create a peptide bond and synthesize proteins.

Carbohydrates and fats

Carbohydrates are aldehyde alcohols or keto alcohols. These are compounds with a linear or cyclic structure, as well as polymers (starch, cellulose, and others). Their essential role in the cell - structural and energy. Fats, or rather lipids, perform the same functions, only they participate in other biochemical processes. Chemically, fat is an ester of organic acids and glycerol.

Organic substances, organic compounds - a class of compounds that include carbon (with the exception of carbides, carbonic acid, carbonates, carbon oxides and cyanides). Organic compounds are usually built from chains of carbon atoms linked together by covalent bonds, and various substituents attached to these carbon atoms.

Organic chemistry is a science that studies the composition, structure, physical and chemical properties of organic substances.

Organic substances are called substances whose molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and some other elements and contain in their composed of C-C And S-N connection. Moreover, the presence of the latter is mandatory.
Organic substances have been known to mankind since ancient times. As an independent science, organic chemistry arose only in early XIX century. In 1827 Swedish scientist J.J. Berzelius published the first manual on organic substances. He was an adherent of the then fashionable theory of vitalism, which claimed that organic substances are formed only in living organisms under the influence of a special "life force".
However, not all chemical scientists adhered to vitalistic views. So back in 1782. K.V. Scheele, heating a mixture of ammonia, carbon dioxide and coal, obtained hydrocyanic acid, which is very common in the plant world. In 1824-28. F. Wehler obtained oxalic acid and urea by chemical synthesis.
Special meaning for the final debunking of the theory of vitalism, the syntheses of various organic substances carried out by the beginning of the 60s had. In 1842 N.I. Zinin received aniline, in 1845. A. Kolbe - acetic acid, in 1854. M. Berthelot developed a method for obtaining synthetic fat, and in 1861. A.M. Butlerov synthesized a sugary substance.

With the collapse of the theory of vitalism, the line separating organic from inorganic substances was erased. And yet, organic substances are characterized by a series specific features. First of all, their number should be attributed to them. Currently, more than 10 million substances are known to mankind, of which about 70% are organic.

The main reasons for the abundance of organic substances are the phenomena of homology and isomerism.
Homology is the phenomenon of the existence of a number of substances that have the same qualitative composition, a similar structure, and differ in quantitative composition by one or more CH2 groups, called the homological difference.

Isomerism is a phenomenon of the existence of a number of substances that have the same qualitative and quantitative composition, but a different structure of molecules, exhibiting different physical properties and chemical activity.

Molecules of organic substances consist mainly of non-metal atoms bound by weakly polar covalent bonds. Therefore, depending on the number of carbon atoms in the molecule, they are gaseous, liquid or low-melting solids. In addition, organic molecules usually contain carbon and hydrogen atoms in an unoxidized or slightly oxidized form, so they are easily oxidized with the release of a large amount of heat, which leads to ignition.

There are several definitions of what organic substances are, how they differ from another group of compounds - inorganic. One of the most common explanations comes from the name "hydrocarbons". Indeed, at the heart of all organic molecules are chains of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen. There are other elements that have received the name "organogenic".

Organic chemistry before the discovery of urea

Since ancient times, people have used many natural substances and minerals: sulfur, gold, iron and copper ore, table salt. Throughout the existence of science - from ancient times to the first half of XIX century - scientists could not prove the connection between living and inanimate nature at the level of microscopic structure (atoms, molecules). It was believed that organic substances owe their appearance to the mythical vitality- vitalism. There was a myth about the possibility of growing a little man "homunculus". To do this, it was necessary to put various waste products into a barrel, wait a certain time until the vital force was born.

A crushing blow to vitalism was dealt by the work of Weller, who synthesized the organic substance urea from inorganic components. So it was proved that there is no life force, nature is one, organisms and inorganic compounds are formed by atoms of the same elements. The composition of urea was known even before Weller's work; the study of this compound was not difficult in those years. Remarkable was the very fact of obtaining a substance characteristic of metabolism outside the body of an animal or a person.

Theory of A. M. Butlerov

The role of the Russian school of chemists in the development of the science that studies organic substances is great. Whole epochs in the development of organic synthesis are associated with the names of Butlerov, Markovnikov, Zelinsky, Lebedev. The founder of the theory of the structure of compounds is A. M. Butlerov. The famous chemist in the 60s of the XIX century explained the composition of organic substances, the reasons for the diversity of their structure, revealed the relationship that exists between the composition, structure and properties of substances.

On the basis of Butlerov's conclusions, it was possible not only to systematize knowledge about already existing organic compounds. It became possible to predict properties not yet known to science substances, create technological schemes for their production in industrial conditions. Many of the ideas of leading organic chemists are being fully implemented today.

When hydrocarbons are oxidized, new organic substances are obtained - representatives of other classes (aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, carboxylic acids). For example, large volumes of acetylene are used to produce acetic acid. Part of this reaction product is further consumed to obtain synthetic fibers. An acid solution (9% and 6%) is in every home - this is ordinary vinegar. Oxidation of organic substances serves as the basis for obtaining a very large number of compounds of industrial, agricultural, and medical importance.

aromatic hydrocarbons

Aromaticity in organic molecules is the presence of one or more benzene nuclei. A chain of 6 carbon atoms closes into a ring, a conjugated bond appears in it, so the properties of such hydrocarbons are not similar to other hydrocarbons.

Aromatic hydrocarbons (or arenes) are of great practical importance. Many of them are widely used: benzene, toluene, xylene. They are used as solvents and raw materials for the production of drugs, dyes, rubber, rubber and other products of organic synthesis.

Oxygen compounds

Oxygen atoms are present in a large group of organic substances. They are part of the most active part of the molecule, its functional group. Alcohols contain one or more hydroxyl species —OH. Examples of alcohols: methanol, ethanol, glycerin. In carboxylic acids, there is another functional particle - carboxyl (-COOOH).

Other oxygen-containing organic compounds are aldehydes and ketones. Carboxylic acids, alcohols and aldehydes large quantities present in various plant organs. They can be sources for obtaining natural products (acetic acid, ethyl alcohol, menthol).

Fats are compounds of carboxylic acids and the trihydric alcohol glycerol. In addition to linear alcohols and acids, there are organic compounds with a benzene ring and a functional group. Examples of aromatic alcohols: phenol, toluene.

Carbohydrates

The most important organic substances of the body that make up the cells are proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats (lipids). simple carbohydrates monosaccharides - found in cells in the form of ribose, deoxyribose, fructose and glucose. The last carbohydrate in this short list is the main substance of metabolism in cells. Ribose and deoxyribose are constituents of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids (RNA and DNA).

When glucose molecules are broken down, the energy necessary for life is released. First, it is stored in the formation of a kind of energy transfer - adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP). This substance is carried by the blood, delivered to tissues and cells. With the successive cleavage of three phosphoric acid residues from adenosine, energy is released.

Fats

Lipids are substances of living organisms that have specific properties. They do not dissolve in water, are hydrophobic particles. The seeds and fruits of some plants, nervous tissue, liver, kidneys, blood of animals and humans are especially rich in substances of this class.

Human and animal skin contains many small sebaceous glands. The secret secreted by them is displayed on the surface of the body, lubricates it, protects it from moisture loss and the penetration of microbes. The layer of subcutaneous adipose tissue protects against damage internal organs serves as a reserve.

Squirrels

Proteins make up more than half of all organic substances of the cell, in some tissues their content reaches 80%. All types of proteins are characterized by high molecular weights, the presence of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. When heated, they are destroyed - denaturation occurs. The primary structure is a huge chain of amino acids for the microcosm. Under the action of specific enzymes digestive system animals and humans, the protein macromolecule will break down into its constituent parts. They enter the cells, where the synthesis of organic substances takes place - other proteins specific to each living being.

Enzymes and their role

Reactions in the cell proceed at a rate that is difficult to achieve under industrial conditions, thanks to catalysts - enzymes. There are enzymes that act only on proteins - lipases. The hydrolysis of starch occurs with the participation of amylase. Lipases are needed to decompose fats into their constituent parts. Processes involving enzymes occur in all living organisms. If a person does not have any enzyme in the cells, then this affects the metabolism, in general, health.

Nucleic acids

Substances, first discovered and isolated from cell nuclei, perform the function of transmitting hereditary traits. The main amount of DNA is contained in chromosomes, and RNA molecules are located in the cytoplasm. With the reduplication (doubling) of DNA, it becomes possible to transfer hereditary information to germ cells - gametes. When they merge new organism receives genetic material from parents.

Initially, it was called the chemistry of substances obtained from organisms of plants and animals. Humanity has been familiar with such substances since ancient times. People knew how to get vinegar from sour wine, and essential oils from plants, extract sugar from sugar cane, extract natural dyes from plant and animal organisms.

Chemists divided all substances depending on the source of their production into mineral (inorganic), animal and vegetable (organic).

For a long time it was believed that in order to obtain organic substances, a special “life force” is needed - vis Vitalis, which acts only in living organisms, and chemists are only able to isolate organic substances from products.

Swedish chemist, President of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Scientific research cover all the main problems of general chemistry in the first half of the 19th century. Experimentally checked and proved the reliability of the laws of composition constancy and multiple ratios in relation to inorganic oxides and organic compounds. Defined atomic mass 45 chemical element. Introduced modern designations chemical elements and the first formulas of chemical compounds.

The Swedish chemist J. J. Berzelius defined organic chemistry as the chemistry of plant or animal substances formed under the influence of "life force". It was Berzelius who introduced the concepts of organic substances and organic chemistry.

The development of chemistry led to the accumulation of a large number of facts and to the collapse of the doctrine of "life force" - vitalism. The German scientist F. Wöhler in 1824 carried out the first synthesis of organic substances - he obtained oxalic acid by reacting two inorganic substances - cyanogen and water:

N \u003d - C-C \u003d N + 4H 2 0 -> COOH + 2NH 3
UNSD
cyanogen oxalic acid

And in 1828, Wöhler, by heating an aqueous solution of the inorganic substance ammonium cyanate, obtained urea, a waste product of animal organisms:


Amazed by this result, Wöhler wrote to Berzelius: “I must tell you that I can prepare urea without needing either a kidney or an animal body in general ...”

Wöhler Friedrich (1800--1882)

German chemist. Foreign member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1853). His research focuses on both inorganic and organic chemistry. He discovered cyanic acid (1822), received aluminum (1827), beryllium and yttrium (1828).

In the years that followed, the brilliant syntheses of aniline by G. Kolbe and E. Frankland (1842), fat by M. Berto (1854), sugary substances by A. Butlerov (1861), and others finally buried the myth of "vital force."

The classic definition of K. Schorlemmer appeared, which did not lose its meaning even more than 120 years later:

"Organic chemistry is the chemistry of hydrocarbons and their derivatives, i.e., products formed when hydrogen is replaced by other atoms or groups of atoms."

Now organic chemistry is most often called the chemistry of carbon compounds. Why, out of more than a hundred elements of the Periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev, did nature put carbon in the basis of all living things? The answer to this question is ambiguous. Much will become clear to you when you consider the structure of the carbon atom and understand the words of D. I. Mendeleev, which he said in the Fundamentals of Chemistry about this wonderful element: “Carbon occurs in nature both in the free and in the connecting state, in a very various forms and types ... The ability of carbon atoms to combine with each other and give complex particles is manifested in all carbon compounds ... In none of the elements ... the ability to complicate is developed to the same extent as in carbon ... Not a single pair of elements does not form as many compounds as carbon and hydrogen.

Numerous bonds of carbon atoms among themselves and with atoms of other elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus) that make up organic substances can be destroyed under the influence of natural factors. Therefore, carbon makes a continuous cycle in nature: from the atmosphere (carbon dioxide) to plants (photosynthesis), from plants to animal organisms, from living to dead, from dead to living ... (Fig. 1).

Organic substances have a number of features that distinguish them from inorganic substances:

1. There are a little more than 100 thousand inorganic substances, while almost 18 million organic substances (Table 1).


Rice. 1. The carbon cycle in nature

2. The composition of all organic substances includes carbon and hydrogen, so most of them are combustible and, when burned, necessarily form carbon dioxide and water.

3. Organic substances are built more complex than inorganic ones, and many of them have a huge molecular weight, for example, those due to which life processes occur: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, etc.

4. Organic substances can be arranged in rows similar in composition, structure and properties - homologues.

A homologous series is a series of substances arranged in ascending order of their relative molecular masses, similar in structure and chemical properties, where each member differs from the previous one by the homological difference CH 2 .

Table 1. Growth in the number of known organic compounds

5. For organic substances, isomerism is characteristic, which is very rare among inorganic substances. Remember the examples of isomers that you met in 9th grade. What is the reason for the differences in the properties of isomers?

Isomerism is a phenomenon of existence different substances- isomers with the same qualitative and quantitative composition, i.e. the same molecular formula.

The greatest generalization of knowledge about inorganic substances is the Periodic Law and Periodic system elements of D. I. Mendeleev. For organic substances, the analogy of such a generalization is the theory of the structure of organic compounds by A. M. Butlerov. Remember what Butlerov meant by chemical structure. Formulate the main provisions of this theory.

To quantitatively characterize the ability of atoms of one chemical element to combine with a certain number of atoms of another chemical element in inorganic chemistry, where most substances have a non-molecular structure, the concept of “oxidation state>> is used. In organic chemistry, where most compounds have a molecular structure, the concept of "valence" is used. Remember what these concepts mean, compare them.

The importance of organic chemistry in our life is great. In any organism, at any time, many transformations of some organic substances into others take place. Therefore, without knowledge of organic chemistry, it is impossible to understand how the functioning of the systems that form a living organism is carried out, that is, it is difficult to understand biology and medicine.

With the help of organic synthesis, a variety of organic substances are obtained: artificial and synthetic fibers, rubbers, plastics, dyes, pesticides (what is it?), synthetic vitamins, hormones, drugs, etc.

Many modern products and the materials we cannot do without are organics (Table 2).

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As you know, all substances can be divided into two large categories - mineral and organic. can lead a large number of examples of inorganic, or mineral, substances: salt, soda, potassium. But what types of connections fall into the second category? Organic substances are present in any living organism.

Squirrels

The most important example of organic substances are proteins. They include nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen. In addition to them, sometimes sulfur atoms can also be found in some proteins.

Proteins are among the most important organic compounds and they are the most commonly found in nature. Unlike other compounds, proteins have some character traits. Their main property is a huge molecular weight. For example, the molecular weight of an alcohol atom is 46, benzene is 78, and hemoglobin is 152,000. Compared to the molecules of other substances, proteins are real giants containing thousands of atoms. Sometimes biologists call them macromolecules.

Proteins are the most complex of all organic structures. They belong to the class of polymers. If we look at a polymer molecule under a microscope, we can see that it is a chain consisting of more simple structures. They are called monomers and are repeated many times in polymers.

In addition to proteins, there are a large number of polymers - rubber, cellulose, as well as ordinary starch. Also, a lot of polymers were created by human hands - nylon, lavsan, polyethylene.

Protein formation

How are proteins formed? They are an example of organic substances whose composition in living organisms is determined by the genetic code. In their synthesis, in the overwhelming majority of cases, various combinations are used.

Also, new amino acids can be formed already when the protein begins to function in the cell. At the same time, only alpha-amino acids are found in it. The primary structure of the described substance is determined by the sequence of residues of amino acid compounds. And in most cases, the polypeptide chain, during the formation of a protein, twists into a helix, the turns of which are located closely to each other. As a result of the formation of hydrogen compounds, it has a fairly strong structure.

Fats

Fats are another example of organic matter. A person knows many types of fats: butter, beef and fish fat, vegetable oils. In large quantities, fats are formed in the seeds of plants. If a peeled sunflower seed is placed on a sheet of paper and pressed down, an oily stain will remain on the sheet.

Carbohydrates

No less important in wildlife are carbohydrates. They are found in all plant organs. Carbohydrates include sugar, starch, and fiber. They are rich in potato tubers, banana fruits. It is very easy to detect starch in potatoes. When reacted with iodine, this carbohydrate turns into Blue colour. You can verify this by dropping a little iodine on a potato slice.

Sugars are also easy to spot - they all taste sweet. Many carbohydrates of this class are found in the fruits of grapes, watermelons, melons, apple trees. They are examples of organic substances that are also produced in artificial conditions. For example, sugar is extracted from sugar cane.

How are carbohydrates formed in nature? by the most simple example is the process of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates are organic substances that contain a chain of several carbon atoms. They also contain several hydroxyl groups. During photosynthesis, inorganic sugars are formed from carbon monoxide and sulfur.

Cellulose

Fiber is another example of organic matter. Most of it is found in cotton seeds, as well as plant stems and their leaves. Fiber consists of linear polymers, its molecular weight ranges from 500 thousand to 2 million.

In its pure form, it is a substance that has no smell, taste and color. It is used in the manufacture of photographic film, cellophane, explosives. In the human body, fiber is not absorbed, but it is a necessary part of the diet, as it stimulates the work of the stomach and intestines.

Substances organic and inorganic

You can give many examples of the formation of organic and second always come from minerals - inanimate which are formed in the depths of the earth. They are also part of various rocks.

IN vivo inorganic substances formed in the process of destruction of minerals or organic substances. On the other hand, organic substances are constantly formed from minerals. For example, plants absorb water with compounds dissolved in it, which subsequently move from one category to another. Living organisms use mainly organic matter for food.

Causes of Diversity

Often schoolchildren or students need to answer the question of what are the reasons for the diversity of organic substances. The main factor is that carbon atoms are interconnected using two types of bonds - simple and multiple. They can also form chains. Another reason is the variety of different chemical elements that are included in organic matter. In addition, diversity is also due to allotropy - the phenomenon of the existence of the same element in various compounds.

How are inorganic substances formed? Natural and synthetic organic substances and their examples are studied both in high school and in specialized higher education. educational institutions. The formation of inorganic substances is not as complex a process as the formation of proteins or carbohydrates. For example, people have been extracting soda from soda lakes since time immemorial. In 1791, the chemist Nicolas Leblanc suggested synthesizing it in the laboratory using chalk, salt, and sulfuric acid. Once upon a time, soda, which is familiar to everyone today, was a rather expensive product. For the experiment, it was necessary to ignite table salt together with acid, and then the resulting sulfate is calcined together with limestone and charcoal.

Another is potassium permanganate, or potassium permanganate. This substance is obtained in industrial conditions. The formation process consists in the electrolysis of a potassium hydroxide solution and a manganese anode. In this case, the anode gradually dissolves with the formation of a solution purple- this is the well-known potassium permanganate.