Indirect, or indirect discrimination(as opposed to direct discrimination, characterized by the intention to discriminate against a certain group of people) is observed when apparently neutral provisions, criteria or practices de facto place members of a certain group of people at a disadvantage compared to others in a similar situation. Indirect discrimination is more widespread in society than direct discrimination, but its existence is more difficult to justify. The category of indirect discrimination is firmly established in European Union law.

Definition of the European Union

A clear legal definition of indirect discrimination appears repeatedly in various European Union directives. In particular, Article 2 paragraph 1b of Directive 2006/54/EC (in this case regarding discrimination on the basis of sex) defines indirect discrimination as follows:

For the purposes of this directive, the expression "indirect discrimination" means a situation in which persons of a certain sex may, in accordance with apparently neutral rules, criteria or procedures, be placed at a greater disadvantage than persons of the other sex, unless the rules, criteria or procedures can be objectively justified by the existence of a legal goal, and the means to achieve this goal are necessary and proportionate.

Original text (German)

Im Sinne dieser Richtlinie bezeichnet der Ausdruck "mittelbare Diskriminierung" eine Situation, in der dem Anschein nach neutrale Vorschriften, Kriterien oder Verfahren Personen des einen Geschlechts in besonderer Weise gegenüber Personen des anderen Geschlechts benachteiligen können, es sei denn, die betreffenden Vorschriften, Kriterien oder Verfahren sind durch ein rechtmäßiges Ziel sachlich gerechtfertigt und die Mittel sind zur Erreichung dieses Ziels angemessen und erforderlich.

Similar definitions of indirect discrimination are provided in earlier directives, such as directive 2000/43/EC (concerning discrimination based on race and origin). Thus, paragraph 2b of article 2 of this directive reads:

Indirect discrimination occurs when apparently neutral rules, criteria or procedures are likely to be particularly disadvantageous to persons belonging to a particular race or ethnic group, unless the rules, criteria or procedures in question can be objectively justified by the existence of a legal goal and the means for achieving this goal is necessary and proportionate.

Original text (German)

Eine mittelbare Diskriminierung vor, wenn dem Anschein nach neutrale Vorschriften, Kriterien oder Verfahren Personen, die einer Rasse oder ethnischen Gruppe angehören, in besonderer Weise benachteiligen können, es sei denn, die betreffenden Vorschriften, Kriterien oder Verfahren sind durch ein rechtmäßiges Ziel sachlich gerechtfertigt, und die Mittel sind zur Erreichung dieses Ziels angemessen und erforderlich.

Examples

Indirect discrimination refers to situations in which the possibilities of a person due to his belonging to a certain group, although not directly limited (this would be direct discrimination), however, are not equivalent in comparison with other persons in a similar situation. For example, a mandatory requirement to wear a uniform with a short skirt for waitresses may restrict access to work for women who do not accept wearing such clothes, for example, for religious or age reasons. Indirect discrimination cannot be taken as requirements and restrictions that can be objectively justified by a legal goal, and the means chosen to achieve this goal are moderate and justified.

Typical examples of indirect discrimination in the sense of EU law are seen in the decisions of the European Court of Justice. In addition to gender and origin, other grounds may be taken into account to determine the existence of indirect discrimination. So, among the decisions made, for example, the following can be distinguished:

sign Case Case and decision
Origin Rs. C-83/14 Placement of electricity meters at a height of 7 meters in Roma areas, compared to the usual standard of 1.7 meters, is indirect discrimination on the basis of origin, since such a restriction disproportionately affects the Roma, and the reasons given (security) do not justify this method.
Origin Rs. C-668/15 The different requirements of the bank when issuing loans for clients born in the EU and outside it do not constitute indirect discrimination, as they are not related to the nationality or race of the clients and can be objectively justified.
Disability Rs. C-270/16 The dismissal of a disabled person due to long and prolonged absenteeism due to illness, although it can be assessed as indirect discrimination against disabled people, can, however, be justified by the interests of the employer.
Disability Rs. C-335/11 The rule that an employee due to 120 days of absenteeism per year due to illness can be dismissed with only a shortened notice period of one month is indirect discrimination against persons with disabilities, since it may disproportionately affect people with disabilities and is not a justified measure.
Sexual orientation Rs. C-267/12 Failure to provide a gay couple in a civil partnership with the due leave due to marriage in a country in which same-sex marriage not legalized constitutes unjustified indirect discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, even if such leave is not granted to heterosexual couples in partnership.
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On the topic “What are the prerequisites and stages of the development of the conflict (open with examples)?”

Introduction………………………………………………………………………...3

1. What are the prerequisites and stages of the development of the conflict (open with examples)? ............. ............................. ....... ...................3

Conclusion…………………………………………………… …………………

INTRODUCTION

Each person in life has his own goals related to various areas of life. Everyone strives to achieve something of their own or tries to do something in their own way. Therefore, in everyday life, people often encounter conflict situations. For a conflict is a clash, and opinions, forces, interests, inclinations, claims can collide ... The list can be continued in any way, since the manifestations of human feelings are very multifaceted, and the reasons that push a person to conflict are also diverse. In any case, conflicts occupy a large place in our lives.

When people think of conflict, they most often associate it with aggression, threats, arguments, hostility, war, and so on. As a result, there is an opinion that conflict is always undesirable, that it should be avoided if possible, and that it should be resolved immediately as soon as it arises. But in general, conflict is not a tragedy, but a natural process that occurs within the human community, whether it is a cool team, a family, an educational institution, an organization where you work. Often this helps to reveal the rational grain in resolving the situation, if the conflict does not go beyond the reasonable in the ways of finding out the truth. Such disagreements are even a stimulus for personal growth, and for uniting the team, and for strengthening relationships.

  1. The concept of "conflict" and its essence.

There are many definitions of the term "conflict". The most complete and universal for many disciplines, in my opinion, is this one: “Conflict is the most acute way of resolving contradictions in interests, goals, views, arising in the process of social interaction, consisting in the opposition of the participants in this interaction, and usually accompanied by negative emotions, leaving beyond rules and regulations."

The conflicting parties can be social groups, groups of animals, individuals and individuals of animals, technical systems.

Also, the conflict can be understood as a counteraction of the properties of two phenomena that claim to be the state of reality defined by them.

From an ordinary point of view, conflict carries a negative meaning, is associated with aggression, deep emotions, disputes, threats, hostility, etc. There is an opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon and should be avoided if possible and, if it has arisen, immediately resolved . Modern psychology considers conflict not only in a negative, but also in a positive way: as a way of developing an organization, a group and an individual, highlighting positive aspects in the inconsistency of conflict situations related to development and subjective understanding of life situations.

  1. Prerequisites and stages of development of the conflict

Don't rush to see conflict where there isn't already. Conflict behavior of one person is not yet a conflict. Objectively, a conflict situation is a strong prerequisite for conflict, but conflict in this situation may not take place.

In the process of its development, the conflict goes through several stages, which are not mandatory. The duration of the stages also varies. But their sequence in any conflict is the same. The conflict includes 2 phases: latent (hidden conflict) and open conflict phase.

Prev conflict situation forms a latent stage. This is the growth of tension in relations between potential subjects of the conflict, caused by certain contradictions. The conflict always has reasons, it does not arise from scratch, although the presence of conflicting interests is not always immediately recognized.

The variety of causes of conflict can be classified into 5 groups:

  • Striving for excellence;
  • The manifestation of aggressiveness;
  • Devaluation of the needs of other people;
  • Violation of the rules;
  • Circumstances that cause a negative reaction or state even before the conflict, before communication.

Considering the first group of "striving for superiority", we can say that this is the largest group of conflicts. The basis of the occurrence of which is the word. After all, as you know, for every word that generates a conflict, a person responds to himself with a stronger conflict word.

There are many examples of a conflict situation here. Such, in my opinion, are joking, interrupting the interlocutor, imposing one's advice. Also, I believe, direct manifestations of superiority contribute to the conflict: threats, orders, accusations. Often the cause of the conflict is a condescending attitude, such words as “Do not be offended”, “Calm down”, “Don't worry so much”, etc. - can also cause aggression on the part of the opponent of the conversation.

In the second group, “manifestations of aggression”, as a rule, two types of aggression are distinguished: natural and situational. There are very few examples of natural aggression, since it is restrained, can almost be nullified by education, an example of the behavior of loved ones (especially in early age), moral foundations, the laws of society and the structures responsible for the observance of these laws. But situational aggressiveness, I believe, can be provoked by a bad mood or well-being, troubles (personal or professional), and also as a response to an offensive message received.

The main feature of the devaluation of the needs of other people, I think, is selfishness, as well as deception or attempted deception. A person behaves like a child who thinks that the whole world revolves around him, and all people are obliged to give up their needs and serve his own. Such a person achieves a specific goal at the expense of other people, and not at the expense of his own resources.

Speaking of breaking the rules, I can say that breaking any rule is a factor that provokes conflict - be it the rule of ethics, internal labor regulations, safety, traffic, family arrangements, etc. Actually, the rules are developed as a means of preventing conflicts.

A provocation of a conflict can be a contact with an annoyed person that happened before your meeting with your interlocutor, unpleasant news or an incident, an undesirable change in the situation, bad weather, etc.

At this stage, the conflict participants are not aware of the contradictions. Conflict manifests itself only in explicit or implicit dissatisfaction with the situation. The discrepancy between values, interests, goals, means of achieving them does not always translate into direct actions aimed at changing the situation: the opposite side sometimes either resigns itself to injustice or waits in the wings, holding a grudge.

If the conflict still continues to develop, the second phase begins - the phase of an open conflict (confrontation). This phase includes several stages: incident, conflict escalation, balanced counteraction, end of the conflict.

I believe that the incident is a formal reason for the start of a direct confrontation between the parties. An incident can happen by chance, or it can be provoked by the subject (subjects) of the conflict. An incident may also be the result of a natural course of events. It happens that an incident is prepared and provoked by some "third force", pursuing its own interests in the alleged "foreign" conflict. The most striking example, it seems to me, is the murder in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife, carried out by a group of Bosnian terrorists on August 28, 1914, served as a formal pretext for the outbreak of the First World War, although the tension between the Entente and the German military bloc existed for many years.

Important elements of the development of the conflict at this stage are: “reconnaissance”, gathering information about the true capabilities and intentions of opponents, searching for allies and attracting additional forces to their side. Since the confrontation in the incident is local in nature, the full potential of the participants in the conflict has not yet been demonstrated. Although all forces are already beginning to be brought into combat condition. However, even after the incident, it remains possible to resolve the conflict peacefully, through negotiations, to come to a compromise between the subjects of the conflict. And this opportunity should be used to the fullest.

Further, the conflict can develop only in two ways - through the intensification of hostile actions towards each other (escalation); or through differentiation of the subject of the conflict (de-escalation). An example of escalation, I think, is the specifics of Germany's actions in World War II, when its attack on Poland was followed by armed incursions into Denmark, Belgium, Luxembourg, etc.

At this stage, any negotiations or other peaceful means of resolving the conflict become difficult. Emotions often begin to drown out the mind, logic gives way to feelings. The main task is to cause as much damage as possible to the enemy at any cost. Therefore, at this stage, the original cause and main goal of the conflict may be lost and new causes and new goals come to the fore. During this stage of the conflict, a change in value orientations is also possible, in particular, values-means and values-goals can change places. The development of the conflict acquires a spontaneous uncontrollable character.

The last stage is called the end of the conflict. At this stage, the conflict ends, which, however, does not mean that the claims of the parties are satisfied. In reality, there may be several outcomes of the conflict. In general, we can say that each of the parties either wins or loses, and the victory of one of them does not always mean that the other has lost. For example, a compromise may not always be considered a victory for both sides; a side often seeks a compromise only to prevent its opponent from considering itself victorious, and this happens even if the compromise is as unfavorable for it as losing.

It is important that when resolving a conflict, a solution is found to the problem that caused it. The more fully resolved the contradiction, the greater the chances for the normalization of relations between the participants, the less the likelihood of the conflict escalating into a new confrontation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I want to say that in order to be able to cope with conflicts and try to prevent them, it is necessary to understand the nature of conflicts, their causes, possible development paths and behavior patterns in them. Also, I believe that a thorough analysis of the conflict is necessary to overcome difficulties in repaying conflicts, to establish possible causes and consequences of this conflict.

There are no specific recommendations for conflict prevention if all its versatility has not been studied: the cause of occurrence, the psychological state of the parties, the object of the conflict, the readiness of opponents to cooperate in preventing or resolving the conflict, etc.

At the same time, it is clear that we must try in every possible way to avoid the emergence, and if this is not possible, then the escalation of conflicts into global cataclysms, both in the collective at enterprises and on a global scale.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

  1. Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy [Electronic resource]: electron. study method. complex for students of the specialty 1-25 01 07 Economics and management at the enterprise / compiled by: N. A. Goncharuk, G. P. Kostevich.
  2. Antsupov, A. Ya. Meaning, subject and tasks of conflictology // Conflictology. - M.: UNITI, 1999. - S. 81. - 551 p.
  3. Grishina NV Psychology of conflict. - St. Petersburg, 2003.
  4. Ivanova V.F. Sociology and psychology of conflicts. M., 2000.
  5. Myasishchev V.N. Psychology of relations // Selected psychological works - M.; Voronezh, 2005.
    6. 1. What are the prerequisites and stages of the development of the conflict (disclose with examples)?.................................................. ................................................. ...................3
    Conclusion………………………………………………………………………
    List of sources used………………………………………….8

The concept of "rear" will become more and more illusory. If at the beginning of the 20th century the rear began a couple of kilometers from the front line, where the marketers set up restaurants for gentlemen of the officers, and the soldiers blithely slept soundly, putting their guns into "goats", then already in the middle of the 20th century. the rear was determined by the range of enemy bombers, and at the end of the century by the location of the nearest important target for a strategic nuclear warhead.

In the 21st century new weapons - hypersonic missiles and percussion aircrafts, space combat systems make the concept of the rear generally conditional. Opponents will be able to strike in real time at any depth of enemy territory, against any targets. Success in such a war will be determined by the flexibility of the command and control system, its ability to withstand strikes, the protection of key infrastructure elements from air strikes, and the duplication of these systems.

The war will be fleeting.

World Wars 20th century were led to the exhaustion of the participating countries, since existing weapons did not have sufficient power to inflict unacceptable damage on the enemy, disrupt the control system and destroy its industrial potential.

In the 21st century Availability nuclear weapons, saturation of troops precision weapons, capable of destroying targets at any strategic depth, new reconnaissance and target designation systems make it possible to cause unacceptable damage to the enemy in a minimum period of time, paralyze its control system and destroy military and industrial potential.

In the 21st century great importance will acquire information Technology. The success of the coming wars will depend on who gets the most full information about the enemy, who will be able to process it as quickly as possible, transfer it to the troops in the form of orders and target designations and will be able to protect their information channels from enemy influence. Masking and protection of information will gain in the 21st century. status of military branches. AND Newest technologies in these areas will determine the combat capability of the army.

Already the war in Yugoslavia in 1999 showed how important the art of disguise is to modern war, when for 76 days of continuous bombing by NATO aviation it was not able to seriously undermine the military potential of the Serbs and all the losses of the Yugoslav army from NATO strikes amounted to 462 killed soldiers and officers and several dozen tanks, armored personnel carriers and guns.

The main space in which the wars of the 21st century will take place. will be the sky and space. Already during the Second World War, it became clear that air supremacy determines the success of ground operations, and by the end of the 21st century. the term "air offensive operation" appeared, then replaced by "air-space offensive operation".


In the 21st century the war will finally become "vertical", and the sky will become the main battlefield.

The troops of the Air Force - Air Defense - Aerospace Defense are becoming the main branch of the armed forces, gradually replacing Ground troops for secondary roles. The ground forces will be used in local wars, counter-guerrilla and counter-terrorist operations.

The main combat unit Russian Army will become a combined arms brigade with personnel and equipment. The alert standard is 1 hour, the transfer to the theater of operations is a day. Deployment and equipment of the Russian Armed Forces "according to wartime states" - a year.

Aviation, satellites, air defense and missile defense systems will decide the outcome of future wars. The functioning of these systems is impossible without the creation of automated control systems that are resistant to external influences, dispersed among subsystems, guaranteeing the preservation of operability when some of the elements are damaged.

Another environment in which the outcome of future wars will be decided will be the seas and oceans. As they are mastered, submarine and surface forces will be improved. Depth gives invulnerability. A submarine that has sunk to a kilometer depth becomes invulnerable to everyone existing types weapons, terrible pressure simply destroys any torpedoes or bombs. Even energy nuclear explosion at such a depth it “shrinks” to a critical minuscule. The creation of ultra-deep-water missile cruisers will make it possible to preserve the nuclear deterrence potential under any conditions.

In the 21st century the textile industry will be strategically important. Received tissue samples capable of responding to changes in the external environment, changing color depending on temperature environment. Polymers that react to radioactive radiation, infrared, ultraviolet radiation, changing color depending on the degree of illumination, have been discovered and studied. Clothing with such fabrics is able to warn its owner about radioactive contamination and infrared radiation. The fabrics of the uniform of a soldier of the future will independently react to an increase and decrease in ambient temperature, protect from wind, rain and dust. Disguise yourself as the surrounding area and time of day. In any conditions, maintain a comfortable temperature and conditions for the host's body. Warn him about radioactive and chemical contamination. On irradiation by radar and infrared devices. Provide first aid on your own: fibers, antiseptic and analgesic impregnations have already been developed that react to characteristic chemical compounds blood. Such tissue, when injured, "sticks" to the wound, and interacting with the blood, releases painkillers, disinfectants and blood-clotting drugs.

Questions and tasks -

1. What were the main ideas of the new political thinking? Could Gorbachev's policy be based on other principles?

2. Describe the foreign policy course of M.S. Gorbachev, filling out the answer in the form of a detailed plan.

3. What is the role of the USA, Russia and other states of the world in the formation of a new world order? 8. How did the completion " cold war» on the position in the world?

4. In what and for what reasons did pain points relations between Russia and Western countries? Based on the materials of modern media, illustrate your conclusions. What do you think, is the process of erasing contradictions or deepening them going on now?

5. Describe Russia's relations with the CIS countries, based on media and Internet materials, and evaluate their current state.

6. How do you understand the term "reset relationship", what does it refer to?

7. Give a description global issues modernity. Which of them do you consider the most difficult, dangerous for life on Earth? Give reasons to support your opinion.

8. How do you explain the fact that after 1991 the number local conflicts remains significant?

9. What caused the sharp intensification of population migrations in the 20th century? What is labor migration? Give examples.

10. What are the causes of racial conflicts? Explain the term "indirect discrimination".

11. Which international - legal basis solutions ethnic issues formed in modern world? Why Its Existence Didn't Lead to Full Resolution ethnic conflicts in the information society?

12. What is multiculturalism and the quota system? Do you think they solve the problem of ethnic contradictions?

13. How do you understand the term "sustainable - safe development"? What hinders the transition to it on a global scale?

The specificity of the gender conflict is expressed:

- in the biological direction (differentiation of the sexes, various natural functions and the biological system as a whole);

- the psychological component (differences in the information models of the psyche of men and women and individual differences of all people in general);

- social orientation (objective social functions and position in society of men and women cause clashes).

In the second half 20th century. there have been significant changes in gender values ​​and expectations. The male monopoly in public life was gradually transformed. Women's movements, employment patterns (e.g. Post-Fordist model) launched many social processes, thanks to which women now occupy positions of power, serve in the army, participate in previously inaccessible sports competitions and many other previously closed areas of public life.

The status and roles of men and women are constantly changing, giving rise to a clash of interests and gender discrimination. In many social institutions(school, family) gender inequality continues for a long time. Many of them are not sharply expressed, but are never resolved, since deep contradictions are concentrated in stereotypes that change very slowly.

RELIGIOUS, RACIAL, ETHNIC CONFLICTS

With the development and complication of society and social relations, communication channels and spheres of influence increase. The isolation and integrity of any social group or community is violated. Culture is integrating and becoming international, everything modern society participates in the process of globalization. All the described phenomena increase the likelihood of ethnic, racial and religious conflicts in society.

The unification of ethnic groups or races sometimes occurs in a democratic and natural way, but more often it causes social tension of collision. After all, any community strives to preserve its unique culture and history, actively fights for its territory and identity.

Depending on the level of self-awareness, an ethnos can react differently to social change. Ethnocentric groups are the most conflicted. In their struggle, they can use religious principles and attitudes, therefore, involve new participants in a conflict situation.

The main groups of causes of ethnic, religious and racial conflicts are distinguished:

- causes of the ethno-psychological factor;

– political factors;

- socio-economic reasons;

- sociocultural factors and differences.

The destruction of the habitual way of social and cultural life of an ethnos causes a defensive or protective reaction of this ethnos. Since the loss of former values ​​unequivocally presupposes the dominance of new introduced values ​​and norms, the assimilated ethnos perceives its culture as secondary and suppressed. This explains ethnopsychological factors and the conflicts that arise from them.

The emergence of a new ethnic group or religious movement contributes to the creation of new political leaders - political factors. socially economic situation a particular social group or ethnic group in a particular historical period affects general position groups in intergroup relations either causes tension, and the poor economic situation negatively affects the perception by the ethnic group of any actions directed at it, or the nature of relations with other ethnic groups and social groups projects existing discrimination, which creates conditions for the outbreak of conflict.

Conflicts arising due to sociocultural differences, are the most acute and long-lasting, as they occur as a result of the violent destruction of cultural differences. Religious, linguistic and other cultural norms are assimilated and destroyed. All this disintegrates the ethnos and therefore encounters resistance.

INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT

Interethnic or interstate conflict- contradictions that arise between states, nations, coalitions of states and affect a large number of people and international relationships generally.

Specifics of interstate conflicts: a conflict that has arisen between two states, with its consequences, carries a danger to other states; interstate conflicts shape international relations in the world; interethnic conflict is a consequence of the wrong policy of the states participating in the confrontation.

The nature of the interests defended in interstate conflicts:

- ideology, social mismatch political system states;

- the desire for domination, both local and global;

- economic interests;

– territorial preferences or preservation of territorial boundaries;

- religious interests that influence the status of the state.

The causes of interstate conflicts are diverse, they can be subjective and objective.

In every ethnic conflict there are: main reasons; related; reinforcing or arising already in the course of the conflict.

At the stage of creating independent states and establishing their borders, many parameters are often not taken into account: the presence of cultural communities, ethnic groups, historical and natural characteristics of the area, all this aggravates international relations and provokes conflicts. Sometimes interstate conflicts occur in a military way. For example, the war between Iran And Iraq for the territorial spaces of states.

When an internal political conflict arises, some countries begin to intervene in the affairs of the conflict state, seeking to resolve contradictions and reduce political and social tensions (for example, the intervention Russia into politics Iraq).

Conflicts within the state lead to interethnic clashes without the participation of other states. This is due to the negative impact of internal political conflicts on the position of the state in the international arena.

Possible actions to resolve interstate conflicts:

1) creation of transnational systems in cultural, political, economic and other significant areas of society;

2) observance by states of the principle of peaceful coexistence and recognition various options development of society and nation;

3) dominance in the field legal regulation relations between states international organizations that ensure world security;

4) the reduction of armaments and the introduction of bans on the creation of weapons of mass destruction.

ARMED CONFLICT

Armed conflict- this is an open contradiction between medium and large social groups, in which the subjects use armed formations. Armed conflicts differ in the content and scale of goals, the use of means to achieve them, territorial space conducting a military conflict.

Types of armed conflict by goals:

1) fair (determined by the UN Charter and other international standards rights);

2) unfair.

According to the occupied territory of action, an armed conflict happens: local; regional; large scale.

Local wars are defined by territorial boundaries and have clearly defined and limited goals. Local war may develop into a regional one. In the latter, more important military-political goals are pursued, military formations of other states may participate. At the stage of escalation of an armed regional conflict, there is a possibility of a transition to a large-scale armed conflict.

A large-scale armed conflict requires the mobilization of all the forces of the participants in the conflict, since the goals set are cardinal in terms of the changes achieved in society.

No action aimed at preventing or effectively resolving conflicts can be taken if we do not know anything about the causes of their occurrence and the specifics of their development. Therefore, in this lesson the main attention will be paid to consideration of these issues. You will learn about what groups of causes of conflicts exist and how they differ from each other, as well as what are the main stages and stages of their development and what is their dynamics.

Causes of conflicts

In total, four main groups can be distinguished into which the causes of conflicts are divided:

  • Objective reasons
  • Organizational and managerial reasons
  • Socio-psychological reasons
  • Personal reasons

Let's talk about each group separately.

Objective causes of conflicts

The objective causes of conflicts are the causes that determine the formation of a pre-conflict situation. In some cases, they may be real, and in some cases they may be imaginary, representing only an occasion artificially invented by a person.

The most common objective reasons include the following:

A clash of spiritual and material interests of people taking place in the process of life in a natural rhythm.

EXAMPLE: Two people are arguing in the store about who will get the product they like, which is left in a single copy.

Insufficiently developed legal norms that regulate conflict resolution of problems.

EXAMPLE: The leader often insults his subordinate. The subordinate, defending his dignity, is forced to resort to conflict behavior. At present, there are no developed effective ways protection from the arbitrariness of the leaders of the interests of subordinates. The subordinate, of course, can file a complaint with the appropriate authorities, but, most likely, this will not work. Hence it turns out that in such situations, subordinates have to either make concessions or enter into conflict.

Insufficient quantity of spiritual and material goods necessary for a normal life and activity.

EXAMPLE: In our time, in society, one can observe all kinds of deficits of various benefits, which will certainly affect both the lives of people and the peculiarities of conflicts between them. Several people can apply for the same promising and well-paid position. This contributes to the emergence of conflicts between people, and the objective cause of the conflict here will be the distribution of material resources..

Organizational and managerial causes of conflicts

Organizational and managerial causes are the second group of causes of conflicts. To some extent, these reasons can be called more subjective than objective. Organizational and managerial reasons are interconnected with such processes as the creation of various organizations, groups, teams, as well as with their functioning.

The main organizational and managerial reasons are:

Structural and organizational reasons- their meaning lies in the fact that the structure of the organization does not meet the requirements that the activity in which it is engaged in puts forward. The structure of the organization should be determined by the tasks that it solves or plans to solve, in other words, the structure must be adapted to them. But the catch is that it is very problematic to bring the structure to the tasks, hence the conflicts arise.

EXAMPLE: When designing the organization, as well as in predicting its tasks, mistakes were made; In the course of the organization's activities, the tasks facing it are constantly changing.

Functional and organizational reasons- usually caused by a lack of optimality in the relationships between the organization and external environment, different departments of the organization or individual employees.

EXAMPLE: Conflicts may arise due to a discrepancy between the rights of the employee and his duties; inconsistency of wages with the quality and quantity of the work done; the discrepancy between the material and technical support and the volume and features of the assigned tasks.

Personal-functional reasons- due to insufficient compliance of the employee, based on the professional, moral and other qualities required by his position.

EXAMPLE: If an employee does not have the qualities required by the organization, conflict relations may arise between him and higher management, colleagues, etc. the mistakes he makes can affect the interests of all with whom he interacts.

Situational and managerial reasons- are the result of mistakes made by managers and their subordinates in the process of the tasks assigned to them (managerial, organizational, etc.).

EXAMPLE: If received incorrect managerial decision, there may be a conflict between its performers and authors; similar situations also arise when the employee did not complete the task assigned to him or did it improperly.

Socio-psychological causes of conflicts

The socio-psychological causes of conflicts are based on the socio-psychological prerequisites laid down in interpersonal relationships. They are also divided into several types:

Unfavorable socio-psychological climate- an environment in which there is no value-oriented unity and low level cohesion of people.

EXAMPLE: In an organization or any group of people, a negative atmosphere prevails, depression, negative attitude people to each other, pessimism, aggression, antipathy, etc.

Anomie of social norms- this is a mismatch of social norms adopted in an organization or society. It can give rise to double standards - situations where one person requires from others what he himself does not follow.

EXAMPLE: In an organization, there is a person who gets away with everything, and the other is required to perform unthinkable tasks and bear responsibility for every action.

The discrepancy between social expectations and implementation social roles and performance of the functionality- appears due to the fact that one person may have already formed expectations, and the other person may not even be aware of it.

EXAMPLE: The leader expects the subordinate to perform his duties in a specific way, but did not put him in the know. The subordinate performs the work as it should be in his understanding. As a result, the expectations of the leader are not justified, which is the cause of the conflict.

Generation conflict- As a rule, it is associated with different behaviors of people and the difference in their life experience.

EXAMPLE: An elderly person believes that young people should behave in a certain way, corresponding to the idea that is fixed in his mind. Young people, in turn, behave in the way that is right from their point of view. This inconsistency can lead to conflict.

Communication barriers- in other words, misunderstanding between people, which can arise both unconsciously, due to the inability to communicate effectively and focus only on one's own interests, or intentionally, in order to make it difficult for the partner to communicate.

EXAMPLE: threats, teachings, commands, orders, accusations, humiliation, moralizing, logical arguments, criticism, disagreements, interrogations, clarifications, distraction, deliberate diversion from the problem and everything that can disrupt the train of thought of another person, force him to prove his position.

Territoriality- refers to the field of environmental psychology. Territoriality refers to the occupation by one person or group of people of a particular space and taking it and everything that is in it under their control.

EXAMPLE: A group of young people come to the park and want to take a bench that people are already sitting on. They demand to give way to them, which can cause a conflict, because. others may not give way. Another example is the introduction of troops into the territory of a country with the aim of occupying certain positions there, subordinating it to one's control, and establishing one's own rules.

The presence of a destructive leader in an informal structure- if in informal organization there is a destructive leader, he, intending to achieve personal goals, can organize a group of people who will obey his instructions, and not those of a formal leader.

EXAMPLE: You can recall the movie "Lord of the Flies" - according to the plot, the following situation occurred: a group of boys who found themselves on desert island, chose one of the guys as a specific leader. At first, everyone listened to him and carried out his orders. However, later one of the guys felt that the leader was behaving inefficiently. Subsequently, he becomes an informal leader and lures the guys over to his side, as a result of which the boy, who was the formal leader, loses all authority and power.

Difficulties in social and psychological adaptation of new team members- arise in many cases when an organization, company or any other group of people comes new person. In such situations, the stability of the team is violated, because of which it becomes subject to negative impact both inside and outside.

EXAMPLE: A new person with his own characteristics and qualities comes to the formed team of the organization department. People begin to look closely, adapt, check each other, arrange all kinds of “tests”. In the process of such interaction, conflict situations of various kinds may arise.

Respondent aggression- is characteristic mainly of weak and defenseless people. It manifests itself in the fact that a person’s indignation is directed not at its source, but at the people around him: relatives, friends, colleagues, etc.

EXAMPLE: The young man works as a manager in a company. But due to his character and personality traits, everyone makes fun of him, “taunts” him, sometimes not quite friendly. But he cannot answer anyone, because. weak by nature. His indignation is sublimated into aggression, which he takes out on his relatives when he comes home - he shouts at them, swears at them, starts quarrels, etc.

Psychological incompatibility- a situation where people are incompatible with each other according to some psychological criteria: character, temperament, etc.

EXAMPLE: Family quarrels and scandals, divorces, domestic violence, negative atmosphere in the team, etc.

Personal causes of conflicts

The personal causes of conflicts are closely related to the characteristics of the people participating in it. As a rule, they are determined by the specifics of the processes occurring in the human psyche during its interaction with outside world and people around.

The types of reasons given include the following:

A person's assessment of another's behavior unacceptable- the nature of the behavior of each person depends on his personal and psychological features, as well as his mental state, attitude to another person or situation. A person's behavior and communication can be regarded by a partner as either acceptable and desirable, or as unacceptable and undesirable.

EXAMPLE: Two people met in a new company. One of them is accustomed to communicate in a purely rude form, to which the rest of the company members are already normal, for the other such behavior is unacceptable, as a result of which he expresses his indignation about this. People come into confrontation - a conflict situation arises.

Low level of socio-psychological competence- manifests itself in situations where a person is not prepared for effective actions in conflict situations or has no idea that many conflict-free ways can be used to get out of a pre-conflict situation.

EXAMPLE: A fierce argument arises between the two men on some sensitive topic. But while one of them can bring arguments in his favor and resolve the dispute verbally and without aggression, the other is used to solving all issues with the help of his fists. As soon as the situation begins to escalate, one resorts to physical contact - a conflict situation arises, although before that it could be described as pre-conflict and apply to it a lot of ways to get around the "sharp corners".

Lack of psychological stability- makes itself felt when a person is not capable of the impact of stress factors in social interaction.

EXAMPLE: The cause of the conflict here can even be a banal "flea market" in the morning in transport - one person accidentally stepped on another's foot, the second in response begins to resent and insult the first.

EXAMPLE: The spouses at the family council did not come to a compromise, as a result of which the situation worsened and a scandal began; at a meeting or in the course of a disciplinary conversation, the employees did not reach a consensus and the situation worsened - a “debriefing” began, a showdown, transitions to personalities, etc. As a result, conflict begins.

open period

An open period of conflict is called the conflict interaction itself or, more simply, the conflict itself. It consists of the following steps:

Incident. It represents the very first clash of subjects, during which there is an attempt to use their personal forces in order to resolve the situation to their advantage. If the resources of one of the subjects are sufficient to ensure an advantage in their favor, then the conflict can be settled. Often, however, conflicts develop further due to a series of incidents. Moreover, conflict interactions of subjects can contribute to a change in the initial structure of the conflict, modify it, add new incentives for new actions.

EXAMPLE: During a quarrel, people begin to use the methods of fighting that are suitable for them: to put pressure on each other, to interrupt, to shout over, to blame intensely. If one of the opponents managed to suppress the second, the quarrel may end. But one quarrel can turn into another, become a serious scandal with all the ensuing consequences.

Escalation. The escalation process can be characterized as a transition from negotiations to active confrontation. In turn, the struggle will give rise to new, more violent emotions, which increase errors and distortion of perception, which ultimately leads to even more intense struggle, etc.

EXAMPLE: During a disciplinary conversation, the conversation between colleagues turned into a fierce argument, then people began to get personal, insult each other, humiliate. Emotions began to take over, clouding the minds of opponents. After leaving the office, one may begin to publicly accuse the other, the other may begin to persuade the others to his side, weave intrigues, plot, etc.

Balanced resistance. This stage is characterized by the fact that the interaction of the subjects of the conflict continues, but its intensity is gradually declining. Participants realize that the continuation of the confrontation with the help of force methods does not give the corresponding effect, however, the actions of the parties to reach a compromise solution or agreement have not yet been observed.

EXAMPLE: Members family scandal or a serious conflict at work, they begin to understand that the actions they take to achieve an advantage in their favor do not bring results, i.e. their efforts are in vain; less active aggressive actions are being taken. The parties are gradually realizing that it is time to come to an agreement and establish normal relations, but none of them openly agrees to this yet.

End of the conflict. The meaning of this stage is that the subjects of the conflict are moving from conflict resistance to the search for a more adequate resolution of the situation in order to end the conflict on any terms. The main forms of ending conflict relationships can be called their elimination, extinction, settlement, resolution or development into a new conflict.

EXAMPLE: The conflicting parties come to an understanding: the relationship of the spouses is improving and becoming less aggressive, because. both were able to meet each other, to understand opposite positions; Colleagues found a common language, figured out what did not suit anyone, and resolved their dispute. But this may not always happen - if the end of the conflict is its development into a new conflict, then the consequences can be very disappointing.

Post-conflict (latent) period

The post-conflict period, like the pre-conflict one, is hidden and consists of two stages:

Partial normalization of relations between subjects. It occurs in cases where the negative emotions that were present in the conflict have not completely disappeared. The presented stage is characterized by the experiences of people and their understanding of their position. Often there is a correction of self-esteem, attitude towards the opponent, the level of one's claims. Feelings of guilt for the actions taken during the conflict may also become aggravated, but the negative attitudes of the subjects towards each other do not present an opportunity for them to immediately begin the process of normalizing relations.

EXAMPLE: The spouses, between whom there was a conflict, realize their guilt, understand that they were wrong, but in each of them there is still resentment, indignation and other negative emotions that do not allow them to ask each other for forgiveness, forget about the scandal, return to the previous the rhythm of life.

Full normalization of relations. Relations can finally normalize only when all parties to the conflict come to the realization that it is most important to find a way for further constructive interaction. This stage is different in that during communication people overcome their negative attitudes, achieve mutual trust and take an active part in any joint activity.

EXAMPLE: Colleagues at work made concessions to each other, overcame their pride, to some extent revised their attitude to the situation, to their behavior, to the behavior of the opponent. It is likely that together they will carry out any task given by the leader, or even come to the conclusion that Team work can bring them together and improve relationships.

In addition to the periods of conflict dynamics presented above, one can also single out one more period, which is characterized by side differentiation. This means that the conflict develops on the rise, as a result of which the opposition of the participants increases. The confrontation of the parties to each other continues until the moment when any further strengthening ceases to make sense. This will be the moment when the integration of the conflict will begin - the desire of the participants to come to an agreement that suits each of them.

EXAMPLE: Perhaps you have seen Feature Film Angel Falls starring Liam Neesson and Pierce Brosnan. Two heroes throughout the whole picture oppose each other, they are irreconcilable enemies, their goal is to kill each other. But the situation at the end of the film develops in such a way that this goal loses all relevance for each of the characters, and even having the opportunity to achieve it, they find another way out of the situation. As a result, the heroes not only do not kill each other, but also become like-minded people with one common mission.

Let's summarize the lesson: knowledge of the causes and stages of development of conflicts is necessary condition to master the skill of their prevention and neutralization, because, as they say, the best way to avoid a fire would be to put out its barely glowing hearth than to put out an already raging flame. The ability to adequately get out of any conflicts comes down mainly to being able to find compromises and make concessions.

In the next lessons of our training, we will talk about the ways and methods of managing, resolving and resolving conflicts, their prevention and prevention, and also touch on the topic of intrapersonal conflict in more detail.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on a topic this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.