Spiritual education under Peter 1. School and pedagogical thought in Russia in the 18th century. The beginning of independent rule and the struggle with Sophia

The radical Europeanization of Russia under Peter I , the introduction of the Western way of life and cultural values, which entailed the transformation of ancient Russian pedagogical traditions. . A secular school was created, designed to provide the state with military personnel, officials, teachers, and engineers. The reform of spiritual education: the creation of elementary bishops' schools and theological seminaries.

In the middle of the 18th century, a class system of education and upbringing developed: each educational institution was intended for a certain class and had a different educational program.

Thinkers of the 18th century expressed a number of ideas about the upbringing and education of a person - a citizen of his Fatherland, which became nutrient medium for the development of the Russian social and pedagogical movement in the first half of the 19th century.

Thanks to Peter, a system arose in Russia vocational education. In 1701, navigation, Pushkar, hospital, command and other schools were created, which were under the jurisdiction of the relevant government agencies. In addition, by 1722, 42 so-called “digital schools” were opened in different cities of Russia, providing initial education mathematics. Humanities education was provided by theological schools, teachers for which were trained by the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. In total, in Russia by 1725 there were about 50 diocesan schools. True, later the number of students in digital schools dropped sharply due to the opening of diocesan schools, where almost all the children of priests and deacons moved, and the unwillingness of the "townspeople" (merchants and artisans) to send their children to digital schools (they preferred to teach the craft). Therefore, the main contingent of digital schools became soldiers' children and children of clerks, and some schools had to be closed. Already after the death of Peter, in 1732, garrison schools arose, providing not only primary military, but also primary mathematical and engineering education. Part of the spiritual (“episcopal”) schools expanded their course at the expense of the “middle” and “higher” classes and began to be called “seminaries”. In addition to literacy, they studied grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and theology.

Peter dreamed of creating a unified non-class education system. In fact, the system he created turned out to be neither unified (professional school - theological school), nor out-of-class. The task was not set general education, it was given in passing, as a part and condition of vocational education. But this system played a gigantic role in the development of Russian education, “fitting” it into the European education system. In addition, it was under Peter, in 1714, that education was declared compulsory for children of all classes (except peasants).

By the way, we owe it to Peter the introduction of the civil alphabet, which we still use now, and the first translations into Russian of Western European textbooks, primarily in natural, mathematical and technical subjects - astronomy, fortification, etc.

Peter's favorite brainchild was the Academy of Sciences. She established the first Russian university in St. Petersburg, and at the university - a gymnasium. This whole system, created by Peter, began to operate after his death - in 1726. Professors were invited mainly from Germany - among the professors there were celebrities of the European level, for example, mathematicians Bernoulli and Euler. There were very few students at the university at first. They were mostly children of nobles or foreigners living in Russia; however, scholarships and special places for "state-funded" students (studied at the expense of the state) were soon introduced. Among the state students were raznochintsy and even peasants (for example, M.V. Lomonosov). The children of soldiers, artisans and peasants also studied at the gymnasium, but they were usually limited to the lower (junior) classes.

In 1755, a similar university with two gymnasiums attached to him (for nobles and for raznochintsy) was opened in Moscow. The course of the noble gymnasium included Russian, Latin, arithmetic, geometry, geography, brief philosophy and foreign languages; in the gymnasium for raznochintsy they taught mainly arts, music, singing, painting, and technical sciences.

Russian education under Catherine II

Catherine carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. For example, in Russia of the 18th century, the works of Jan Amos Comenius, Fenelon, and Locke's Thoughts on Education were well known. Hence, by the way, the new formulation of the tasks of the school: not only to teach, but also to educate. The humanitarian ideal, which originated in the Renaissance, was taken as the basis: it proceeded “out of respect for the rights and freedom of the individual” and eliminated “from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion” (P.N. Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine's educational concept required the maximum isolation of children from the family and their transfer into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was once again shifted from education to education.

The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was proposed to establish three types general education schools small, medium and major. They taught general subjects Keywords: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, the beginnings of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and brief geography Russia, and in the main one - a detailed course of geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises on business letter, foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture. The class-lesson system of Comenius was introduced, attempts were made to use visualization, in the upper grades it was even recommended to evoke independent work of thought in students. But basically, didactics was reduced to memorizing texts from a textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited.

Teachers had to be trained for the system of comprehensive schools. For this purpose, in 1783, the Main Public School was opened in St. Petersburg, from which the teacher's seminary, the prototype of the pedagogical institute, separated three years later.

Catherine's reform was not completed, but nevertheless it played a significant role in the development of Russian education. For 1782–1800 About 180,000 children graduated from various types of schools, including 7% of girls. By the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there were about 300 schools and boarding houses with 20 thousand students and 720 teachers. But there were almost no rural schools among them; the peasantry had virtually no access to education. True, back in 1770, the “commission on schools” created by Catherine developed a project for the organization of village schools (which included a proposal to introduce compulsory primary education in Russia for all male children, regardless of class). But it remained a project and was not implemented.

Russian education in the Alexander era

At the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, a group of young reformers led by M.M. Speransky, along with other reforms, carried out the reform of the education system. For the first time, a school system was created, distributed over the so-called educational districts and closed at the universities. This system was subordinated to the Ministry of National Education. Three types of schools were introduced: parochial schools, district schools and gymnasiums (provincial schools). Schools of the first two types were free and classless. Unlike the Catherine school system, these three types of schools corresponded to three successive levels of general education (the curriculum of each next type did not repeat the school, but continued the curriculum of the previous one). Rural parish schools were financed by the landlords, district schools and gymnasiums - from the state budget. In addition, there were theological schools and seminaries subordinate to the Holy Synod, schools subordinate to the department of institutions of Empress Maria (charitable) and the military ministry. A special category was made up of elite educational institutions - Tsarskoye Selo and other lyceums and noble boarding schools.

Parish schools taught the Law of God, reading, writing, and the principles of arithmetic. In the district school, the study of the Law of God and arithmetic with geometry continued; grammar, geography, history, the beginnings of physics, natural history and technology were also studied. In the provincial schools, the subject was studied, which is now called civics or social science (according to Yankovich de Mirievo’s textbook “On the Positions of a Man and a Citizen”, approved and edited by Catherine herself), as well as logic, psychology, ethics, aesthetics, natural and popular law, political economy , physical-mathematical and natural-science subjects, commerce and technology.

New universities were opened - Kazan and Kharkov. The charter of Moscow University, adopted in 1804 and which became a model for other university charters, provided for internal autonomy, the election of the rector, the competitive election of professors, and special rights for faculty councils (faculty meetings) in the formation of curricula.

Beginning in 1817, a rollback of this system to conservative positions was noticeable. Liberal universities were crushed, they were deprived of many academic freedoms. The Law of God and the Russian language, as well as the ancient languages (Greek and Latin), were introduced in the gymnasiums, philosophical and social sciences, general grammar, and economics were excluded.

Russian education under Nicholas I

After the death of Alexander I and the Decembrist uprising, the reactionary rollback of the Russian education system continued. Already in May 1826, a special Committee for the organization of educational institutions was formed by imperial rescript, which was instructed to immediately introduce uniformity in educational system, "so that already, after doing this, to prohibit all arbitrary teaching of the teachings, according to arbitrary books and notebooks."

Nicholas I was well aware that the fight against revolutionary and liberal ideas had to be started from schools and universities. The class character was returned to the education system: as summarized by the position of the Nikolaev government P.N. Milyukov, "no one should receive an education above his rank."

The general structure of the education system remained the same, but all schools were removed from the subordination of universities and transferred to the direct subordination of the administration of the educational district (i.e., the Ministry of Public Education). The teaching in the gymnasiums was greatly changed. The main subjects were Greek and latin languages. "Real" subjects were allowed to be taught as extras. Gymnasiums were considered only as a stepping stone to the university; thus, taking into account the class character of gymnasiums, access to higher education was practically closed to raznochintsy. (Nevertheless, in 1853, at St. Petersburg University alone, they accounted for 30% of the total number of students). Noble boarding houses and private schools, which were difficult to control by the state, were transformed or closed, their curricula had to be coordinated with the curricula of public schools.

It was from the lips of the Minister of Public Education S.S. Uvarov (in his address to the trustees of educational districts on March 21, 1833) the infamous formula "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality" sounded. “Russian professors were now supposed to read Russian science based on Russian principles (P.N. Milyukov). In 1850, the new minister, Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, reported to Nicholas I that "all positions of science should be based not on speculation, but on religious truths and connection with theology." He also wrote that “persons of the lower class, brought out of their natural state by means of universities ... are much more often made people restless and dissatisfied with the current state of things ...”.

In universities and other higher educational institutions, the election of rectors, vice-rectors and professors was abolished - they were now directly appointed by the Ministry of Public Education. Professors' trips abroad were drastically curtailed, student enrollment restricted, and tuition fees introduced. Theology, church history and church law became obligatory for all faculties. Rectors and deans had to ensure that in the content of the programs, which were mandatory presented by professors before reading courses, “nothing was hidden that was inconsistent with the teachings of the Orthodox Church or with the form of government and the spirit of public institutions". Philosophy was excluded from the curricula, recognized - "with the modern reprehensible development of this science by German scientists" - unnecessary. The teaching of courses in logic and psychology was entrusted to professors of theology.

Measures were taken to strengthen discipline among students; to overt and covert supervision of them: for example, the inspector of Moscow University was ordered to visit “at different hours and always unexpectedly” the apartments of state students, to control their acquaintances, their attendance at church services. The students were dressed in uniform, even their hairstyle was regulated, not to mention their behavior and manners.

In 1839, in some gymnasiums and county schools, real departments were opened (from the 4th grade), where industrial and natural history, chemistry, commodity science, accounting, accounting, commercial jurisprudence and mechanics were taught. Raznochintsy were accepted there; the task was, as the minister bluntly wrote, “to keep the lower classes of the state in proportion to their civil life and encourage them to confine themselves to county schools”, not allowing them to go to the gymnasium, and even more so to universities. But objectively, this meant a departure from the dominance of classical education towards real needs society.

educational reform Alexander II

Among the reforms carried out in the liberal Alexander era, a significant place is occupied by the restructuring of Russian education. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Schools” was adopted, which approved the general availability and non-classification of primary education. Along with state schools, the opening of zemstvo and private schools was encouraged.

Gymnasiums and progymnasiums were introduced as basic schools. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real (transformed in 1872 into real schools). Formally, the gymnasiums were publicly accessible to all who passed the admission tests. Access to universities was open only to graduates of classical gymnasiums or to those who took exams for the course of such a gymnasium. Graduates of real schools could enter non-university institutions of higher education; it was at this time that the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, the Moscow Higher technical school, Petrovsky Agricultural Academy in Moscow. In 1863, a new university charter was adopted, which returned autonomy to universities, gave greater rights to university councils, allowed the opening of scientific societies, and even allowed universities to publish uncensored (more precisely, with their own censorship) scientific and educational publications. Rectors and deans again became elected, they again began to send professors abroad, the departments of philosophy and state law were restored, the reading of public lectures was facilitated and dramatically expanded, and restrictions on student admission were lifted.

The role of the public in the education system has grown significantly (tutorship and pedagogical councils). However, even in these years, all school textbooks were approved centrally - in the academic council of the Ministry of Public Education. From the beginning of the 70s. centralization intensified even more: this concerned both curricula and programs (they were unified), and the choice of textbooks.

The role of society in Russian system Education of the second half of the XIX century was exceptionally large. Pedagogical societies, literacy committees were founded, and pedagogical congresses were held. In fact, Russian society mainly controlled pre-school, primary public education, vocational school, women's and out-of-school education.

Russian education in the late XIX - early XX century

From the beginning of the 1970s, and especially under Alexander III, reaction again triumphed. The school has become classy again. The new minister, I.D. Delyanov, in 1887 issued a famous circular stating that gymnasiums and progymnasiums should be freed “from the admission of the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and similar people, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, are completely should not be taken out of the environment to which they belong. Basic education became more and more formal, the teaching of ancient languages was reduced to memorization of grammar. Zemstvo schools were everywhere replaced by parochial ones in order to "seek the main support in the clergy and the church in the people's primary education" (K.P. Pobedonostsev).

However, by the end of the century, the situation changed dramatically for the better. The curricula of gymnasiums and real schools were brought closer to each other, the lessons of Latin and Greek in the lower grades of gymnasiums were canceled and replaced by lessons of the Russian language, geography, and Russian history. The number of students in gymnasiums has grown, and the percentage of children of nobles and officials in them has fallen to 35%, and the children of philistines, workers and peasants has grown to 45%. The number of illiterates in Russia has decreased, and interest in education has increased. Universities regained autonomy (this officially happened in 1905), women were admitted to some faculties, new universities and other higher educational institutions were opened.

In many regions of the Russian Empire, schools teaching in the languages of local nationalities were opened during these decades. The schools use writing on the Russian graphic basis, and competent teachers are trained from among the representatives of this nationality. Along with this, especially during the period of reaction - in the 80s, there was a noticeable tendency towards the Russification of education. So, for example, since 1876, the use of the Ukrainian language in all educational institutions (including private ones) of the Little Russian provinces was prohibited.

Before the revolution of 1917 under the leadership of P.N. Ignatiev, the foundations of a new reform were developed, which never took place. Its main ideas were: involvement of the public in the management of education; autonomy of schools and greater rights of local governments in the field of education; encouragement of private initiative; Creation unified school with the continuity of all its steps; separation of the school from the church; promoting the development of national education; the abolition of all class, national and other restrictions; universal compulsory elementary education; co-education of boys and girls; freedom of teaching and the abolition of textbook censorship; updating the content of education.

This reform project reflected pedagogical ideas developed in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries by such prominent Russian teachers as K.D. Ushinsky, L.N. Tolstoy, V.P. Vakhterov, P.F. Kapterev, N.I. Pirogov, V.I. Charnolusky. We will briefly discuss these ideas in a special section of this article.

Soviet school until the beginning of the 30s.

Already at the end of 1917, the nationalization of all types of educational institutions began. The school was declared not only unified and labor, but also free, obligatory and generally accessible. The continuity of the levels of education was declared, and equality of educational opportunities was ensured. A consistent democratization of the school was carried out - participation in the management of education by local governments, the organization of public school councils, the abolition of compulsory homework, marks and exams, the introduction of programs only as exemplary, as well as flexible curricula. All opportunities were provided for pedagogical experiments in the spirit of the progressive ideas of Russian and foreign pedagogy, in particular, the project method and the Dalton plan, which provided for the shift of emphasis on active and independent (under the guidance of a teacher) cognitive activity of students, became widespread.

The introduction of universal education and the movement for the eradication of illiteracy, as a result of which all children were enrolled in the cities, about half in the villages, and the level of literacy in society increased abruptly; fight against child homelessness; the widest distribution of teaching in national languages, the creation of dozens of new scripts and the publication of textbooks; attraction to pedagogical activity the best representatives of the old pre-revolutionary intelligentsia and much more - this is the achievement of Soviet education in the 20s.

Of course, those ideals that were preached then and later, those values that were declared as a guideline for the development of the education system, and the practice that the Soviet government eventually and rather quickly came to are completely different things. At the school of those years, a living pulse of creativity was beating, and pedagogy was searching, anti-dogmatic. And most importantly, it was a school permeated with the ideas of developing education, democracy, self-government and cooperation. Such remarkable teachers and psychologists as S.T. Shatsky, L.S. Vygotsky, A.P. Pinkevich, M.M. Pistrak.

Was everything good in the system of Russian education in the 1920s?

Let's start with the fact that this education was brightly ideologically colored. The school was seen as an instrument for the communist regeneration of society, as a conductor of "the ideological, organizational, educational influence of the proletariat on the non-proletarian and semi-proletarian layers." The main goal of the school was declared to be the formation of a new person; in practice, a much narrower and more limited task was set - to provide secondary and higher vocational education, which was necessary in the conditions of the country's accelerated industrialization. Hence the sharp reduction in basic general education (the seven-year plan prevailed) and the spread of FZU - factory schools. Hence the emergence of the so-called workers' faculties, who quickly and often quite carelessly prepared the children of workers and peasants who did not have a completed secondary education for admission to higher educational institutions (mainly technical ones). Graduates of workers' schools had advantages in admission.

The Soviet government was very much afraid of the "bad" influence of the old, "bourgeois" specialists on the so-understood education. Higher education professors were especially affected. She was constantly subjected to “purges”, all the time she was under strict ideological control, some were expelled (the famous “philosophical ship”), some were arrested on trumped-up charges, or even killed (for example, the poet N.S. Gumilyov was arrested and shot in the fabricated "Tagantsev case" - he was a professor, an outstanding Russian lawyer). In 1928, about a quarter of the vacancies for professors and assistants were not filled. Consequently, it was necessary to create a new teaching corps. For this purpose, a network of Communist Universities and Institutes of Red Professors was founded. The level of this “professorship” did not bother anyone - it was important to force out the old teachers and replace them with new, ideologically consistent ones. At the same time, universities were deprived of autonomy, again, as a hundred years ago, the departments of philosophy were closed (instead of them, departments specializing in Marxism-Leninism were opened), law faculties were closed, and philological and historical were transformed into faculties of social sciences and pedagogical, focusing on the training of teachers. The admission of students was limited - the children of the nobility, the clergy and the bourgeoisie were not admitted to universities at all, the social origin and "political literacy" of students and applicants were strictly checked. P.N. Milyukov quotes one of the then official teachers: “Selection of exceptionally gifted and talented people unacceptable for at least a number of years. It would mean closing the doors of higher education to the proletariat and peasantry.

Russian education in the 30–80s.

Established in the early 1930s totalitarian in the USSR state system could not but affect the school. I.V. Stalin personally participated in the development of a series of resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1931-1932. about school. These decrees completely canceled the idea of a unified labor school. Comprehensive centralized management and centralized control were introduced. All activities of the school, including the content of education, were subjected to unification and strict regulation. Uniform compulsory programs and curricula, uniform stable textbooks were introduced. Discipline and obedience were put at the forefront, and by no means the development of the child's personality. Any experiments and creative search were strictly forbidden, the school was oriented to the traditional methodology and didactics, dating back to the official pre-revolutionary school. There was a further intensive ideologization of the content of education.

Most of those actively working in the education system in the 20s. creatively thinking teachers and psychologists was removed, many of them were repressed. A.S. was declared the main official teacher of the country. Makarenko, who was indeed an outstanding practitioner of upbringing and education in general, but in many respects developed just the ideas of progressive Russian pedagogy and pedagogical psychology of the 20s. (V.N. Soroka-Rosinsky, S.T. Shatsky, L.S. Vygotsky).

For 11 years, from 1943 to 1954, education in schools was separate (male and female schools). Mandatory school uniform copied from the gymnasium.

In higher education institutions, there has been a partial return to the former position: the pragmatic orientation of higher education was replaced by a general scientific and pedagogical one, destroyed in the 20s was restored. the university system, the humanities faculties were restored, partially autonomy was granted to universities (for example, the election of rectors, deans, university and faculty councils was again introduced). Restrictions on the admission of students by social origin were actually lifted. However, at the same time, the unification of curricula and the content of higher education continued, a huge place in these plans was occupied by subjects of the ideological cycle (the history of the CPSU, dialectical and historical materialism, the political economy of socialism, etc.). Under the strictest state and party control was the content of higher education, including individual courses. Many professors and especially students were thrown out of the education system for ideological and political reasons (for example, even in the early 70s, the famous philologist, professor of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A.I. Herzen E.G. Etkind, who acted as a defense witness at the sensational trial .Brodsky, was deprived of the right to teach in any educational institutions and generally found himself without work (he was not hired even in libraries and archives) until he emigrated to France).

In the 50s and 60s. the process of increasing the number of secondary schools continued at the expense of primary and incomplete secondary schools (at that time they were no longer seven-year, but eight-year). Schools reopened in-depth study a number of subjects (the so-called special schools).

At the end of the 30s. the number of national languages taught in schools began to decrease sharply. If in 1934 there were 104 such languages (in the USSR), by the time of the last census (1989) there were only 44 of them left. newspapers and magazines. An official policy was proclaimed aimed at mass bilingualism of all the peoples of Russia (“Russian as a second native language”).

The negative tendencies in Russian education, already manifested in the 1930s, became stronger by the beginning of the 1980s. The quality of education began to decline, especially in small towns and rural areas. Even more became in the schools of unification and leveling - it got to the point that in all of Russia from Kaliningrad to Chukotka all the lessons of one or another subject in one or another class were the same. After all, the textbook was one, stable, the program was one, obligatory, the curriculum was also one. As for didactics and teaching methods, even in 1982, when this entire authoritarian and unified system began to fall apart, the famous “instructive letter” from the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR appeared, which said: “...for Lately cases have become more frequent when ... they are carried away by untested pedagogical and methodological innovations, encourage teachers to master them, while relying not on orders, instructional letters, methodological recommendations and scientific provisions set forth in textbooks approved by the Ministries of Education of the USSR and the RSFSR on pedagogy, psychology and private methods, but on articles published in the order of discussion or information on the pages of newspapers and magazines ”(highlighted by us. - Auth.).

In fact, the individual characteristics of children and adolescents were ignored, the entire educational process was focused on the non-existent "average" student. Both lagging behind (regardless of the real reasons for such a lag) and gifted children found themselves in a marginal position, in a risk zone. The physical and mental health of students has deteriorated sharply. The closeness of the school, its isolation from society led, in particular, to the growth of infantilism, the school's loss of responsibility to society and the state for the fate of the younger generation. Even the social prestige of education itself fell.

There was no right of choice and independent decision at all levels of the education system. The principal of the school turned into a government official, he could only implement instructions from above, and the main criterion for his good work was the level of formal performance (which, of course, often led to outright fraud) and “ educational work". The teacher was deprived of the right to creative search, he was driven into a rigid cage of a compulsory textbook, a unified program, didactic and methodological requirements dictated by the ministry. The student could not choose his own educational trajectory, even he could formally enroll in school only within the boundaries of his microdistrict. The pedagogical and parent community was effectively excluded from participation in the activities of educational authorities, even the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences was de facto subordinate to the ministry and financed from its budgetary funds. Many of the "reforms" that descended into the school from above were fictitious and unrealizable. In addition to combining general education with professional education (which was already mentioned above), the introduction of universal compulsory secondary education was announced (which was completely pointless on a national scale and even now cannot be implemented). An attempt was made to introduce universal primary education from the age of 6; this had negative consequences. In the second half of the 80s. - so to speak, in the end - another cavalry attack was made, as poorly prepared as the previous ones - in part of kindergartens and schools, early teaching of foreign languages \u200b\u200bwas introduced (without textbooks, without specially trained teachers ...). The noisily promoted global school reform of 1984 was also fictitious: it only exacerbated those trends and contradictions that threatened the progressive development of the Russian school.

At the same time, progressive tendencies were emerging and strengthening in Russian pedagogy and pedagogical psychology. In the 60s and 70s. The school was greatly influenced by the ideas of the director of a rural school in Ukraine, Vasily Aleksandrovich Sukhomlinsky, who called for the formation of “thinking personalities” and for the establishment of humanistic pedagogy in the school. For Sukhomlinsky, the main goal of education was the free development of the child as an active person. In the 70s–80s. the names of Sh.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalova, S.N. Lysenkova, E.N. Ilyina, V.A. Karakovsky, etc. - experimental teachers who opposed their pedagogical convictions, their methods and findings to the dogmas of official pedagogy (it is about them, although without mentioning the names, that the "instructive letter" cited above is mentioned). They united around the Teacher's Newspaper, then headed by V.F. Matveev, where two of their joint manifestos were published under the slogan "pedagogy of cooperation". Another outstanding figure of those years was the outstanding teacher and journalist S.L. Soloveichik. Both the ministry and the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences did their best to hinder their activities. At the same time, new, humanistically and personally oriented, psychological concepts of teaching were affirmed in Russian education: these were the concept of D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov and the concept of L.V. Zankov. (It is no coincidence that in 1983 Davydov was removed from his post as director of the Academic Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology and expelled from the CPSU, and the team he led was dispersed.)

Educational reform of the late 80s - early 90s.

In 1988, by order of the then minister (chairman of the USSR State Committee for public education) G.A. Yagodin, a temporary research team (VNIK) "School" was created at the State Committee, headed by a well-known teacher and publicist E.D. Dneprov. Many thinking teachers and psychologists of the country entered it or collaborated with it in one way or another. The purpose of creating VNIK was to develop a fundamentally new educational policy based on the ideas of the development of the student's personality, variability and free choice at all levels of the educational system, the transformation of education into an effective factor in the development of society.

The following basic principles were developed and approved in December 1988 by the All-Union Congress of Educators: democratization; pluralism of education, its diversity, variability and alternativeness; nationality and national character of education; openness of education; regionalization of education; humanization of education; humanization of education; differentiation of education; developing, activity character of education; continuity of education. For a year and a half, the implementation of the new reform was delayed and really began only with the appointment of E.D. Dneprov in 1990 as the Minister of Education of the RSFSR (and then the Russian Federation).

In parallel with the reform of secondary education in the late 80-90s. reform of higher education was also carried out. Its main content was humanization and fundamentalization educational programs, rationalization and decentralization of university management, diversification of education and the introduction of its multi-level structure, further development of democratization and self-government in universities. However, this reform was not brought to its logical conclusion; in particular, the problems of multi-channel financing of universities have not been resolved, higher pedagogical education has remained almost unchanged, and many others. others

After 1985, and especially after 1991, the better position with national education. Many languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, which were previously unwritten, received writing and became the subject of instruction in schools. Thanks to the introduction of the so-called national-regional component of the content of school education, it became possible to teach children the history and culture of the people (region).

5. Pedagogical activity of MIKHAILO VASILIEVICH LOMONOSOV (1711-1765),

the first Russian naturalist, poet,

philosopher, artist, historian, educator

Works: A Brief Guide to Rhetoric, Russian Grammar, Ancient Russian History.

He was the initiator of various scientific, technical and cultural undertakings in the country, the organizer of science and education. The opening of Moscow University is associated with his name.

He considered the goal of education to be the formation of a patriotic person, whose main qualities should be high morality, love for science, knowledge, diligence, selfless service to the Motherland.

For the first time in Russia, he developed a pedagogical theory, the methodological basis of which was a materialistic worldview, the distinction between science and religion.

He believed that the situation of the people could be improved through the spread of culture and education.

He was a supporter of the classless education system up to the university.

Defended the idea of secular education and getting the young generation the basics scientific knowledge. He highly valued education and the need for scientific knowledge, seeing in them the highest human happiness.

He was a supporter of the principle of natural conformity: the educator should be guided by the factors of the natural natural development of the child. natural features considered children the basis and source of their development, recommended that teachers build training taking into account the inclinations of children.

He connected the formation of a person with the specific socio-historical conditions of his life, with the level of development of society as a whole.

He saw the organic connection between education and training, advocated the relationship between physical and moral education and mental development.

He spoke for the first time in Russian pedagogy as a supporter of the synthesis of classical natural science and real education. Elements of polytechnic education are highlighted in his teaching methods.

He was a supporter of the class-lesson system as the most productive for the development of the mind and memory, he was for homework and exams.

In the learning process, he assigned a significant place to practice, setting up experiments, and noted the practical significance of knowledge.

Developed the principles of teaching: visibility, accessibility, development of activity and independence of the student.

Strived to spread the "high sciences" in Russian state and at the same time in Russian. He valued the Russian language very highly, put forward the idea of the educational value of the Russian language.

He proceeded in education from the principles of humanism and nationality and highly valued universal morality. In morality, he emphasized the following qualities: patriotism, mercy, diligence. Developed pedagogical conditions for the organization of child labor: preliminary preparation, work progress planning, selection necessary tools, analysis of the results.

Developed ideas about the benefits of rewards and punishments, did not mind corporal punishment (if necessary).

The method and condition of education for Lomonosov is order and discipline.

Developed requirements for the personality and activities of the teacher, laid the foundations of pedagogical ethics.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) - the first Russian academician. This great mind manifested itself in all spheres of human activity: in literature, linguistics, history, geography, metallurgy, physics, chemistry, and also in pedagogy.

Lomonosov argued that when teaching children, attention should be paid to the hereditary and individual abilities of each of them.

He also revealed the relationship between general, secondary and higher education. One of the most important merits of Lomonosov is the foundation of Moscow University, where not only nobles, but also representatives of the lower classes received higher education.

In the age of admiration for French fashion, Lomonosov introduced teaching in his native language. Lomonosov published in 1757 "Russian Grammar", which became at that time the best textbook for the Russian school, the rules of which remain unchanged to this day.

In such documents as the "Draft Regulations of the Academic Gymnasium" and "The Draft Regulations of the Moscow Gymnasiums", he spoke as a supporter of the class-lesson system. This was a new idea in Russian pedagogy, which Lomonosov himself put into practice. He believed that within the framework of the lesson, one could more fully use educational function learning. According to Lomonosov, training should be built according to a certain scheme, taking into account the peculiarities of perception:

1. checking the implementation of "home exercises" (home exercises)

2. communication of new knowledge, the implementation of "daily tasks" in the lesson.

He paid much attention to practice, setting up experiments, practical

the importance of knowledge. These provisions are closely connected with the ideas of the great Czech teacher J. A. Comenius.

Lomonosov believed that mental development can be effective when the teacher uses certain didactic rules or principles in the learning process. He wrote: “Firstly, when teaching schoolchildren, most of all, one should observe, so as not to burden and confuse them with various kinds of concepts. So, if the accepted student does not yet know Russian literacy, he should only study in the Russian first grade ceiling until he is skilled in reading and writing. He sought to comply with the principle of accessibility of education.

Lomonosov, taking into account the peculiarities of children's cognition, advised to go in learning from simple to complex: "Mathematicians would be mistaken if, having discarded the simplest concepts, they began to investigate difficult ones." He suggested using a system of lessons and a system of homework. He recommended, based on the age characteristics of children, to develop them cognitive activity and independence. For this purpose, Lomonosov developed special exercises. In the gymnasium, they were performed in the presence of one teacher or "at other classes." Exercises “at other classes” were held “at the end of each month on the same day, before and after lunch”, and the teachers gave everyone at once a small amount of material for translation or forced them to “translate phrases in prose and verse so that the gymnasium students could do this without looking into book and not writing anything. For upper-class gymnasium students, Lomonosov recommended once every six months public exercises in front of the entire academy. They must "pronounce speeches composed by themselves under the supervision of the rector in Russian and Latin, in verse and in prose." Possible were "exercises on one's own desire to show each one one's own particular zeal and concept."

Lomonosov suggested holding joint classes for students, in which they could help each other. Exams were an exception, in which, “in order to know the difference in the successes of each, then no one should help each other. As well as at a time when, at the request of the teacher, someone says his lesson by heart and does not know it firmly, a friend sitting next to him should not whisper softly to him and thereby help his laziness. Such a helper is subject to equal punishment with the ignorant one.

His knowledge accounting system had a pronounced educational orientation: “What someone did or missed, etc., should be assigned in cells against each day and name with the first letters of the words that signify: V. I. - did everything, N. U. - did not know the lesson , N. Ch. U. - did not know part of the lesson, 3. U. N. T. - knew the lesson unsteadily, N. 3. - did not submit the task, X. 3. - a bad task, B. - sick, X. - was not at school. V.I.S. - performed everything in abundance, Sh. - Sabbath.

Educational plans, compiled by Lomonosov, show that he sought to implement a versatile education, to avoid overloading students. For the first time in Russian pedagogy, he came out as a supporter of the synthesis of classical, natural science and real education. He set the task of familiarizing children with the spiritual values of past centuries, developing their curiosity and creativity.

All projects of the organization of education submitted for consideration by Peter I were not fully implemented. However, under the influence of these projects, a single type of education, characteristic of the pre-Petrine era, was divided into two areas - ecclesiastical and secular, and within the framework of the latter, various professional schools arose. Professional orientation new organization education was his main characteristic. In the new educational institutions, the main place was occupied by special subjects: mathematics, navigation, engineering, artillery, medicine, etc.

Another important feature of education was the predominance of estates. Domestic politics Peter I was characterized by a desire to exalt the nobility. As a result, all medium and higher schools were intended mainly for the children of the nobility, who were preparing to occupy the main positions in the state apparatus, in the army, navy, to lead industry and trade. However, these schools often accepted children from other classes. In general, for various estates, their own schools were created. The only exception was the peasantry, for peasant labor, as it was believed, did not require any education. All schools were created according to the decrees of Peter I and even under his personal control.

The first attempt of the Petrine government to create in Russia a network of public elementary schools accessible to fairly wide sections of the people was the opening of digital schools. They were established according to the decree of the king of 1714 for children from 10 to 15 years old in order to prepare part of the people for the state secular and military service as the lowest service personnel, for work at factories, shipyards. Digital schools were also considered as a preparatory stage for subsequent professional training. Therefore, it was originally assumed that these schools would be attended not only by children of soldiers and townspeople, but also by children of the clergy, nobles, and clerks. The content of the training included reading and writing, arithmetic, basic geometry. Students of the Moscow school of mathematical and navigational sciences were used as teachers. However, the organization and operation of these educational institutions encountered difficulties, since they were located at a great distance from the homes of students. To prevent school runaways and absenteeism, students were often kept under guard, severe disciplinary measures were used, and recruited to school by force. Since the military and civil service From that time on, the nobleman demanded initial education, a kind of educational service, without which he was forbidden even to marry, then the parents looked for reasons why the children could not attend these schools. In 1716, Peter I allowed noble children to study at home or in schools in the capital. Soon a similar request of the merchants was granted, and the synod demanded the return of church children to theological schools. Thus, digital schools did not receive support among almost all classes and could not become the basic type of the new Russian school. The difficulties of the material plane gradually led to their almost universal closure. However, the experience of their creation, of course, enriched the domestic pedagogical practice.

For the education of children of soldiers and sailors at the beginning of the XVIII century. garrison and admiralty schools were opened, the purpose of which was to train junior officers of the army and navy, masters in the construction and maintenance of ships. The first garrison school began work as early as 1698 at the artillery school of the Preobrazhensky Regiment. It taught literacy, arithmetic, bombardment (artillery) business, and in 1721 a decree was issued on the creation of such schools for each regiment. The first admiralty school was opened in St. Petersburg in 1719, then similar schools were opened in Revel and Kronstadt. All these new schools were called "Russian" because they taught reading, writing, and arithmetic in Russian, in contrast to the other "multilingual" schools, where foreign languages were mainly studied in order to train translators.

At the same time, mining schools were created, which trained skilled workers and craftsmen. The first one was opened in 1716 at the Petrovsky factory in Karelia, where they gathered 20 children from poor noble families and began to teach them reading, writing, geometry, arithmetic, artillery, and mining. Here they taught mining to young men already working at factories, and pupils of the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences - blast-furnace, blacksmithing, anchoring.

In 1701 in Moscow under the guidance of a well-educated mathematician, astronomer, geographer and prominent statesman Yakov Vilimovich Bruce(1670–1735), a state artillery and engineering school began to work to teach "Pushkar and other outside ranks of people, children, their verbal writing, numbers and other engineering sciences." Gradually, however, almost exclusively noble children began to attend the school. The school was divided into two levels: the lower, or "Russian", taught writing, reading, and arithmetic; upper - arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, fortification and artillery.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. New educational institutions, such as the Moscow Engineering School (1703), the St. Petersburg Engineering School (1719), the St. Petersburg Artillery Skoda, etc., were successively opened mainly for noble children.

In 1707, a school for the training of doctors was opened in Moscow at a military hospital - a surgical school. The content of the training included anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, Latin, drawing; teaching was conducted mainly in Latin. Theoretical training was combined with practical work in hospital. The school had a "pharmaceutical garden" where students grew medicinal plants. It had its own anatomical theatre.

The problem of vocational training also affected the state apparatus. To meet this need, schools were opened where clerical workers were trained (1721).

All these and other new "Petrine" schools developed by playing positive role in literacy and certain professional knowledge and skills among the lower and upper classes of Russia.

The School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, opened in Moscow in the premises of the Sukharev Tower, served as a model for most of them. By personal decree of Peter I in 1707, a strict system of punishments for students for misconduct of various kinds was introduced here. For absenteeism, monetary fines were levied, which replenished the school treasury. In case of non-payment of fines, corporal punishment was applied; for escaping from school, the death penalty was provided, for applying for a deferment from school, a student could be sent into exile. In general, the compulsory nature of education in the era of Peter the Great, when the barracks, office and school were equally places of service, was also reinforced by strict soldier discipline, the application of the criminal code to schools. By such barbaric methods, Russia joined Western European culture. In 1715 the school was transferred to St. Petersburg and renamed the Naval Academy.

With the rather hasty establishment of schools in the era of Peter the Great, their organization was often not satisfactory. Often these were, in fact, semi-Russian schools, since there were few Russian teachers and a large number of foreigners were invited to teach. In addition, the first vocational schools, despite their specific educational task, produced "service people for every state need", i.e. military and civilian officials at the same time, such as the Navigation School. Hence the encyclopedic nature of education, multi-subject, bordering on chaos: training course could include mathematics, history, geography, statistics, philosophy, technology, drawing, etc. At the same time, the subjects themselves were very extensive, for example, philosophy at one time included logic, psychology, aesthetics, rhetoric, moralizing, natural law, and popular law. This situation led to the fact that the course, due to lack of time, was not completed completely, thereby reducing the level of education. However, the emphasis on vocational training at the beginning of the XVIII century. led to the fact that public schools of a truly general nature were not created in Russia for a long time.

Private schools tried to solve this problem. Using state subsidies at that time, it was they who largely served as the basis for the subsequent development of schooling in Russia.

Significant transformations took place in the time of Peter the Great and in the spiritual educational institutions traditional for Russia, through which, as early as the 17th century. Western European educational influence began to penetrate the country. It was it that contributed to the expansion of learning objectives and change educational courses and thus indirectly laid the foundation for Russian educational reforms. However, the tough policy of Peter I in relation to the church, the desire to completely subordinate it to the royal power and the state, the desire to have a clergy that supports transformations in the country, as well as the emergence of a new, secular direction in education and upbringing, could not but affect the spiritual and church educational institutions.

At first, access to diocesan schools and theological seminaries was fairly open. However, as secular, professional schools emerged, these educational institutions began to be perceived as professional. In addition, the government began to demand that only children of the clergy be admitted to theological schools, for which special lists were even drawn up. Recruitment to schools took place indefinitely, depending on the number of students. Those who entered were tested for a year, and then the question of their ability to study was decided, but they were excluded extremely rarely: “if a child of invincible anger appears, a ferocious, quick slanderer before a fight, recalcitrant.” The accepted student had to remain at the school until the end of the teaching, about which he gave a written commitment. Severe punishments were common in schools, but students often ran away despite everything. For harboring runaways from the school, the clergy were subject to fines, deprivation of their place, and corporal punishment. Thus, gradually established new order education of the clergy: all children of this class had to study in theological schools, otherwise, by decree of 1708, they were ordered to be sent to the soldiers.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. a network of new theological schools was created. They were called hierarchal, were only initial and were opened at the initiative of those spiritual servants who supported the transformations in the state. Such schools were created in Chernigov, Tobolsk, Rostov, Smolensk. Soon the bishops were obliged to open schools for the training of priests at all bishops' houses. It was assumed that they would teach children reading, writing, Slavic grammar, arithmetic and geometry.

The most significant was the activity of the Novgorod episcopal school. She gave her students a wide course of education and, in fact, was an advanced school. It was opened in 1706 by the Likhud brothers, who worked there as teachers. Following the example of the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Novgorod, Greek and Latin were studied. Peter I used this school to prepare noble children for public service. Over 20 years of work, it has trained a large number of Orthodox Russians.

The Novgorod school was a model for the creation of new theological schools and at the same time trained teachers for them. In the 20s. 18th century under the leadership of this school, 15 "smaller schools" were opened, in which students from Novgorod worked.

All projects of the organization of education submitted for consideration by Peter I were not fully implemented. However, under the influence of these projects, a single type of education, characteristic of the pre-Petrine era, was divided into two areas - ecclesiastical and secular, and within the framework of the latter, various professional schools arose. The professional orientation of the new organization of education was its main characteristic. In the new educational institutions, the main place was occupied by special subjects: mathematics, navigation, engineering, artillery, medicine, etc.

Another important feature of education was the predominance of estates. The internal policy of Peter I was characterized by a desire to exalt the nobility. As a result, all secondary and higher schools created by the state were intended mainly for the children of the nobility, who were preparing to occupy the main positions in the state apparatus, in the army, in the navy, to manage industry and trade. However, these schools often accepted children from other classes. In general, for various estates, their own schools were created. The only exception was the peasantry, for peasant labor, as it was believed, did not require any education. All schools were created according to the decrees of Peter I and even under his personal control.

The first attempt of the Petrine government to create in Russia a network of public elementary schools accessible to fairly wide sections of the people was the opening of digital schools. They were established according to the decree of the king of 1714 for children from 10 to 15 years old in order to prepare part of the people for state secular and military service as lower service personnel, for work in factories and shipyards. Digital schools were also considered as a preparatory stage for subsequent professional training. Therefore, it was originally assumed that these schools would be attended not only by children of soldiers and townspeople, but also by children of the clergy, nobles, and clerks. The content of the training included reading and writing, arithmetic, basic geometry. Students of the Moscow school of mathematical and navigational sciences were used as teachers. However, the organization and operation of these educational institutions encountered difficulties, since they were located at a great distance from the homes of students. To prevent school runaways and absenteeism, students were often kept under guard, severe disciplinary measures were used, and recruited to school by force. Since the military and civil service of a nobleman from that time required initial training, a kind of educational service, without which he was forbidden even to marry, parents looked for reasons why children could not attend these schools. In 1716, Peter I allowed noble children to study at home or in schools in the capital. Soon a similar request of the merchants was granted, and the synod demanded the return of church children to theological schools. Thus, digital schools did not receive support among almost all classes and could not become the basic type of the new Russian school. The difficulties of the material plane gradually led to their almost universal closure. However, the experience of their creation, of course, enriched the domestic pedagogical practice.

In 1707, a school for the training of doctors was opened in Moscow at a military hospital - a surgical school. The content of the training included anatomy, surgery, pharmacology, Latin, drawing; teaching was conducted mainly in Latin. Theoretical training was combined with practical work in the hospital. The school had a "pharmaceutical garden" where students grew medicinal plants. It had its own anatomical theatre.

The problem of vocational training also affected the state apparatus. To meet this need, schools were opened where clerical workers were trained (1721).

All these and other new "Petrine" schools developed, playing a positive role in spreading literacy and certain professional knowledge and skills among the lower and upper classes of Russia.

With the rather hasty establishment of schools in the era of Peter the Great, their organization was often not satisfactory. Often these were, in fact, semi-Russian schools, since there were few Russian teachers and a large number of foreigners were invited to teach. In addition, the first vocational schools, despite their specific educational task, produced "service people for every state need", i.e. military and civilian officials at the same time, such as the Navigation School. Hence the encyclopedic nature of education, multi-subject, bordering on chaos: the curriculum could include mathematics, history, geography, statistics, philosophy, technology, drawing, etc. At the same time, the subjects themselves were very extensive, for example, philosophy at one time included logic, psychology, aesthetics, rhetoric, moralizing, natural law, and popular law. This situation led to the fact that the course, due to lack of time, was not completed completely, thereby reducing the level of education. At the same time, the emphasis on professional training at the beginning of the 18th century led to the fact that public schools of a truly general nature were not created in Russia for a long time.

Private schools tried to solve this problem. Using state subsidies at that time, it was they who largely served as the basis for the subsequent development of schooling in Russia.

Significant transformations took place in the time of Peter the Great and in the spiritual educational institutions traditional for Russia, through which, as early as the 17th century. Western European educational influence began to penetrate the country. It was it that contributed to the expansion of the goals of education and the change in educational courses, and thus indirectly laid the foundation for Russian educational reforms. However, the tough policy of Peter I in relation to the church, the desire to completely subordinate it to the royal power and the state, the desire to have a clergy that supports transformations in the country, as well as the emergence of a new, secular direction in education and upbringing, could not but affect the spiritual and church educational institutions.

At first, access to diocesan schools and theological seminaries was fairly open. However, as secular, professional schools emerged, these educational institutions began to be perceived as professional. In addition, the government began to demand that only children of the clergy be admitted to theological schools, for which special lists were even drawn up. Recruitment to schools took place indefinitely, depending on the number of students. Those who entered were tested for a year, and then the question of their ability to study was decided, but they were excluded extremely rarely: “if a child of invincible anger appears, a ferocious, quick slanderer before a fight, recalcitrant.” The accepted student had to remain at the school until the end of the teaching, about which he gave a written commitment. Severe punishments were common in schools, but students often ran away despite everything. For harboring runaways from the school, the clergy were subject to fines, deprivation of their place, and corporal punishment. Thus, a new order for the education of the clergy was gradually established: all children of this class had to study in theological schools, otherwise, by decree of 1708, they were ordered to be sent to the soldiers.

The most significant was the activity of the Novgorod episcopal school. She gave her students a wide course of education and, in fact, was an advanced school. It was opened in 1706 by the Likhud brothers, who worked there as teachers. Following the example of the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Novgorod, Greek and Latin were studied. Peter I used this school to prepare noble children for public service. For 20 years of work, a large number of Orthodox Russians have been trained in it.

The wise man avoids all extremes.
Lao Tzu

Education under Peter 1 in Russia is very important topic, since today one often hears that Peter the Great raised education, forced the people to study, founded new schools, and created the Academy of Sciences. The problem here is that education, like most of Peter's reforms, was of a paradoxical nature - at first glance, everything functions perfectly, but if you look deeper, serious problems are visible.

The change in the education system of the Petrine era and the main scientific successes under Peter 1 include the following main areas:

Mass creation of schools of various orientations
Introduction of the civil alphabet in 1708
Publication of the first printed newspaper Vedomosti since 1703
Opening of the Public Library in St. Petersburg in 1714
In 1714, the Kunstkamera began its work, as well as the naval and artillery museum.
Creation of the Academy of Sciences in 1724

The education reform was no less important for Peter 1 than the military, state or economic reform due to the fact that the country needed qualified personnel. Due to the insufficient level of development of education in the country, foreigners were invited to work in important government positions. Russia needed experienced and qualified builders, military men, gunners, sailors, engineers and representatives of other specialties. With the introduction of the education reform, Peter 1 tried to create his own forge of personnel. This is the main reason for Peter's increased attention to the development of scientific knowledge in Russia.

How is education in the era of Peter the Great

The reforms of Peter 1 in the field of education led to the fact that a whole network of schools and educational institutions appeared in Russia. In 1701, the Navigation School began to function, in which they taught mathematics (numbers, as they said then) and navigation. Education was conducted in 3 classes: 1.2 classes - taught mathematics, and 3 classes - navigation. Later, in 1715, the senior class was transferred to study in St. Petersburg at the Naval Academy. On the basis of the Navigation School, other schools were subsequently created: artillery, engineering, admiralty.

The navigation school was located in the Sukharev tower. A school and an observatory were also established there. The school was led by prominent scientists from Russia and other countries. In 1703, 300 people studied at the Navigation School, in 1711 - already 500 people.

Problems of education under Peter 1

Outwardly, it seems that everything was done correctly. But there are 2 very important nuances that modern history teachers for some reason forget to mention:

School education was service In the literal sense of the word. For example, the students lived in the barracks. More case in point- in the classroom sat a soldier with a stick, who could beat the children at his own discretion. So the sciences were "driven in".
The activities of the schools were not supported by finances. For example, a well-known fact - in 1711, students of the Navigation School fled almost in full force. They ran so as not to die of hunger. Some of the children were then returned to school, and some were never found. Another example - in 1724, Peter 1 arranged a revision of the Naval Academy. It turned out that 85 people do not attend classes for 5 months, "without clothes."

Education in schools was conducted for children 10-15 years old. In total, there were 3 classes for training, but very often each class was held for several years, so the actual training dragged on an average of 6-8 years. It is important to understand this from the point of view of the fact that the education reform of Peter the Great was aimed at children. I have already noted above that study was a service, therefore, punishments were also applied to students: running away from school is execution, a request for release from study is exile.

Education under Peter 1 had several important dates, and many speak of the events of February 20-28, 1714 as something extremely important in terms of the development of education in Russia in the 18th century. At this time, a decree was issued that finally forced all the nobles to study geometry and tsifiri (mathematics). Until the nobleman graduated from school, he was forbidden to marry (a terrible thing for the nobility, given the importance of procreation). For these purposes, Peter 1 ordered the appointment of 2 teachers in each province. 2 teachers per province is tantamount to assigning 10 teachers to Moscow today is absurd. But the main thing is not this, but something else. There was no one to teach...

By 1723, 42 digital schools had been created. Only in Yaroslavl, 26 students were recruited and trained. In the remaining 41 schools, there were no students, and the teachers were loitering around.

Creation of the Academy of Sciences

Academies of Sciences is a place where a group of scientists gathers and conducts scientific activities. Such academies were created in England, France, Germany and other states. That is, the very idea was quite in the spirit of Peter - to copy the European. But as always, his reforms were twisted in such a way that they worked at a stretch. On January 28, 1724, Peter issued a Decree on the establishment of the Department of the Academy. The academy itself began to work in December 1725, and the doctor Lavrenty Lavrentievich Blumentrost became its first head. But more importantly, the Department was created over the Academy. In other words, officials controlled its activities. In other countries, the academies gained independence. This was the difference.

For the Academy, rules were introduced that only people who had received an academic degree could be officials of the academy. The problem was that V Russian Empire this degree was impossible to obtain. There was no system and organization capable of preparing the right specialist. The same Lomonosov went to study in Germany, since it was impossible to get a degree in Russia. Therefore, scientists began to write out from Western Europe. All kinds of people came, including gifted ones. But these people came to receive money simply for being here. Nobody demanded practical activity from them. Theoretically, it was assumed that the newcomers would train new personnel on the spot, but this was not done.

Russian education in the 18th century is entirely connected with the grandiose personality of Peter I, the great reformer, who attached paramount state importance to education. In his circulars, he demanded that the subjects "as far as possible, teach children to read and write." In addition to the alphabet, it was recommended to use the Book of Hours and the Psalter. There was a special demand from the nobles: their children had to learn foreign languages and other sciences. Peter considered the development of a European-oriented, secular education as the most important component of his reforms. In this regard, it was decided to open public schools for the training of educated people of the nobility, merchants and the top tenants.

Thanks to Peter, a system of vocational education arose in Russia. In 1701, navigation, Pushkar, hospital, command and other schools were created, which were under the jurisdiction of the relevant state bodies. On August 27, 1701, the first state school of "mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened in Moscow. It recruited 180 first volunteers, among whom were teenagers 12-17 years old. There were also several adults - twenty-year-old students. Education at the school was free. Moreover, poor students (and such students were also accepted into the school) received from her a cash allowance for food. This school trained shipbuilders, captains and teachers for other schools.

"Navigation school" was located in the Sukharevskaya tower. Classes began with the study of literacy. The very first subjects were Russian literacy and arithmetic. Depending on the social background of their parents, students received a different education. Strict discipline was introduced at the "Navigation School", and students were fined for absenteeism. Those who graduated from school went to serve in the navy, artillery, and the best students were sent abroad to continue their education.

Graduates of the Navigational, Engineering, Medical, Artillery schools, opened in Moscow by personal decrees of Peter 1, receiving not only

general, but also vocational education, occupied leading positions in the civil and military service, became active reformers. Among them - the author of the first "Arithmetic" L.F. Magnitsky, publicist I.S. Pososhkov, the first Russian doctor of medicine and philosophy P.V. Postnikov and many other "chicks of Petrov's nest".

The Petrine era created unique opportunities for the personal growth of talented people from the people; the development of general literacy and spirituality was seen as a priority state task, education was welcomed in every possible way. So, in Moscow, in the chambers of the boyar V.F. Naryshkin on Pokrovka at the beginning of 1705, a school was established for the children of "boyars and roundabouts, and duma, and neighbors, and all the service and merchant ranks ...".

In 1714, a decree was issued on universal educational service for children of all classes (except peasants). It was decided: without a certificate of completion of training, “do not allow marriage and do not give crown memories.”

By 1722, 42 so-called "digital schools" were opened in different cities of Russia, providing elementary education in mathematics. Humanitarian education was provided by theological schools, teachers for which were trained by the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

By 1725 there were about 50 diocesan schools. The number of students in digital schools decreased due to the opening of diocesan schools, where almost all the children of priests and deacons moved, and the unwillingness of the "townspeople" (merchants and artisans) to send their children to digital schools (they preferred to teach the craft). Therefore, the main contingent of digital schools became soldiers' children and children of clerks, and some schools had to be closed.

Peter's favorite brainchild was the Academy of Sciences. Under her rule, the first Russian university was established in St. Petersburg, and a gymnasium was established at the university. This whole system, created by Peter, began to operate after his death - in 1726. Professors were invited mainly from Germany - among the professors there were celebrities of the European level, for example, mathematicians Bernoulli and Euler. There were very few students at the university at first. They were mostly children of nobles or foreigners living in Russia; however, scholarships and special places for "state-funded" students (studied at the expense of the state) were soon introduced. Among the state students were raznochintsy, and even peasants (for example, M.V. Lomonosov). The children of soldiers, artisans and peasants also studied at the gymnasium, but they were usually limited to the lower (junior) classes.

In 1732, garrison schools arose, providing not only primary military, but also primary mathematical and engineering education. Some of the spiritual ("episcopal") schools expanded their course at the expense of the "middle" and "higher" classes and began to be called "seminaries". In addition to literacy, they studied grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and theology.

It is to Peter that we owe the introduction of the civil alphabet, which we still use today, and the first translations into Russian of Western European textbooks, primarily in natural, mathematical and technical subjects - astronomy, fortification, etc. In the 1111th century, the Printing House, which received the name "Moscow Printing House" under Peter 1, still played a significant role in Moscow education.

She printed various calendars and alphabets, books of hours and psalms. The set was no longer Slavic, but Russian letters. Textbooks, especially ABCs, were in first place among secular books published in Moscow. From September to December 1714, 1525 alphabets were sold in the city, for the whole next year - 9796, and in 1716 - more than five thousand. Calendars were published in record circulations, only for one year 1709 - 7200.

Peter 1 was keenly interested in the affairs of education, turning Special attention on the issues of educating respectable and diligent subjects, loyal patriots. Under his personal control, a huge circulation was printed and distributed "Youth honest mirror", this wonderful monument of national pedagogical culture filled with paternal advice on many matters. It became the most popular home reading in noble families.

Peter dreamed of creating a unified non-class education system. In fact, the system he created turned out to be neither unified (professional school - spiritual school), nor out of class. The task of general education was not set either, it was given along the way, as a part and condition of vocational education. But this system played a gigantic role in the development of Russian education, "fitting" it into the European education system.